language transfer语言迁移ppt课件
外国学生汉语元音发音的母语迁移现象--石锋ppt课件
美国学生所发的汉语元音与英语元音声位图
中国学生的英语元音发音
中国学生所发的英语元音与汉语元音声位图对比
美国学生学习汉语时的习得途径
习得途径 母语正迁移 克服母语负迁移 建立新语音范畴 （相似的） （相混的） （相异的）
英 汉
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/ /、 / /、 / / / /
实验测算和统计作图用南开大学开发的电脑语音专家 系统“桌上语音工作室”（Mini-Speech-Lab） 。 对照比较 分别得到中国学生和美国学生所发汉语和英语元音格 局图，作为分析比较的依据。
中国学生所发的汉语元音声位图
美国学生所发的英语元音声位图
美国学生所发的汉语元音声位图
美国学生所发的汉语元音与英语元音格局 Chinese vowels produced by American students and English vowel pattern
对于非熟练的学习者
（相似的）> （相混的）> （相异的）
对于熟练的学习者
（相异的）> （相似的）> （相混的）
这里着重考察不熟练的学习者，通过语音 实验对中外学生的母语和他们的第二语言的元 音格局进行比较，从而考察元音发音方面的母 语迁移现象。
二、元音格局
每一种语言和方言的语音都是成系统的，表现 为各自的语音格局（sound pattern）。
Leabharlann 普通话十个单元音里面，有三个需要讨论。 元音[]做单韵母时只出现在象声词、 语气词和叹词中，属边际音，所以不列入基 础元音。 元音[]独立成音节时也是只在象声词、 语气词和叹词中出现，为边际音；在唇音声 母后面时，由于唇化作用的影响，实际发音 是[]，带有韵头，因此也不属基础元 音。 卷舌元音[]的实际发音是[]，带有 卷舌韵尾，因此不属基础元音。 普通话基础元音就有/、、、、、
第二语言习得研究(对比分析)PPT课件
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2.难度等级： 下面是二语习得专家Rob Ellis提出的六个难度等级（degrees）
⑴两种语言里语言成分相同。汉语和英语的语序都是“S+V+O”。
⑵学习者母语两个语言点对应目的语一个语言点。如英语中的 “borrow”和”lend”在汉语中都是“借”。 ⑶学习者母语中的语言点在目的语里没有对应成分。如英语中的定 冠词the、韩语敬词、泰语表示说话人性别的成分，汉语普通话中 都没有。
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四、对比分析的步骤和难度等级
1.对比分析的步骤: ⑴描写（description）: 对学生的母语和目的语进行准确、清晰的描 写。这种描写以一定的语法体系为依据。
⑵选择（selection）:选择一定的语言项目、规则或结构进行对比。
⑶对比（comparison）:对选择好的语言项目进行细致的分析和对比， 找出共同点和不同点。 ⑷预测（prediction）：对学习中可能出现的错误和难点进行预测。
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THANK YOU
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⑵ 根据对比分析有些预测的错误并未出现，而出现的错误 却无法预测。 ⑶ 对比分析在结构主义语言学理论的影响下，只对语言的表层 结构进行对比，而且主要集中于语音、词汇、语法几个方面， 没有语义、语用、话语、文化等方面的比较，因此这种对比也 是不全面的。 ⑷ 对比分析最大的问题在于把学习者看作是机械刺激的对象， 行为主义心理学不能作为对比分析的理论基础。因为语言的产出 是创造性的，不是那种刺激—反应的模式。
对比分析的背景对比分析的背景语言学家们试图为语言教师提供一种比较的方法来预测和语言学家们试图为语言教师提供一种比较的方法来预测和预防学习者在语言表达中经常出现的错误
language change大学英语语言学课件 语言的变迁
e.g. roof carpet floor
roofing carpeting flooring
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Syntactic change
The English speakers today no longer use the fifteenth century’s double comparative, such as “more gladder”, “more lower”, “ moost royallest”
➢ Old English cniht (Modern English: knight) Most Old English letters were taken from
the Roman alphabet.
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Sound change
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Old English sound sample:
LO, praise of the prowess of people-kings of spear-armed Danes, in days long sped, we have heard,
e.g. mus /mu:s/
mouse /maus/
hus /hu:s/
house /haus/
ut /u:t/
out
/aut/
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Sound change
Most Old English consonants are pronounced as in Modern English.
No silent consonants because every letter was pronounced.
e.g. didst
did
hath
has
speakest
语言迁移课件PPT资料(正式版)
句型来避免重复。
因为我病了，所以我没有参加你昨天的聚会。
• 例如，尽管少儿英语学习者已经学习并掌握了 概念联系法，即母语与第二语言之间的词汇体系各自运行，由一个概念充当媒介联系着两种语言的词汇。
这种原有知识对新知识学习发生影响的现象被称作“迁移”(transfer)
• Levenson指出在二语习得过程中也会出现对于 通过对于语言迁移现象的分析,得出汉语对于英语学习有着不可忽略的影响作用的,特别是对于一些词汇使用的错误分析指出在词汇学习
和应用过程中词汇信息不对称问题,也会给学习者带来障碍. 学习者在遇到目的语的一些语言结构与源出语不同时就会感到难以掌握这些结构,于是还会出现“回避”avoidance的现象
语言迁移课件
许多语言学家认为学习者要在很大程度上依赖 于其母语来帮助自己第二语言的学习，Lado 曾清 楚地表述了源出语对于目的语习得的影响：“当 目的语学习者在理解二语语句及其文化或是进行 二语练习时，他就会不自觉地将其源出语的形式 和意义以及其本土文化带入目的语学习之中。
• 母语中与目的语相似的地方将促进目的语的学 习，而母语中与目的语有差异的地方便对学习者 习得目的语产生障碍和阻力。差异越大，困难越 大。这种原有知识对新知识学习发生影响的现象 被称作“迁移”(transfer)
• 在汉语中因为与所以，尽管与但是，即使与还等 她发现汉语和日语为源出语的英语学习者要比波斯语和阿拉伯语为源出语的英语学习者在使用关系从句时犯的错误要少.
汉语的最小语言单位为语素，它可以是一种构词单位，也可以单独成词自由应用。
第五章 对比分析与语言迁移
❖ 我的洗澡间不好。 ❖ 这个西瓜比较不甜。 ❖ 我大过你两岁。
❖ 我也想去炒炒股看。你有本事去瞒着他悄悄 溜走看。
❖ 这么不乖的小孩卖他掉。这么一点点的剩下 的饭你吃吃掉。
❖ 结合你学习汉语的经历，谈谈你对语言 学习中正迁移和负迁移的感受。
❖ 语言也是一种行为
❖ 语言是一种行为，那么语言学习同样是一个 习惯养成的过程，学习新语言就是形成一套 新的习惯。
二、对比分析假说的两种形式
❖ 1. 对比分析另一代表人物 罗伯特 拉多 Lado
❖ 在进行表达和理解时，人们倾向于把母 语及其文化中的形式、意义和他们的分 布迁移到目的语及其文化中。
❖ 相同的地方——容易掌握 ❖ 不同的地方——很难学习
❖ 通过对学习者母语和目的语在语言、文 化等方面之间的对比，找出相同和不同 的地方进行比较，进而预测学生容易出 现错误的地方。
❖ 弱式对比分析假说已经不再具有假说的 意义，而是变成了一种纯粹的分析、解 释错误的方法，成了偏误分析的一部分。
❖ 总起来说，对比分析假说不仅仅指一种 分析方法，而且包括对分析所得结果的 应用，可以使用来预测，即强式对比分 析假说，也可以只用来解释，即弱式对 比分析假说。预测和解释的基础都是语 言迁移理论。
教学中反对使用母语的理由
❖ 库克 ❖ 1.儿童语言习得； ❖ 2.语言隔离；（目的语和母语分开） ❖ 3.课堂第二语言使用。 ❖ 当然也有人指出，课堂教学中适当使用母语
有助于教学方法的创新。
思考题
❖ 什么是正迁移和负迁移？ ❖ 什么是对比分析假说？有哪两种形式？两种
形式的相同点和不同点是什么？ ❖ 解释语言迁移、跨语言影响、母语的作用。
中介语PPT课件
10、蒋柿红.浅谈第二语言学习策略及策略培训.湖北经济学 院学报(人文社会科学版) ，2009 11、李郁，魏传立.对第二语言习得交际策略的研究.哈尔滨 商业大学学报(社会科学版).2003 12、杨琦.浅议第二语言习得理论中的中介语.二明高等专科 学校学报，2002 13、[ 英] S·P·科德著, 林萍译.学习者错误之重要意义.平顶 山师专学报，2002 14、李金兰.中介语理论与错误分析研究.淮阴工学院学报 ， 2009 15、侯民吉.二语习得研究中的对比分析、错误分析和中介 语理论.吉首大学学报( 社会科学版) ，2011
——Rod Ellis
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中介语发展阶段—— Corder三分说
系统前阶段
Presystematic
系统阶段 Systematic
系统后阶段
Postsystematic
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系统性 Systematic
从其内部组织说，它也是一个由内部要素构成的一个系统，就 是说，它有语音的、词汇的、语法的规则系统,而且学习者能运 用这套规则系统去生成他们从来没有接触到的话语。从其功能 说，中介语可以作为人际交往的交际工具。
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概念说明
❖ 中介语是一个独立的语言系统
第二语言学习者的语言系是一种介于学习者母语与目的语之间的一种 语言变体，是一种中间状态。它既包含母语的特征，也包含目的语的 特征，但又与二者有区别 。
Ba9ck
中介语三大特点
可渗透性
动态性
系统性
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可渗透性 Permiable
所谓渗透性，是指中介语可以受到来自学习者的母语 和目的语的规则或形式的渗透。
——鲁健骥 ...., it is possible to detect the rule-based nature of the learner's
语言迁移与英语教学宋-PPT资料81页
Negative Transfer (负迁移): Interference (干扰)
Causes: • analogical use of one’s prior knowledge of the mother
tongue 母语先知结构的类推运用
• scanty knowledge of differences between the two languages 对两种语言的差异所知甚少
他不怕死。
(night)
He does not hear to die.
(fear)
Phonological transfer (语音迁移)
The sound /n/ or /f/ does not exist in some Chinese
dialects and /l/ or /h/ serves as a substitute. 在有些中国方言（如南京/闽南方言）中没有辅音/n/或
翻译
Four Parts
1. Language transfer 语言迁移 2. Linguistic contrast 语言对比 3. Contrast and translation 对比与翻译
4. English Tea欢chin迎g/L光ea临rning 英语教与学
Part One
Language Transfer in FL Learning: Interference or Facilitation?
Shanghai is said to have thirty-three million population.
Shanghai is said to have a population of thirty-three million.
《语言的演变》ppt课件(37页)
⑸ 文言特殊句式辨析 ①良人者，所仰望而终身也 判断句 ②颁白者不负戴于道路矣 介词结构后置 ③然而不王者，未之有也 否定句代词作宾 语 前置 ④而今安在哉 疑问代词作宾语前置 ⑤惟利是图 有提宾语标志“是”宾语前置 ⑥宜乎百姓之谓我爱也 主谓倒置 ⑦求人可使报秦者，未得 定语后置 ⑧臣诚恐见欺于王而负赵 被动句
有些词古今都在用，但古今词义发生了变化
（1）词义扩大（多指名词） ①大江东去，浪淘尽，千古风流人物 专指长江\泛指江河 ②将军战河南，臣战河北 专指代黄河\泛指河流 ③国破山河在，城春草木深 国都\国家 ④若能以吴越之众与中国抗衡 中原\中华人民共和国
（2）词义缩小
①金就砺则利 泛指所有金属 \黄金 ②同心之言，其臭如兰 气味\难闻的味道
①“我孰与城北徐公美？”（疑问句代词宾语前 置）②“君美甚”（补语不用结构助词“得”） ③“忌不自信”（否定句代词宾语前置） ④“客从外来”、“与坐谈”（省略句） ⑤不若君之美（结构助词“之”的嵌用）
词汇
语法
横向（地区的）——方言的形成
仔细阅读第二部分，了解古今语汇的 发展变化。
1、语汇的消长
⑴旧词消失 旧事物、旧概念的消失引起旧词消亡 ⑵新词出现 新概念、新事物的出现引起新词的出 现 ⑶外来词渗透 外来的事物带来了外来语
讨论：假如邹忌穿越时空隧道 来到我们中间，哪些词对他来 说非常新鲜？
四、联系生活：说说社会上出现的新词语
有钱佬不喊有钱佬，喊-----vip。 提意见不喊提意见，喊-----拍砖。 支撑不喊支撑，喊------------顶。
瞧不懂不喊瞧不懂，喊-------晕。
年轻人不喊年轻人,喊----小P孩 岁数不喊岁数喊----年轮 蟑螂不喊蟑螂,喊----小强
Language transfer
Language transfer (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and crossmeaning) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language. It is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as when translating into a second language.Language transfer typically refers to the learner's trying to apply rules and forms of the first language into the second language. The term can also include the transfer of features from one additional language to another (such as from a second to a third language), although this is less common.Contrastive analysis, discussed above, sought to predict all learner errors based on language transfer. As subsequent research in error analysis and interlanguage structure showed, this project was flawed: most errors are not due to transfer, but to faulty inferences about the rules of the target language.Transfer is an important factor in language learning at all levels. Typically learners begin by transferring sounds (phonetic transfer) and meanings (semantic transfer), as well as various rules including word order and pragmatics. As learners progress and gain more experience with the target language, the role of transfer typically diminishes.In the UG-based framework (see Linguistic universals below), "language transfer" specifically refers to the linguistic parameter settings defined by the language universal. Thus, "language transfer" is defined as the initial state of second language acquisition rather than its developmental stage.部分重要概念Transfer: A general term for a number of different kinds of influence from languages other than the L2.Negative Transfer: Learner’s L1 impedes L2 learning.Positive Transfer: Learner’s L2 impedes L1 learning.Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis: It is possible to predict when difficulty will occur in the basis of differences between the native and target languages.Ignorance Hypothesis: L1 functions primarily as a communication strategy for filling in gaps in the learner’s competence.An example of pragmalinguistic failure is Chinese learner’s use of the expression “Never mind” in replying to “Thanks a lot. That’s a great help” (He, 1988). In Chinese, we use “没关系”(Mei guan xi) or “不用谢”(Bu yong xie) in reply to “Thank you”. However, their equivalents in English, “Never mind”, “Not at all” and “You are welcome” are slightly different in use from one another, though they all may be transla ted as “没关系”(Mei guan xi) in Chinese. The students often failed to see the discrepancy and, due to their mother-tongue influence, used these expressions interchangeably中国人的英语常常会让老外莫名奇妙，常常会问你，“Can you speak again？what"s your mean？what"s your point？”这正是不同文化思维方式上的差别。
Language transfer 语言迁移
Negative Transfer in Foreign Language Learning AbstractAccording to the language transfer theory, it is assumed that the learner’s mother tongue will positively or negatively affect one’s learning a foreign language. When there are differences between one’s mother tongue and target language, the mother tongue tends to interfere with the learning of the foreign language. This paper attempts to give a brief analysis of negative transfer in students’pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and culture learning. It also discusses what pedagogical concerns the existence of negative transfer warrants and what learners can do to reduce the influence of negative transfer.Key words: Native language, Negative transfer, pedagogical implication1. IntroductionLanguage transfer has been an important issue in applied linguistics, second language acquisition and language learning. When language learners have been using their native language for many years, they are very likely to transfer those roles in their mother tongue into the foreign language that they are learning. That’s what we call negative transfer. Therefore, differences between the native language and the foreign language should be taken into consideration to find out what difficulties might be. At the same time, teachers as well as learners should come up with solutions to reduce the influence of negative transfer.2. Defining negative transferLanguage transfer refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language. When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production called positive transfer. However, that language interference is most often discussed as a source of errors known as negative transfer. Negative transfer occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages. Within the theory of contrastive analysis, the greater the differences between the two languages, the more negative transfer can be expected.3. Manifestations of the negative transfer in English learning3.1 Negative transfer in pronunciationWhen people hear a speaker with a “foreign accent”, they often try to guess the speaker’s background. Often the clue seems to be how the individual talks. In such cases, questions put to the speaker such as “Are you German?”“Are you Spanish?” or “Are you Asian?”suggest an intuition about the nature of language, an awareness, however unconscious, that the native language of a speaker can somehow cause the individual to sound “foreign” in speaking another language. The detection of foreign accents is one example of the awareness that people often have of language transfer in pronunciation.3.1.1 Negative transfer in segmental levelSome difficulties in pronouncing inaccurately are caused by the non-existence of the phonemes in the mother tongue. Take /v/ and /θ/ for an example. Many English learners mispronounce them as they do not exist in Mandarin, and their mistakes can be attributed to the similarity of these two sounds with Chinese [w] and [s]. Chinese learners’ performances on the sound of /æ/ are not quite satisfying, for the phoneme is often replaced by [e], a sound that is close to Chinese [ai], and thus happiness or apple is mispronounced by many learners. Two languages also frequently have sounds which may seem identical but which in fact are acoustically different and may be perceived to be divergent from the target by the listener. For example, a comparison of an English ∕d∕with a Saudi Arabian Arabic ∕d∕ shows several differences. Among the differences, the duration of an English ∕d∕ at the end of a word tends to be shorter than its Arabic counterpart.3.1.2 Negative transfer in suprasegmental levelAlthough cross-linguistic influences on pronunciation frequently involve segmental contrasts, the influences are also frequently evident in suprasegmental contrasts involving stress, tone, rhythm, and other factors.Stress patterns are crucial in pronunciation in English since they affect syllables in English between certain nouns and verbs, such as between combine COMbine and comBINE. The first syllable in these two words has a different vowel sound, with thesound varying according to the acoustic prominence of the syllable. Such interactions have important implications not only for speech production but also for comprehension. When non-native speakers do not use a stress pattern that is a norm in the target language, this can result in a total misperception by listeners. Every English word has a definite place for the stress and one is not allowed to change it.In Chinese, stress does not have great influence. Thus stress errors are frequently committed by a Chinese learner.One of the most important typological distinctions between languages involves tone and intonation. Chinese is a “tone language”. It has four tones, that is, the level tone, the rising tone, the falling-rising tone and the falling tone. The syllable “ma”represents “mother”when it is used with a high level tone, and “horse” with a low rising tone. In contrast, English words have no fixed tones and their meanings are not identified by tones. In fact, the words in English sentences are influenced by different intonation. Different intonation can express different communicative intentions, attitudes and emotions. In other words, the meaning of a word in one English sentence not only has the meaning of vocabulary but also the meaning of the corresponding intonation. When Chinese students read English sentences, they are apt to replace the English intonation with fixed lexical tones instead of subordinating the lexical tones to the sentence intonation. As a result, every English word is pronounced clearly. Thus, the flexibility of English words is destroyed.3.2 Negative transfer in vocabularyA fundamental issue in the study of semantic transfer is the relation between language and thought. Expressions such as “learning to think in English”reflect a common belief that learning a particular language requires adopting a worldview which, to some extent, is unique to that language. When Chinese learners start learning English, they have been equipped with the deep-rooted Chinese way of thinking and their mother tongue inevitably influences their learning, especially the learning of vocabulary.3.2.1 The negative transfer caused by the non-equivalent conceptual meaning of wordsThe conceptual meaning is also called denotative or cognitive meaning, is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. The negative transfer often occurs when there is only a partial identity of conceptual meaning. “It was quite warm when I got here, but the climate suddenly changed.”“C limate” refers to the average weather conditions at a particular place over a period of years, but in this sentence, the change means the particular condition at a certain time, so “weather” is the correct choice. To some students, these two words have the same conceptual meaning. It’s hard for them to tell the difference so that they usually take it for granted that these two words could be used indiscriminately.Let’s look at another example. “He also studies French except English. “Except” means “but not, leaving out”. So “except English” means that English is not the subject he is learning. B ut when we look at the second word “also”, it’s obvious that the word “except” is not correct. “B esides” should be the right answer as it means “as well as”. Chinese learners tend to mix up the conceptual meanings of these two words for they not perceive the distinction between them.3.2.2 The negative transfer caused by the non-equivalent connotative meaning of wordConnotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. Compared with conceptual meaning, connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable, that is, it may vary according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. When we study English, we usually memorize a group of words such as grin, beam, smile and smirk. They are all types of smile. The real differences between them lie in their connotative meanings. Beam is a smile which connotes happiness, while smirk is a smile which connotes gloating of some kind. Most Chinese learners find it hard to distinguish the connotative meanings of words, especially words which are called synonyms.In compositions, some learners use the word “peasant” which has a derogatory meaning in the present English dictionary. It refers to persons without education ormanners. If someone uses this word in their communication, they hold contempt on that person. Therefore, westerners prefer to use the word “farmer.” Without knowing the connotative meaning of different words, learners are very likely to commit mistakes.3.3 Negative transfer in grammarThere are often grammatical restrictions found in one language but not in another and such restrictions can occasion difficulty. A French-speaking student may make a sentence like this: At sixty-five years old they must retire themselves because this is a rule of society. While the form “retire”reflects a true French-English cognate, the French lexical item has a grammatical restriction that the ESL student applied erroneously to the English form- the use of the reflexive pronoun is necessary in French, whereas the use of the English reflexive themselves is not grammatical in the context of the sentence.3.3.1 Negative transfer in Syntax levelA great deal of evidence has been found for syntactic negative transfer in studies of word order, relative clauses, and negation.3.3.1.1 Word orderWord order has been one of the most intensively studied syntactic properties in linguistics. “Japanese learners of English do not at any time produce writing in which the verb is wrongly placed sentence-finally.” When the Japanese speak English, many times they put objects before verbs since the basic order of Japanese is SOV and the basic order of English SVO. The vast majority of human languages have CSO, SVO, or SOV as their basic word order. Yet while most languages can be compared in terms of these three patterns, they vary considerably in terms of rigidity. Speakers of a flexible language may use several word orders in English even though English word order is quite rigid. Finnish is a flexible SVO language. Speakers of Finnish may make such a sentence “This weekend got F. any fish”when they actually want to express that “This weekend F. caught no fish”. The sentence made by a French “I think it’s very good the analysis between the behavior of animals and the person” also reflect the relatively flexible word order of French. Chinese also has SVO as its basicorder but it’s relatively flexible compared with English.Other constituents besides S, V, and O are also subject to word-order rules. In noun phrases in English, for example, articles normally precede adjectives and nouns in the noun phrase and languages generally have rules specifying the occurrence of elements within noun phrases, verb phrases and other constituents. Since the rules governing the position of adjectives, adverbs, and other word classes vary considerably form one language to the next, it is natural to expect to find cases of word-order negative transfer in constituents. There is a strong tendency for Chinese speakers to follow Chinese instead of English norms for the replacement of adverbial elements, as seen in the following error: I very much like movies. From this we can see that native language influence does account well for the vast majority of the errors.3.3.1.2 Relative clausesEnglish primarily relies on a right branching direction, in which the relative clauses appear to the right of the head noun. In contrast, Chinese primarily relies on a left branching direction, in which modifying clauses appear to the left of the head noun. And the differences in branching directions favored in relative clause patterns occasion underproduction. Most Chinese learners seem to have often avoided using relative clauses in written compositions; in contrast, equally proficient students who speak Arabic and Persian used many more such clauses. Although the Arabic and Persian speakers produce a great number of errors in the relative clauses that they use, the similarity of patterns in the native and target languages apparently led them to attempt writing more sentences with relative constructions.In the case of relative clauses, another crucial factor is the grammatical role of nouns and pronouns. Restrictive relativization is a construct usually having a “domain noun”and invariably having a modifying clause. For example, the sentence “The musician who played at the concert is from China”has a relative construction consisting of a domain noun and a clause modifying the noun. One of the most common patterns in relative clauses is to have within the clause a pronoun with the same reference as the domain noun. This poses a great difficulty for Chinese wholearn English. There is considerable cross-linguistic variation in relative clause structures, and such variation occasions negative transfer.3.3.2 Negative transfer in semantic levelChinese and English belong to different language families. Thus there is a huge difference between the two grammatical systems. Chinese learners are prone to apply the grammatical rules of Chinese in their English learning. As a result, grammatical mistakes are frequently committed when Chinese learners study English. Chinese nouns have no plural forms and changing nouns into their plural forms is not easy for Chinese learners. They tend to decide the plural forms of English nouns based on Chinese abstract and non-abstract nouns. Usually errors would appear, such as “a good advice”, “a bad news”, “a fine weather”, “some changes”, “five equipments”, etc. On the other hand, some Chinese nouns are abstract, while the corresponding English nouns are countable and t hey have plural forms, such as “goods”, “table manners”, “many thanks”, “in high spirits”, etc.Influenced by the usage of the Chinese equivalent of “marry”, a lot of learners make sentences like “She married with a poor man.” The learner clearly thinks that the verb “marry”is intransitive as it is used this way in Chinese. It actually is a transitive verb in English. So we are supposed to say “She married a poor man”. Take the verb “serve” as another example. In Chinese way of thinking, the sentence goes like this: He serves for the people. But again “serve” is a transitive verb; “He serves people” is the correct answer. On the contrary, the Chinese equivalent of “laugh” is transitive while “laugh”is intransitive. So the sentence “I made a silly mistake and she laughed at me” should be changed into “I made a silly mistake and she laughed at me.”3.4 Negative transfer in cultureNegative transfer in culture refers to the cultural interference caused by cultural differences, which shows that people subconsciously use their cultural norms and values not only to guide their behaviors and thoughts but also to judge others’ behaviors and thoughts. Negative transfer in culture often results in communicative difficulties, misunderstandings and even hatred. When learners violate norms ofconversation in the target language, the violations are potentially much more serious than syntactic or pronunciation errors since such violations can affect what is often termed “the presentation of self.” Negative cultural transfer occurs in all processes of intercultural communication and foreign language learning and is of great significance in both fields.3.4.1 Negative Transfer of Surface-Structure CulturePoliteness is probably a universal notion; the expression of politeness in different societies varies considerably. One of the basic challenges in the study of politeness is to understand the differences of interpretation that different cultures make of certain kinds of behavior. The norms of linguistic politeness in France and the United States are the same in many situations, but there is at least one context in which the norms differ considerably-using the telephone. Telephone calls in France are seen as impositions more often than they are in the United States, and thus the etiquette of making calls in France more frequently requires callers to make an apologetic statement at the beginning of the call. Consequently, phone calls between French and American individuals who are bilingual but unfamiliar with the differences in telephone etiquette may give rise to perceptions of bizarre or rude behavior. Another most frequently quoted example is that when Chinese people is praised by a foreigner, they tend to be modest and say “where, where”, which makes foreigners puzzled and a little bit angry as they think that their judgment is doubted.Speakers of different languages prefer different levels of directness in their requests. For example, German speakers show a strong preference for modal forms suggesting a sense of obligation, whereas English speakers prefer modal forms with a weaker force, as in “Can you close the window?” Moreover, it appears that German speakers more often prefer declarative statements in contrast to English speakers, who more often prefer interrogative statements to make requests. The speech act study indicates that speakers of German often produce requests in ESL that are too direct and they may sound not very polite.Apologies also show considerable cross-linguistic variation and pose problems for second language learners. The comparison of the verbal behavior of speakers ofHebrew and English shows that English speakers use apologetic formulas more than the Hebrew speakers do. And native speakers of Hebrew generally use apologies when using English less often than native speakers of English do. Differences in the relations between apologies and other speech acts can lead to inappropriate uses of apologetic formulas. When English speakers cough or sneeze, they say “Excuse me”beforehand or afterwards. But it’s not the form in Chinese. So Chinese learners of English use “Excuse me” mush less than native speakers of English do.Requests and apologies are not the only types of speech acts that can cause difficulties in learning to be polite in a foreign language. Language-specific speech acts require learners to become familiar with very new patterns of culture. In second language acquisition, much of the difficulty in becoming a competent speaker is likely to come from the simultaneous existence of universal and specific elements in spoken interactions. The difficulty may be compounded by beliefs on the part of learners that their requests, their greetings, their facial expressions, their volume, and so on, are not arbitrary in the way that words in their native language are.3.4.2 Negative Transfer of deep-Structure CultureUnder the influence of traditional worldviews and value orientations, Chinese thinking patterns are characterized by synthesis, vagueness and retrospection; whereas thinking patterns of most native speakers of English are characterized by analysis, precision and anticipation. Influenced by the specific thinking patterns, Chinese people are used to talking or writing in a roundabout way and keeping off the point and often putting the most important or critical points at the end or even just to give a hint. Such a circular way of talking or writing is regarded as politeness in Chinese culture and it can save enough "face" for both sides. Native speakers of English, especially Americans, however, like coming straight to the point in conversations or writing. The topic is often mentioned at first so as to attract hearers’ or readers’ attention.In Sino-American communications, the transfer of thinking patterns often arises at the level of discourse whose realm of study has been extended to include literary discourse and whole fields of culture and symbolic systems, among whichface-to-face conversation within speech acts is paid more attention to. The following hypothetical conversation may demonstrate the striking difference in discourse pattern influenced by different thinking patterns. “Mr. Wong and Mr. Richardson have a conversation. Mr. Richardson has enjoyed this conversation and when they are ready to part he says to Mr. Wong that they really should get together to have lunch sometime. Mr. Wong says that he would enjoy that. After a few weeks, Mr. Wong begins to feel that Mr. Richardson has been rather insincere because he has not followed up his invitation to lunch with a specific time an d place”.The difference in discourse pattern expected by Asian speakers of English (such as Chinese) and by western speakers of English (such as Americans) is the source of the problem between Mr. Wong and Mr. Richardson. As is mentioned above, Americans often put the important points at the beginning of a conversation, while Chinese people are used to displacing important points until nearer the end of a conversation, which has led Mr. Wong to think that this mention of having lunch is of some importance to Mr. Richardson. Whether it is important to him or not, Mr. Wong believes that Mr. Richardson is seriously making an invitation to lunch. Mr. Richardson, however, has made such invitation at the end of his conversation because it is of little major significance. For him it does not signify any more than that he has enjoyed his conversation with Mr. Wong. It is not a specific invitation, but just a conversational way of parting with good feelings toward the other. It is this difference in discourse pattern that results in misunderstanding between two participants.In intercultural communication, people often take what they believe for granted because they have grown up in the culture and think their way is the best. In this case, they tend to transfer their own cultural values and beliefs to the situation of intercultural communication as guidelines for their behaviors, so that misunderstandings or ineffective communications arise.4. Implications for teachingWhat we talked above implicates that cross-linguistic influence has considerable potential to affect the course of second language acquisition. Therefore, in foreignlanguage learning and teaching the basis of language instruction was the differences between the native language and target language, contrastive Analysis came into fashion in the 1960s. Starting with describing comparable features of the native language and the target language, contrastive analysis compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatch or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter. However, the contrastive analysis was soon found problematic, for many of the predictions of the target language learning difficulty formulated on the basis of contrastive analysis turned out to be either uninformative: teachers had known about these errors already, or inaccurate: predicted errors did not materialize in the learner language while errors did show up that the contrastive analysis had not predicted. People came to realize that “Difference” and “Difficulty” are not identical concepts. The once predominant contrastive analysis was gradually replaced by Error Analysis.The contrastive approach to learners’ errors sheds new light on people’s attitudes: the incorrect English sentence “He comes from China, Beijing” is produced according to the word order of Chinese, instead of the correct English word order “He comes from Beijing, China”. By error’s analysis, teachers know what the key points and important points are.There are many ways to help learners reduce the influence of negative transfer. 4.1 increasing the amount of language inputThe reason why many learners are influenced by negative transfer is that they are lack of input of the target language. Therefore, language learners should be given a large amount of foreign language input. By listening to original materials, learners know how native speakers speak English and they get the correct pronunciation; by reading original books, learners learn how native speakers write in English and get the correct usage of words. It helps learners reduce the influence of negative transfer in pronunciation as well as vocabulary.4.2 Getting a better understanding of the cultureLanguage is part of the culture and plays a very important role in it. In the broadest sense, language is the symbolic representation of the people, the history andtheir ways of living and thinking. On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture. Therefore, learning a foreign language well means more than merely mastering the pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. It also means learning to see the world as native speakers of the language do, learning to understand the way in which their language reflects the ideas, customs, and behaviors of the society. To better avoid negative transfer, learners should think in the second language and avoid relating everything to their native language. So getting students familiar with the culture in which the target language is used should be a goal for teachers.5.ConclusionThis paper is a preliminary attempt to explore the different variables affecting language transfer. It can be seen that language transfer is important to foreign language learning. To subdue negative transfer, learners should increase the amount of language input and have a better understanding of the culture in which the target language is used. The methods presented in the paper are finite. Teachers and learners can come up with many more feasible and practical methods to accomplish the formidable and complicated process of eliminating interference of the native language.Reference1. Terence Odlin. 1989. Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press2. Diane Larsen Freeman and Michael H. Long. 2008. An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press3. Kellerman, E.. 1977. Towards the characterization of the strategy of transfer in second language learning. In Interlanguage Studies Bulletin. 58-146.4. 夏纪梅. 1995. 英语交际常识: 中国人与外国人之间的误会实例分析. 广州:中山大学出版社5. 李文中. 1993. 中国英语与中国式英语. 外语教学与研究. 18-24.。
Lecture 7 Language change语言变化PPT课件
▪
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▪ Sound Change
▪ Why the pronunciation of sounds should have changed remains a mystery. However, there are some factors that contribute to the formation of new pronunciation.
▪ Hath---------------has
▪ Sayd--------------said
▪ Saith--------------says
▪ Eg. “purple” from “purpre”
▪ “marble” from “marbre”
2020/1 and
syntactic change
▪ Morphological change
▪ 1. derivation
▪ Didst--------------did
▪ 雷，考碗族，婚奴，基盲，K客吧，晒一族，太空 旅游机，海量版，刷书客，一拿通，土食主义 三 莓，声波炉，掏空族，裸退，过装，宅，龟了
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▪ 大多说学者都同意，一种语言发生可见的 变化时，就是它有活力的表现。如果这是 真得话，那英语可谓精力充沛。这种变化， 在任何语言中都可体现于语法和读音，但 最明显的则见于词汇中。
▪ Modern English from 1500 to the present.
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▪ Causes of Language Change ▪ Sound Change ▪ Morphological ▪ Syntactical Change ▪ Semantic change
语言迁移
标记理论某种程度上弥补了对比分析假设的不足, 指出并非 所有目标语与母语的差异都会发生迁移。标记性与母语迁移 之间的关系可归纳为: 表1 语言的标记性和母语迁移
母语L1 1 无标记 2 无标记 3 有标记 4 有标记 目标语L2 无标记 有标记 无标记 有标记 过渡语 无标记 无标记 无标记 无标记
句法层面 主谓关系 时态表达 句子结构
汉语无标记 英语强标记 英语的标记性强于汉语 英语强调语法标记性
后期 基于普遍语法的迁移研究把视角转向了中介语的表征层 面 , 并形成了三个有代表性的假设 : (1) Schwartz & Sprouse(1996) 的“ 完全迁移 / 完全可及假 设” ( the Full Transfer Full Access Hypothesis) 母语语法构成了中介语的初始状态 , 也就是说 , 学习者借助 其母语表征来解释所接触到的第二语言输入。 “ 完全迁移 ” 实际上就是指母语特征可以全部迁移到中介语的初始语法中。
reference:
[1] ELLIS R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition[ M].上海 : 上海外语教育出版社 ,1994. [2] JAMES C. Contrastive Analysis [ M ]. London : Longman ,1980. [3] KELLERMAN E ,SHARWOOD S M. Crosslinguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition[M]. Oxford:PergamonPress ,1986. [4] ODLIN T. Language Transfer [ M ]. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press ,1989. [5] LADO R. Linguistics across Cultures[ M]. Ann Arbor ,MI:University of Michigan Press ,1957. [6] DULAY H ,BURT M. Should we Teach Children Syntax [J ].Language Learning ,1973(23) :245 2 258. [7] Ellis. R. Understanding Second LanguageAcquisition. [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages EducationPress, 2004.
语言迁移
Effects of Language Transfer on Chinese Students’Acquisition of English Relative ClausesStudent’s number: 201521198381Name: 刘璇Curriculum: 二语习得1. IntroductionEnglish relative clause has been a topic of much discussion and controversy in the past few decades in second language acquisition. English relative clause is one of the most important grammatical structures in the English. At the same time, it is a difficult grammatical part for Chinese students to learn relative clause due to the two languages’ different relative clause structures. Therefore, English relative clause poses great challenges to Chinese learners because of the negative language transfer. The present research is of great significance in the following three aspects.Firstly, language transfer has been an overwhelmingly popular part in second language acquisition. Anyone who wants to offer sufficient interpretation of second language acquisition has to take the critical factor——language transfer into consideration (Gass & Selinker, 1992). It is well-known that the native language imposes great influence on foreign language acquisition,especially for the learning of relative clauses. Although quite a few studies focusing on language transfer and relative clauses have been conducted, few researches concentrate on acquisition of English relative clauses for Chinese learners from the perspective of language transfer. Secondly, for many linguists, an important preliminary step to understand language transfer is comparing the native language with the target language. The relative clause constructions of Chinese are in contrast to those of English. Lastly, the present study is theoretically and practically beneficial to teaching English as a foreign language. The study on acquisition of English relative clauses in terms of language transfer is helpful to teaching and learning of English relative clauses through studying the effects of language transfer. It will offer students and teachers more solutions to the difficulty and problem they might encounter in learning or teaching English relative clauses.The thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter one is a brief instruction of the overall structure of the thesis. Chapter two introduces the definition,classification and development of language transfer and has a close look at the definition of the relative clauses and contrasts English relative clauses and Chinese relative clauses and talksabout previous studies on English relative clause for Chinese learners as well as their limitations. Chapter three gives the methodology of the research, participants and data collection. Chapter four analyze the data collected and shows some possible reasons. Chapter five introduces the major findings, limitations and implications of the research.2.Literature Review2.1 Overview of Language TransferLanguage transfer has experienced many ups and downs, from the first use of the term over 100yars ago to the dominance of Lado’s Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis in the 1950s, from its decline in popularity due to Chomskyan Universal Grammar that denies the existence of language transfer since the 1960s to its recent recovery and flourishing with psycholinguistics that has finally recognized the significance of he role of language transfer.2.1.1 Definition of Language TransferThe term “transfer” originally comes from Behavioral Psychology which has been used for about one hundred years (Sajavaara, 1986:69). Concept “language transfer” was first put forward in Linguistic Across Culture (1957) by American linguist Robert Lado and was applied into the field of second language learning. He assumes that individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture. Odlin’s “working definition” is one of the most acceptable one. According to Odlin (1989), transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired (Odlin, 1989:27). In other words, language transfer not only refers to the effect that comes from the learners’ mother tongue, but also refers to the effect that the learners’ previous knowledge has on the learning of the present linguistic knowledge. Recently, Jarvis and Pavlenko has given a brief definition: language transfer is the influence of a person’s knowledge of one language on that person’s knowledge or use of another language (Jarvis, Pavlenko, 2008).2.1.2 Development of Language TransferGenerally speaking, language transfer theory has roughly gone through three stages of development. During the 1940s and 1950s, behaviorism was greatly influential in the field of linguistics. Traditional behaviorists believed that “language learning is the resu lt of imitation, practice, feedback on success, and habit formation.”(Patsy Lightbown and Nina Spada, 1999:9). Based on behaviorism, Robert Lado put forward Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) as a method of explaining why some features of a target language were more difficult to acquire than others. In his Linguistics Across Culture, Lado claimed that “those elements which are similar to the learner’s native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult”. From the perspective of CAH, the core of language transfer is to compare or contrast the similarities and differences of the native language and the target language and language transfer can be positive and negative. The late 1960s and 1970s witnessed many criticisms for language transfer. Innatist position, proposed by Noam Chomsky in the area of first language acuisition, challenged the position of behaviorism. Chomsky’s theory is based on the hypothesis that innate knowledge of the principle of Universal Grammar permits all children to acquire the language of their environment during a critical period in their development. Some linguists argue that Universal Grammar offers the best perspective to understand second language acquisition. At this period, Error Analysis, which argues that language learning is a trial-and-error process, was provided as an alternative to Contrastive Analysis. The last stage of language transfer started from the late 1970s and 1980s. By the end of 1970s, language transfer had lost its dominant position. Since 1980s, language transfer has been reappraised and investigated from a cognitive and psychological perspective. Recent development in psycholinguistics and cognitive linguistics has contributed to language transfer to reach plausible explanations of the first language transfer combining cognitive factors with linguistic universals and psychological considerations.2.2 Overview of Relative ClauseRelative clause occupies an important position in the area of syntactic as well aslanguage acquisition. This part will talk about the definition of relative clause and make a review about studies of relative clauses.2.2.1 Definition and ClassificationA relative clause is a kind of subordinate clause that contains an element whose interpretation is provided by an antecedent on which the subordinate clause is grammatically dependent. Typically, a relative clause modifies a noun or noun phrase and uses some grammatical device to indicate that one of the arguments within the relative clause has the same referent as that noun or noun phrase.Different classifications about relative clauses have been made according to different standards.Relative clauses may be either finite clauses (as in the examples above) or non-finite clauses. An example of a non-finite relative clause in English is the infinitive clause on whom to rely, in the sentence "She is the person on whom to rely". A traditional way to divide relative clauses is that they consist of restrictive and non-restrictive clauses. A restrictive, or relative clause modifies the meaning of its head word (restricts its possible referent), whereas a non-restrictive or non-defining relative clause merely provides supplementary information. Keenan & Comrie (1977:63-69) divided relative clauses into six types based on the six grammatical rules that the head noun plays. They are subject (SU), direct object (DO), indirect object (IO), object of preposition (OPREP), genitive (GEN) and object of comparison (OCOMP).2.2.2 Differences between Chinese Relative Clauses and English Relative Clauses. There are three differences between Chinese relative clauses and English relative clauses. First, both Chinese relative clauses and English relative clauses belong to external relative clauses, however, Chinese relative clauses is a left-branching language while English relative clauses is a right-branching language. What’s more, Chinese relative clauses are usually indicated by “的” while English relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns and relative adverbs. Last, in English relative clauses, pronoun retention is not allowed while it is allowable in Chinese relative clauses.2.2.3 Studies of Chinese L earners’ English Relative Clause LearningSchachter (1974) found that Chinese and Japanese learners of English made significantly fewer relative clause errors than Persian speakers because they avoided producing that structures in their use of language. Keenan & Comrie (1977) put forward Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy. After investigating more than fifty languages all over the world, they reached a conclusion that there existed an accessibility hierarchy as SU﹥DO﹥OBL\OPREP﹥GEN﹥OCOMP according to functions that the head noun served in relative clauses. In China, Chen (1999:49-55) also considered avoidance made by Chinese learners for relative clauses. She argued that because of the influence of Chinese and psychological processing difficulty Chinese learners of English are inclined to avoid indirect object relative clauses and relative clauses of preposition. By studying relative clauses formation strategies employed by second language learners, he listed three factors influencing the learning patterns of second language learners: universal factors, specific factors about the learners’ native language and specific factors about the target language.2.2.4 Limitations of Previous StudiesFew studies have been conducted to investigate Chinese learners’ processing order of English relative clauses in Chinese context. Moreover, linguists pay little attention to learners’ progress over time.3. MethodologyIn this chapter,four research questions and hypotheses will be presented based on previous theories and hypotheses. Then, a detailed description of the research design will be given about the participants. The research is designed to investigate Chinese learners’ learning sequence, errors and avoidance of five types of English relative clauses: SU, DO, OPREP, GEN and OCOMP.3.1 Research Questions and HypothesesThe present research focus on the following four questions:(1) What is the learning sequence of learning of Chinese learners on English relative clauses?(2) What kinds of errors do the Chinese students usually make?(3) Do the Chinese learners have the tendency to avoid using English relative clauses and how?(4) Do learners with a higher English proficiency level perform better than those witha lower level?Trying to answer these four questions, the author need to verify these hypotheses.(1)The learning sequence will conform to Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy of Keenan & Comrie.(2)Language transfer in one of the most significant causes of errors made by Chinese learners.(3)Due to the complexity of English relative clauses and differences between English relative clauses and Chinese relative clauses, Chinese learners have the tendency to avoid using them.(4)Chinese learners with different English proficiency levels will perform differently. The more they learn, the better they will perform in the using of English relative clauses.3.2 ParticipantsA total of 40 participants are chosen to take part in this research. They are divided into two groups according to English proficiency. The first group consists of 20 freshmen from China University of Mining and Technology, which form the group of lower English proficiency level; the rest 20 participants are post graduates from BLCU, which form the higher English proficiency level. All the participants have already learnt English relative clauses in their high school.3.3 Research MaterialsTwo tasks, which are sentence combining test and grammatical judgment test, are employed in this research.3.3.1 Materials for the Sentence Combining TestThe sentence combining test is adapted from Eckman (1977), Doughty (1911) and Hamilton (1995). There are thirty items in the sentence combination test with each item containing two simple sentences combined into one sentences by using relativepronouns,like “who, whom, whose, whi ch and that”. Six items are designed for each of the five relative clause types and the participants are required to attach the latter sentence to the preceding sentence without changing the form and meaning of the original sentences. The test lasts thirty minutes and the order of the thirty items is arranged at random. For example,Question Item 1Sentence A: I lost the book.Sentence B: My best friend bought the book.The participants are expected to produce a sentence like “ I lost the book that my best friend bought.”3.3.2 Materials for the Grammatical Judgment TestThe grammatical judgment test is taken from Gass’ research (1994). Participan ts are given thirty sentences to make judgments whether these sentences are grammatical or not by writing T for True or F for False on their answer sheet: six sentences (3 grammatical and 3 ungrammatical) for each of five types of relative clauses. Then, they are asked to correct the mistakes in incorrect sentences. For example:Question Item 3:She saw a toy that she really liked it.This sentence is false and should be corrected into “She saw a toy that she really like.”3.4 Research ProcedureThe two tests were conducted in January 2016. In order to make sure of the reliability of the test, the same test were given to all participants within the same time limit of one hour. The participants are asked to read directions carefully before taking tests and hand in the sentence combination test papers before the grammatical judgment test papers were handed out.3.5 Data Collection and ScoringThe data were collected to score the test papers of participants.For the Sentence Combining Test, the correct answer is the one that meets therequirement of the test directions. Such mistakes as articles, prepositions, tense or spelling can be omitted because they do not influence the construction of relative clause.For the Grammatical Judgment Test, if a participant made the correct judgment on the wrong Question Item, but they failed to provide the correct modification, he\she will get 0 point.4. Data Analysis and ResultsFirst, data of these two tests will be shown separately, according to which the learning sequence of English relative clauses can be generated; second, errors appeared in the two tests will be elaborated; third the analysis on the avoidance adapted by the participants will be presented.4.1 Data Analysis4.1.1 Data Analysis of the Sentence Combination TestThe table of lower English proficiency level:The higher score the subject got for each RC type, the easier they learned this RC type. From the above table, the lower level’s learning sequence of English RCs is SU ＞DO＞GEN＞OPREP＞OCOMP.The table of higher level:From the above table, the learning sequence of higher level is GEN＞SU＞DO＞OPREP＞OCOMP.The above table is a whole description of all the participants’ learning according to the first and second tables. Therefore, the final learning sequence of English relative clauses for Chinese learners would be SU＞DO＞GEN＞OPREP＞OCOMP.4.1.2 Data analysis of Grammatical Judgment TestFrom this table, we know that the total score of grammatical judgment test for group with lower level is 675 and the total score of that for higher level is 759. The mean score for lower level is 22.5 and that for higher level is 25.3. The accuracy of higher level is 84% and that of lower level is 75%.4.2 Analysis on the Results of the Two Tests and Errors AppearedIt is necessary to analysis the results for answering the research questions that put forward in Chapter three.4.2.1 Analysis on the Results of the Two TestsAs we can know from the previous chapters, the learning sequence of English relative clauses for Chinese learners with higher proficiency level is GEN＞SU＞DO ＞OPREP＞OCOMP and that for Chinese learners with lower proficiency level is SU ＞DO＞GEN＞OPREP＞OCOMP. The results don’t conform to Keenan & Comrie’s Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy. It is not hard to explain the inconsistency. Keenan & Comrie reached their conclusion by studying fifteen western languages. The most salient difference lies in the position of GEN relative clause. The reason of this difference can be language distance, which is the relative degree of similarity between native language and target language. By comparing the results of the two tests between two groups, we can know the group with higher proficiency level got higher accuracy that that group with lower level. Two groups have different learning sequence for English relative clauses. English proficiency level occupies an important place in the process of learning English relative clauses for Chinese learners and it also influences L1 transfer. As the learners’ proficiency level raises, the influence on L1 transfer will increase.4.2.2 Analysis on Errors AppearedThis part will analyze four kinds of errors made by Chinese learners：resumptive pronoun, erroneous use of relative pronouns, erroneous use of prepositions and omission of antecedents. These errors are made because of the negative language transfer between English and Chinese.1.Resumptive PronounCook defines resumptive pronoun as a copy of the relativized element appearing in its original place (Cook, 2000: 139). In Chinese, resumptive pronoun is allowed and sometimes is necessary in some contexts. Apparently affected by their native language, Chinese learners think it stands to reason that resumotive pronoun can be used in English relative clauses.2.Erroneous Use of Relative PronounThis error includes pronouns omitted or misused. Erroneous use of relative pronoun is caused by one of the differences between English relative clauses and Chinese relative clauses.3.erroneous use of perpositionsIt includes preposition omission and redundancy. Some structures like “ prepositio n + relative pronoun” used to express time, place or reason are easy to be omitted.4.Omission of AntecedentsChinese learners tend to drop the antecedents or the head NPs of English relative clauses, especially those with headed by who or whom.4.3 AvoidanceAvoidance in second language acquisition is the phenomenon that a learner try to avoid using a simple word or structure . Avoidance was first put forward by Schachter.4.3.1 Avoidance in Relative ClauseIn the previous researches, it was found that Chinese learners rarely use English relative clauses. In the present research, it is also observed that the participales of nts avoided using some kinds of relative clauses, even at the risk of violating the research directions. Relative clauses like DO, OPREP AND OCOMP are often replaced with SU type. For example:Question Item 5Sentence A: The restaurant is crowded today.Sentence B: I dislike the restaurant.The correct answer is a sentence like “The restaurant that I dislike is crowded today”. However, many participants use SU structure: “I dislike the restaurant that is crowded today.”The participants prefer to use the SU structure rather than DO, OPREP and OCOMP, which again illustrates that SU type is the most commonly used.4.3.2 Possible Causes of Relative Clause AvoidanceThe avoidance of Chinese learners’ avoidance phenomenon is a negative means employed by learners to avoid taking risk of making mistakes. From the perspectiveof the author, there are three causes. The first one is the different RC position between English and Chinese; the second is the complex structure of English relative clauses and the lower frequency in Chinese relative clause use; the last one is the education background in which to learn is to pass the exam.5. ConclusionThis chapter will provide a summary on the major findings and then conclusion of the present research will be shown .5.1 Major FindingsFour questions are raised and four hypotheses are put forward in chapter three. After data analysis, the author will offer possible answers.First, the learning sequence for Chinese learners to learn English relative clauses is “SU＞DO＞GEN＞OPREP＞OCOMP”, which conforms to Keenan & Comrie’s Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy on the whole except for the position of OPREP and GEN.Second, influenced by negative transfer, Chinese learners often make four kinds of errors including resumptive pronoun, erroneous use of relative pronoun, erroneous use of preposition and omission of antecedents.Third, affected by differences between English and Chinese, Chinese learners have the tendency to avoid using some types of relative clauses. Language transfer is the main reason for avoidance.Fourth, Chinese learners with higher proficiency level make fewer mistakes than Chinese learners with lower proficiency level. Language proficiency is another significant factor.5.2 Limitations of the ResearchFirst, the collected data is relatively limited in quantity. Second, the research only focus on the production of learners. It is not complete just considering the production. Last, the author already analyze the data carefully, however, still some questions are left unanswered.5.3 ConclusionThis paper investigates the English relative clauses produced by Chinese learners of different proficiency levels, including the learning sequence, errors and avoidance strategy. Language transfer plays a significant position in second language acquisition. The findings can make sense in second language learning and teaching. In order to help students learn English relative clauses, English teachers should focus on the differences between Chinese and English in terms of relative clause constructions. Learners should pat attention to the negative language transfer in the learning of English relative clauses and reduce the interference to the least extent and contribute to the positive language transfer of native language.BibliographyChonsky, N. Review of “Verbal Behavior”[A]. B.F. Selinker (eds) Language [C].1959.Cook, V. Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition[M].New York: MacmillaPublishers Ltd, 2000.Gass, S. & L. Selinker (eds) Language Transfer in Language Learning [M]. Amsterdam: John Beniamins, 1992.Gass, S. The Reliability of Second -language Grammaticality Judgments [A] In Research Methodology in Second -language Acquisition[C] New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Association, Publishers 1994.Keenan, E & B. Comrie. Noun Phrase Accessibility and Universal Grammar [J]. Linguistics Inquiry, 1977.Lado, R. Linguistics Across Culture [M].Ann Ardor: University of Michigan Press, 1957.Odlin, T. Language Transfer [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989 Pasty M. Lightbown and Nina Spada. How Language Are Learned[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.Sajavara, K. & J. Lehtonen. A Selected Bibliography of Contrastive Analysis[M]. Jyvaskyla: University of Jyvaskyla, 1986: 86Schachter, J. An error in error analysis [J]. Language Learning 1974(24):205-214陈月红. 中国人学英语为什么回避使用关系从句[J]. 福建外语1999（1）：49-55。
Language Transfer
Language TransferDefinition of Language TransferAt first, let’s take a look at the phrase of “Language transfer”.“Transfer” is originally a basic concept in psychology. In psychology, it refers to “the phenomenon of previous knowledge being extended to the area of new knowledge, this is to say, the influence which we learning or remembering of one thing has on which we learning or remembering of another thing”. And it is this concept that forms the psychological basis for “language transfer”.The notion of “language transfer”, at its birth, was closely related to the behaviorist行为主义者theories. They assumed that learners tended to transfer the characteristics of their native languages and cultures into the foreign languages and cultures that they were learning. Accordingly, when we make errors in second language learning is the result of the interference of our mother tongue learning because of differences between the two. Interference as such is called Negative Transfer. Negative transfer is one that interferes with our second language learning in later situation. Specifically, it refers to the use of native language patterns or rule that leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language (=second language in my report). Similarities between the first language and second language, on the other hand, are believed to facilitate帮助促进the learning of the second language. Facilitation as such is called Positive Transfer. It may help or facilitate language learning in another later situation, and may occur when both the native language and the targetlanguage have the same form.Possible English-learning obstaclesA learner's mother tongue that we also call one's First Language and it always has great impact on his or her Second Language. For example, we are Chinese and our mother tongue is Chinese. In this class, what we are learning now is English, our second language. So we can say that our first language Chinese influence our second language’ performance greatly. As a result, I think that the essential reason why we Chinese students face plenty of obstacles in learning English, even the majority of them are very diligent, is the impact of our mother tongue. So now I will list these obstacles that we Chinese students may face in Chinese environment.I will begin from our writing problems.Writing is the mostcomprehensive全面的充分理解的reflection of the learners’ target language ability. So writing is an essential skill when we learn a second language. Chinglish expression is the most representative errors for our Chinese students through this part. And they usually form thecompositions in Chinese, and then translate it into English. For twosimple instances, when some people translate the sentence of “他的英语说得很好”into English.He or she says: His English says ver y well.And this is Chinglish expression. Then let’s see the next sentence,everybody in the world hopes that they can be happy, I am also. “I am also” is a sentence of typical Chinglish expression too. According to this sentence, we know he or she wants to express the Chinese meaning“我也是”, but he or she does not know that in English there is aparticular structure to express this meaning and thinks that theexpression “I am also” is right as far as English grammar is concerned.We reproduced that sentence is that, everybody in the world hopes that they can be happy, so do I.However, what is important for us is how we can overcome this obstacle. In my view, the different thinking modes in English and Chinese are the major causes of Chinglish expressions.S ince one’s thinking mode is deeply rooted in his mind, it is verydifficult for us to change it. So as a learner, if we want to improve our English writing, we must train ourselves more, and to know more about English. We should realize the importance of writing in our study and life, even in our future work. Do as the follows, and we will gain more. First, thinking in English. To think in English, learners should avoid relating everything to their native language by making the second language as a separate system. Learners should learn to live with uncertainty in order to keep their writing.(2) Reading in English extensively.The more a student reads, the better his writing becomes. Reading widely is one of the best ways to acquire native-like English. So, after-class reading with more kinds of materialsshould be done.Now I talk about our listening and speaking English problems.To the majority of us, even we learn English usually or learn English every day, we find that after a month or a long period of time, our oralEnglish and listening skill do not improve very much. At that time, we will feel depressed and do not have confidence to learn English anymore. Take one of my high school classmates for example, she ishardworking in learning English, but her score in listening part is very low at every examination. She felt sad and don’t know why. In myopinion, the cause of my classmate’s failure in English listening is the impact of our Chinese environment. She doesn’t have enoughopportunities to communica te with others in English and what’ more the time she listens our mother tongue nearly spending her all dayexcept in the English class. On the contrary, a classmate of mine, he usually takes part in our school’s English corner and he has anAmerican friend who is his neighbor. Consequently, his oral English and listening English are both well. So, in order to improve our oral English and listening English, we should catch chances to practicemore. For instance, we’d better take actively part in English Spe ech Match, participate in English corner usually and such activity that can let us practice English more. In a word, we should put ourselves in an English environment. In this way, we will improve greatly and quickly.Our English teachers should try their best to set a real practicing scene in classroom for us, like now is very practical.Now let’s talk about English reading.Reading comprehension always occupies an important position in English teaching in China. Most difficulties encountered by our college students inreading can be classified into three sorts. The first sort is that the learners cannot grasp the meaning of reading material even though they know the meaning of every word in this material and have no doubt about the grammatical structures. The second is that the learnt meanings of some words seem inappropriate in the text that we read. The last one turns out to be that reading is hard to continue in case of meeting several new words. I think all the above phenomena reveal that our Chinese student's reading comprehension remains in the level of words and sentences instead of discourse谈话演讲语段and the concept of discourse has not been well established. These phenomena result from the traditional procedure in reading teaching which starts with words, then sentences, and finally the whole discourse. I think we can reverse the procedure in reading, start with discourse and then come to deal with those difficult sentences and words. Have a try, and you may feel different.Finally, second language acquisition is based on grasping mother language. Therefore, the transfer will appear certainly. All we can do is to find it and then make full use of positive transfer and reduce the negative influence of it.。
矿产
矿产资源开发利用方案编写内容要求及审查大纲
矿产资源开发利用方案编写内容要求及《矿产资源开发利用方案》审查大纲一、概述
㈠矿区位置、隶属关系和企业性质。
如为改扩建矿山, 应说明矿山现状、
特点及存在的主要问题。
㈡编制依据
(1简述项目前期工作进展情况及与有关方面对项目的意向性协议情况。
(2 列出开发利用方案编制所依据的主要基础性资料的名称。
如经储量管理部门认定的矿区地质勘探报告、选矿试验报告、加工利用试验报告、工程地质初评资料、矿区水文资料和供水资料等。
对改、扩建矿山应有生产实际资料, 如矿山总平面现状图、矿床开拓系统图、采场现状图和主要采选设备清单等。
二、矿产品需求现状和预测
㈠该矿产在国内需求情况和市场供应情况
1、矿产品现状及加工利用趋向。
2、国内近、远期的需求量及主要销向预测。
㈡产品价格分析
1、国内矿产品价格现状。
2、矿产品价格稳定性及变化趋势。
三、矿产资源概况
㈠矿区总体概况
1、矿区总体规划情况。
2、矿区矿产资源概况。
3、该设计与矿区总体开发的关系。
㈡该设计项目的资源概况
1、矿床地质及构造特征。
2、矿床开采技术条件及水文地质条件。
矿产
矿产资源开发利用方案编写内容要求及审查大纲
矿产资源开发利用方案编写内容要求及《矿产资源开发利用方案》审查大纲一、概述
㈠矿区位置、隶属关系和企业性质。
如为改扩建矿山, 应说明矿山现状、
特点及存在的主要问题。
㈡编制依据
(1简述项目前期工作进展情况及与有关方面对项目的意向性协议情况。
(2 列出开发利用方案编制所依据的主要基础性资料的名称。
如经储量管理部门认定的矿区地质勘探报告、选矿试验报告、加工利用试验报告、工程地质初评资料、矿区水文资料和供水资料等。
对改、扩建矿山应有生产实际资料, 如矿山总平面现状图、矿床开拓系统图、采场现状图和主要采选设备清单等。
二、矿产品需求现状和预测
㈠该矿产在国内需求情况和市场供应情况
1、矿产品现状及加工利用趋向。
2、国内近、远期的需求量及主要销向预测。
㈡产品价格分析
1、国内矿产品价格现状。
2、矿产品价格稳定性及变化趋势。
三、矿产资源概况
㈠矿区总体概况
1、矿区总体规划情况。
2、矿区矿产资源概况。
3、该设计与矿区总体开发的关系。
㈡该设计项目的资源概况
1、矿床地质及构造特征。
2、矿床开采技术条件及水文地质条件。
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结果(Outcome)
陈述性
正
程序性
负
6
Possible reasons for LT
l Interlanguage (the learner's interim grammar of the L2) is not fixed and rigid like the L1, but "permeable". (目标语水平)
l In all learning situations, previous knowledge is a starting point for acquiring new knowledge; and in a languagelearning situation, this means previously-learnt languages. （子集原则）
5
Hale Waihona Puke Types of LT--ten dimensions(Jarvis, Pavlenko)
语言知识/使用的领域(Area of Language Knowledge/use) 语音 书写 词汇
有意性(Intentionality) 有意 无意
语义 形态 句法 语篇 语用 社会语言
模式(Mode) 产出 接受
2
Introduction
It has always been assumed that, in a second language learning situation, learners rely extensively on their native language.
Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and cultue--both productively and receptively...
Culture
--Lado, in his Linguistics Across
3
Definitions
l Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously acquired (and perhaps imperfectly acquired). ----Odlin(1989)
l Markedness（标记性原则） l Perceived language distance. If two languages are perceived
as close, transfer (both positive and distance negative) is more likely to occur. For example, research in Finland, where Finnish and Swedish are both offcial languages, suggests that L1 Swedish learners of English more readily transfer from their mother language.（语言类型距离）
The influence of a person's knowledge of one language on that person's knowledge or use of another language.
----Jarvis, Pavlenko(2008)
4
Transfer may occur at all levels:
方向性(Directionality) 顺向(foward) 反向(reverse) 侧向(lateral) 双向或多向（bi- or multi-directional）
认知层面(Cognitive Level) 语言 概念
信息频道(Channel) 听觉 视觉
形式(Form) 言语 非言语
知识类型(Type of knowledge)
l phonology ("foreign accent"). l syntax (word for word translation, e.g. "I like very much
Edinburgh" could be a transfer of French word order into English). l lexis, (e.g. "false cognates", if the learner incorrectly assumes that an L2 word has the same meaning as a similar L1 word; for instance, a Spanish speaker may use "embarrassed" to mean "pregnant", "embarazada" being the Spanish word). l pragmatics (e.g. inappropriate over-formality or underformality). l morphology seems to be less affected than other areas.
Language Transfer
1
Outline
1. Key points l Definitions and types of LT l Reasons for LT l Historical development l Current thinking l New perspectives of research 2. State-of-the-art 3. Implications for language teaching