浅析中英语言禁忌.
浅析英汉禁忌语文化
浅析英汉禁忌语文化系别化学与生命科学学院班级12级06班学号20姓名丁香浅析英汉禁忌语文化摘要：禁忌语是一种普遍的社会现象和语言现象，它与人类的生活有着密切的联系。
由于中西方文化的差异，导致了禁忌语存在较大的差别。
本文着重介绍中西方禁忌语的相似与差异，有助于我们更好地了解中西方的文化，完美地掌握交流用语，不至于说出一些对方反感的言语。
关键词：禁忌语相似差异一、英汉禁忌语的概况禁忌语是语言的一部分，就是指在日常交际中不能涉及到的特有的话题，可以说凡是在交往和公共场合中那些引起对方或公众反感或不快的一些词或表达方式都属于禁忌语的范畴。
在英语中，“禁忌”（Taboos）一词源于波利尼西亚语，原意指“神圣的”和“非凡的”，后引申为“禁止的”和“危险的”。
夏威夷语指导禁忌读作“卡普”（Kapu）。
在波利尼西亚文化中，禁忌是指“任何与帝王有关的而普通百姓接触后会有危险的事，或者帝王碰过后，从而变得具有威力的任何事”。
甚至帝王的影子对他来说也是危险的。
除此之外，波利尼西亚人还对其他一些显示力量的地方和事物用禁忌予以表示，例如某些食物、山脉或泉水。
“禁忌”这个词历史悠久，在各类历史文献中均有记载。
汉王符《潜夫论·忠贵》：“贵戚惧家之不吉而聚诸令名，惧门之不坚而为铁枢，卒其所以败者，非苦禁忌少而门枢朽也，常苦崇财货而行骄僭，虐百姓而失民心尔。
”汉应劭《风俗通·正失·彭城相袁元服》：“今俗间多有禁忌，生三子者、五月生者，以为妨害父母，服中子犯礼伤孝，莫肯收举。
”《后汉书·郎顗传》：“臣生长草野，不晓禁忌，披露肝胆，书不择言。
”唐苏拯《明禁忌》诗：“阴阳家有书，卜筑多禁忌。
”随着社会的发展，禁忌语在发展变化。
比如在中国人的俗信中，以为人的影子既和人的身体相像又和人的身体相关。
身体为阳，影像为阴，觉得影子大约就是自己的灵魂，所以古代有禁忌别人踩踏自己的影子。
而现在，这种说法已经少为人所知了。
浅论中西方禁忌语对比
浅论中西方禁忌语对比中西方文化有着不同的禁忌语言，不同的文化背景和社会习惯导致了不同的语言禁忌。
在中西方文化中，禁忌语是指因为特定原因而被视为不适当或不礼貌的言辞或用语。
这些禁忌语言可以包括对特定人群的称谓、特定事物的称呼、以及对某些话题的谈论等。
本文将对中西方的禁忌语进行对比，探讨其不同之处。
中西方在对待称呼的禁忌上有着不同的标准。
在西方文化中，称呼他人时通常会避免使用过于亲昵的称呼，尤其是在初次见面时。
直呼对方姓氏或称呼对方为先生、女士等都是很普遍的。
相比之下，在中国文化中，称呼对方通常会更加注重亲热和尊敬。
在称呼长辈或客人时，通常会加上尊称词如“阿姨”、“叔叔”等。
在亲密关系中，也常使用昵称来称呼对方，这在西方文化中是不太常见的。
在谈论某些特殊话题时，中西方也存在着不同的禁忌。
在西方文化中，谈论个人隐私、金钱、宗教信仰等话题都是比较敏感的。
在社交场合中，很少会有人主动谈论这些话题，通常会避免触及。
相比之下，在中国文化中，谈论个人隐私相对更加私人化，一般在不熟悉的人面前不会主动提及。
谈论金钱、宗教等问题在中国文化中通常并不是严格的禁忌，有时候人们之间也会就这些话题进行交流。
对于不同年龄、不同身份的人群，在中西方文化中也有着不同的称呼禁忌。
在西方文化中，谈论他人的年龄、财富等属于隐私问题，通常不会在公众场合涉及这些话题。
而在中国文化中，对于长辈、领导等身份的人，通常会特别尊敬对待，避免直呼其名。
在西方，通常会使用尊称词如“sir”、“madam”等，而在中国，称呼长辈或领导时通常会使用尊称词如“老师”、“领导”等。
中西方文化在禁忌语言方面存在着一些差异。
在称呼、谈论话题、对待不同身份人群等方面，中西方都有各自的文化传统和社会规范。
了解并尊重对方的文化禁忌，是进行跨文化交流的重要基础。
希望通过本文的介绍，读者能够更加了解中西方的禁忌语言差异，并在与不同文化背景的人交往时更加得体。
中英人之间的语言禁忌差异
中英人之间的语言禁忌差异——不同的地域人们有着不同的文化，这些都是我们应该了解的知识。
由于中西方人的历史传统、风俗习惯、宗教信仰、价值观念的不同，禁忌语(verbal taboos)也有很多不同之处。
禁忌是指在一些特定的文化或是在生活起居中被禁止的行为和思想，被禁止的某些词汇就是禁忌语。
禁忌有两种解释：一为“因风俗习惯或个人理由等，对某些语言或举动有所顾及，久积成禁忌”，二为“对某些可能产生不利后果的事力求避免，不愿说出或听到某些引起不愉快的字眼”，禁忌的一般都是崇高、神圣而凛然不可侵犯的，或被社会认为是神秘、罪恶、肮脏的事物或内容。
在中英两国的交际中间，因为历史与风俗习惯的不同也有很多禁忌需要我们了解。
一、数字禁忌对于数字的禁忌，中国人通常用谐音和典故来解释数字的意思，就像中国人大都喜欢2、6、8、9等数字，2表示好事成双，6表示六六大顺，8表示发财，9是长久，7和8在一起就是“七上八下”，1、6、8在一起就是一路发……最明显的还有4，4与“死”谐音，所以4无形中也就成了一种禁忌，在选电话号码时也会优先2、6、7、8、9这样的数字。
在英国等西方国家，因典故形成的数字禁忌也普遍存在。
就如数字 13 在英国就是禁忌。
据《圣经》记载，在《最后的晚餐》中，耶稣对他的十二门徒弟说：“你们当中有一个人出卖了我”结果出卖耶稣，使耶稣被钉在十字架上而死的卑鄙小人就是第13位，犹大.从此，13就成了不吉祥、不道义的代名词。
因此，酒店不设13号房；重要的活动避开每月13号；请客人吃饭时，一桌的客人若满了12人，就不会再加人，因为他们认为第十三个人会给他们带来厄运。
5也是英国人所禁忌的，耶稣死的那一天正好是星期五，所以当星期五和十三号遇到一起时，就会被认为是最不吉利的。
英国人还不喜欢数字六，因为人是在第六天上帝被造出来的，拥有很多缺点。
二、称谓避讳制度中国，从商代开始就有“生名死讳”的制度，秦汉以后这种忌讳扩大到了活人身上，逐渐形成了“称谓避讳制度”。
语用学角度下英汉交际中的禁忌语
语用学角度下英汉交际中的禁忌语语用学是一门研究语言在交际中的应用和理论的学科，它对于研究语言交际中的禁忌语言有着重要的作用。
禁忌语言是指不受欢迎或令人反感的语言，由于不同文化、不同社会、不同地区、不同群体及不同时期等因素的影响，禁忌语言在不同语境和语言中具有不同的表现形式。
本文主要从语用学的角度出发，分析英汉交际中的禁忌语，探讨在跨文化交际中如何避免禁忌语言的使用。
一、社交禁忌语在英汉交际中，社交禁忌语是指可能导致或被认为导致犯忌的文化语言。
比如，中国人在生日时，听到别人祝福自己“生日快乐”会回答“谢谢”，而英语中“happy birthday”和中文不同，不属于一个可以直接回答的禁忌语，回答“谢谢”会显得很奇怪。
另外，在英语国家中，问别人年龄或身高体重等也是不被允许的，而在中国很普遍，这些问题可以直接问。
在社交场合，由于文化差异的存在，我们应该注意遵守当地文化礼仪和规矩，避免使用不含善意的暴力语言，比如歧视某个族群、某种性别和宗教信仰等。
此外，还要注意吐痰、打嗝、打哈欠、咳嗽等不雅行为，这些举动在不同国家和地区的文化中也有所不同，应该尽量避免。
二、性别禁忌语在英汉交际中，性别语言禁忌主要指使用差异不当或不考虑别人性别感受的语言。
我们应该避免使用一些暗含性别歧视的语言，如“男子汉气概”“窝囊废”等，因为这些语言不仅可能会让性别敏感的人感到冒犯，同时也不符合人类平等和尊重的原则。
在语言交际中，差异化并不是一件坏事，但是不该过度强调或者是值得注意的是，性别问题，和其它问题一样，应当尊重别人的性别选择和性别认同。
对于跨性别等特殊群体，在日常交往中要注意使用正确的称呼及用语，尊重其自我认同和平等权利。
三、宗教禁忌语在英汉交际中，宗教禁忌语的使用要特别注意，因为宗教是一个十分敏感的话题，底线、界限和约束都较为明确。
我们要注意避免在交际中涉及到诸如某个国家的宗教血统、教派争端、圣约、教义、神话、神明等方面的话题或用语。
英汉禁忌语对比分析
3、功能
英汉禁忌语均具有维护社会秩序、遵循社会规范的功能。通过使用禁忌语， 人们可以避免谈论令人尴尬或冒犯的话题，从而减少不必要的冲突和摩擦。此外， 禁忌语还可以起到警示和教育的作用，提醒人们在不同场合下应该保持适当的言 谈举止。例如，在汉语中，“妄议中央”是一个较为严重的禁忌语，旨在引导人 们不要随意发表不当言论。同样地，英语中的“鞭打禁锢”等禁忌语也旨在维护 社会道德和秩序。
英汉禁忌语对比分析的应用
1、语言教学
英汉禁忌语的对比分析在语言教学中具有重要意义。教师可以通过介绍英汉 禁忌语的异同点，帮助学生更好地理解两种文化背景下的语言表达和交际方式。 同时，学生也可以通过了解不同文化中的禁忌语，提高自己的跨文化交际意识和 能力。
2、翻译实践
在翻译实践中，英汉禁忌语的对比分析同样具有指导作用。译者需要具备跨 文化意识，了解两种语言中的禁忌语及其背后的文化内涵。只有这样，才能在忠 实原文的基础上，准确地传达原文中的信息。例如，在翻译过程中，遇到关于 “死亡”的禁忌语时，译者需要根据目标语言的文化背景，选择适当的词汇和表 达方式。
英汉禁忌语在修辞手法和篇章结构方面也有其独特之处。英语中的禁忌语多 采用委婉语和替代词，以避免直接提及禁忌话题，如用“pass away”代替 “die”。而汉语中的禁忌语则更多地体现为避讳和省略，如对年长者的称呼中 会避免使用不吉利的字眼。
四、应用实践：跨文化交流的技 巧
在跨文化交流中，了解英汉禁忌语的异同十分重要。在语言交流中，我们应 尊重对方的文化习惯，避免使用冒犯性的言辞。同时，掌握相应的交流技巧，如 采用间接、委婉的语言表达方式，可以有效地避免因文化差异引起的误解和冲突。 在翻译过程中，译者也需充分考虑原文中的禁忌语，确保译文准确、得体。
中西文化语言禁忌
中西方文化中使用语言的禁忌在许多语言里都忌讳诅咒、骂人的话。
英语和汉语都是这样的，但还要说明一下：第一，有些骂人的话过于粗鄙、难听，所以受到社会更严格的限制。
英语中的Jesus Christ， Holy Mary， Son of a bitCh就是这种话；而Damn， Damn it，Hell这样的话在语气上就稍微轻一些。
请注意，在英语中，大部分诅咒、骂人的话与基督教的词语和名称有关。
在汉语中这种固定的咒骂或骂人的话似乎少些，最常用的是“他妈的”，但听的人不会引起很强烈的反感，因为有时它巳转化为无教养的人的口头语。
第二，诅咒、骂人的话受到年龄、性别、职业的限制。
孩子骂人马上会受到大人责备。
妇女骂人会被人认为粗俗失礼。
教师骂人被认为有失体统。
第三，这种话也受环境和场合的限制。
在当众发言、课堂教学或和有一定社会地位的人在一起时，人们就不大会说诅咒、骂人的话。
在家里、在劳动场合、在办公室、在公共汽车上或市场上，说的人就比较多。
应当指出，人们对诅咒、骂人的话反应并不始终如一。
有些这样的话听得多了，也就不那么刺耳。
现在人们常听到年轻人用骂人活。
不过，对非本族人还是少讲祖活为妙。
现在谈一下英语和汉语在禁忌方面的不同处，先讲一个有趣的故事；一位50来岁的美国妇女在中国任教。
有一位年轻的中国同事请她到自己家里来吃饭。
一进门。
女主人就把4岁的女儿介绍给客人。
小姑娘用英语说：“阿姨好”！她妈妈跟她说过，见了成年妇女要这样问好。
“不对，不能叫阿姨”，妈妈连忙纠正说，“要叫奶奶。
”“不要叫奶奶。
就叫我阿姨好了。
”“那太没有礼貌了。
您比我年纪大多了。
”美国妇女脸红了，笑笑说：“就叫我阿姨吧。
我喜欢这样”。
为什么美国妇女在这种场合会感到尬尴呢？因为中国人和美国人对待年龄问题的态度不同。
对大多数英国人和美国人来说，打听陌生入或不大熟悉的人的年龄是不得体的。
此外，收入多少、是否已婚、政治倾向、宗教信仰等，除非对方表示不大意，这些情况也不宜过问，否则就是失礼。
浅析英汉禁忌语的异同
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浅论中西方禁忌语对比
浅论中西方禁忌语对比禁忌语在各个国家和文化中都有存在，在我们的日常生活中，我们也经常会遇到禁忌语。
然而，不同文化之间的禁忌语也是有很多不同的。
中西方的禁忌语对比，虽然大体上是一致的，但是在一些特定场景中，却也存在一些差异。
下面我们就来简要讨论一下中西方的禁忌语对比吧。
首先，中西方的禁忌语对比在敬称方面就有所不同。
在西方文化中，称呼对方的时候，不用加上其他限定词，例如 Mr.或 Ms.。
而在中文中，我们称呼对方时则通常会表示对对方的尊重。
所以，在某些场合中，如果没有加上敬称，会显得不礼貌或者有点失礼。
但是，在西方文化中却不一样，要强制要求对方使用敬称通常不是一种常规行为。
其次，在言语语调方面，中西方的禁忌语对比也存在差异。
用中文进行交流时，通常需要避免使用刺耳或尖锐的语调，因为这种说话方式会显得不友善或者有攻击性。
因此，在进行交流时，我们通常会更注重控制语调，避免说话过于激烈或者不礼貌。
而在西方文化中，人们通常更喜欢直截了当地表达自己的观点，所以语调多变不被认为是有问题的。
另外，在讨论话题方面，中西方的禁忌语对比也有所不同。
在西方文化中，关于政治、宗教和种族等话题通常是很敏感的话题，而且很容易引发争议。
因此，在进行交流时，通常要避免讨论这些话题。
而在中文中，虽然也存在这些禁忌话题，但还应该注意到一些其他的话题，例如感情、家庭、性等，并不是所有人都希望公开谈论。
所以在中文交流中，我们也应该更加谨慎地选择话题和对话。
最后，在礼仪方面，中西方的禁忌语对比也有所不同。
在西方文化中，人们通常重视独立和自主，因此在礼仪方面也会有所区别。
例如，在西方的婚礼上，新娘通常不会选择红色婚纱，因为在西方文化中，红色代表着热情和性欲，并不适合当做婚礼的主题色。
而在中文文化中，红色则通常代表着喜庆和福气，并且婚礼上的红色装饰也是必不可少的。
因此，在礼仪方面，中西方也存在不同的禁忌语。
综上所述，中西方的禁忌语对比虽然有很多差异，但在日常生活中却是互相影响、互相借鉴的。
浅谈中英禁忌语
毕业论文浅谈中英禁忌语Title:Reflection on the English and Chinese Taboo Words2009年5 月18 日AcknowledgementsFirst and foremost, my appreciation goes to my affectionate parents, and the rest of my family. Throughout the development of this paper, they have been there always giving me continuous support, encouragement and understanding. Their love and support encourage me to pursue progress all the time.I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to all other teachers who gave me lectures during the past three academic years. I have benefited so much not only from their courses and lectures but also from their constant encouragement.Finally, my deepest gratitude and respect go to my supervisor, Liu Qiaoyun. It is for her constant encouragement, critical instructions, her great care and precious advice and suggestions that this paper appears in the present form.AbstractBrief study is made on the different respects of between Chinese taboos and English taboos, such as religion, belief, privacy, sexual and racial discrimination and so on. The paper analyzes the evolution of taboo. it also be showed in the paper that taboo words exists in almost every aspect of people‟s life and is a universal social phenomenon in China and Britain. They Both Chinese and English cultures are in agreement about taboos such as pronunciation taboo, and vocabulary taboo. However, influenced by different cultural backgrounds, ideologies and the concepts of value, Chinese and English taboos also have differences, as is discussed in the paper from the aspects of the phenomenon of English taboo words in different aspects and the mode of English taboo wordKey Words：English taboo; Chinese taboo; similarities; differences摘要本文简要介绍了中国和以英语为母语的国家对禁忌的定义并且介绍了在不同方面例如宗教、信仰、隐私、性和种族歧视等方面的相似性和区别。
中西方禁忌语的差异性-比较语言学论文-语言学论文
中西方禁忌语的差异性-比较语言学论文-语言学论文——文章均为WORD文档，下载后可直接编辑使用亦可打印——在人们的日常生活交往中，常常都会自觉不自觉地遵循一些交际禁忌语，就是说交际双方都清楚地知道哪些话该说不该说。
这就是我们所说的禁忌语。
语言禁忌于任何一个社会中都是普遍存在的文化现象，也是交际中的重要准则。
禁忌这一词，来源于18 世纪南太平洋群岛波利尼西亚的Tongan（汤加语）中的Taboo 一词，在现代英语中意为an inhi-bition or ban resulting from social custom or emotional aversion,而对应到汉语的意思就是被禁止或忌讳的言行.在当地的风俗是严格禁忌人们接触或者谈论神圣的或是卑贱的东西。
事实上，在中国的历史上也早就有记载了，东汉班固的《汉书艺文志阴阳家》云：及拘者为之，则牵于禁忌，泥于小数，舍人事而任鬼神。
由此可见,禁忌一词早就出现在汉代典籍中[1].所以其实中西方都非常重视禁忌语，只是在内容和形式有所不同而已。
一、禁忌语的特征禁忌语作为世界各国普遍存在的一种客观的社会文化现象，它也是受到各种因素的制约的。
它的特征主要表现在以下方面。
1. 禁忌语的时代性。
禁忌语的第一个特征表现在它的时代性，因为禁忌语有些是随着社会的发展而出现的，有些是随着时间的变化而消失的。
清朝时对诗句包含有清、明两字的都是禁忌，当年,明月清风是前人的口头禅，在清帝的耳朵里就是对清朝的讽刺，随时会招来杀身之祸。
但是在唐宋诗词中清明时节雨纷纷却被人们广泛传诵。
2. 禁忌语的民族性。
不同的民族的发展的过程中肯定会形成不同的文化特征，而不同的文化特征就会导致各民族的禁忌语的内容和形式上都会产生差异。
例如关于年龄的问题，英美国家的人对年龄问题不愿意多谈，妇女们对自己的年龄更是讳莫如深，他们认为这是非常隐私的问题，而隐私是在他们眼里是神圣不可侵犯的。
所以，遇到英美国家的同事或者朋友，绝对不要问:How old are you?还有就是，他们甚至在面试的时候也不会特意提及年龄问题。
浅论中西方禁忌语对比
浅论中西方禁忌语对比中西方文化有着不同的禁忌语言，这些禁忌语言反映了人们对于社会和道德规范的观念和认识。
对比中西方的禁忌语言，可以看出不同文化背景下人们的思维方式和价值取向的差异。
本文将就中西方禁忌语进行对比，并探讨其背后的文化内涵。
一、中西方禁忌语的起源中西方的禁忌语言在起源上有所差异。
在中西方传统文化中，禁忌语言往往是建立在宗教、伦理道德、家庭观念等方面的基础之上。
西方的禁忌语言源于基督教传统，受到了宗教和道德规范的影响。
西方禁忌语言中通常会避免提及宗教敏感话题，比如死亡、上帝等话题。
而在中国传统文化中，禁忌语言往往与尊重长辈、尊重传统文化、尊重天地之间的关系有关。
中国人对于有关死亡的话题往往会避免直接表达，而使用委婉语言或者避免直接谈论。
中西方禁忌语言的表达方式也存在一定的差异。
在西方文化中，由于宗教的影响，禁忌话题往往会被视为不祥之事，因此会避免直接谈论。
在西方文化中，人们往往会避免提及死亡、疾病、不幸等话题，以免触犯他人的悲痛之情。
在西方文化中，还存在着一些关于宗教、种族、性别等方面的禁忌话题，比如种族歧视、性别歧视等，人们会尽量避免触及这些话题。
而在中国传统文化中，人们通常会使用委婉的方式来表达禁忌话题，比如使用比喻、谐音、暗示等方式。
中国人在谈论死亡时往往会用“老天有眼”、“天有不测风云”等话语来表达，而不直接使用“死亡”“去世”等词语。
在中国文化中也存在着一些关于家庭、道德、传统观念的禁忌话题，比如大事小事都需要三思而后行，儿女须尽孝道等观念，人们在谈论这些话题的时候也会使用委婉、含蓄的方式。
中西方禁忌语言的差异反映了不同文化背景下的人们对待生与死、天与地、人与人之间的关系的认识和处理方式。
在西方文化中，由于宗教的影响，人们对于死亡、上帝、不幸等话题往往会持避讳之态度，认为这些话题是不祥之事，应该避免谈论。
而在中国传统文化中，人们则更加注重尊重长辈、尊重传统文化、尊重天地之间的关系，因此会使用委婉、含蓄的方式来表达禁忌话题，以示对传统文化的尊重和保护。
浅论中西方禁忌语对比
浅论中西方禁忌语对比中西方有着不同的文化背景和禁忌观念，因而在语言表达中会有不同的敏感词和禁忌语。
本文将对中西方禁忌语进行对比，以期更好地了解和应对不同文化环境下的交流和沟通。
一、中西方禁忌语的定义和特点中西方禁忌语是指在特定文化环境中，因为社会、历史、宗教等方面的因素，被视为不合适或有冒犯性的词语和表达方式。
中西方禁忌语都具有以下特点：1.表达意思不当会引起冒犯或不适感。
2.禁忌语会随着时间、地域、文化差异而变化，需要了解并遵守当地的禁忌规则。
3.禁忌语与特定的语境和对象有关，不能简单地一概而论。
1.宗教和信仰中西方有着不同的宗教信仰和文化背景，因而在表达上存在一些禁忌。
在西方社会中，对上帝或圣洁之物的亵渎是严格禁止的。
例如，在基督教社会中，不应该使用“Jesus Christ”等敬称做代名词或发誓。
而在中国传统文化中，则禁忌“神”和“少林寺”等字眼，因为这与民族历史和文化有关。
2.种族和肤色西方社会非常注重种族平等和反歧视，因此在交流的过程中，涉及到种族或肤色的话题时，需要格外慎重。
而在中国社会中，对于少数民族，应以尊重为主，避免使用歧视性的词汇或表达方式。
3.性别和性行为性别和性行为是另一个比较敏感的话题。
在西方，对LGBT群体的歧视属于禁忌话题，不应以任何方式在公共场合中提起。
而在中国则有类似的禁忌，例如将女性形容为“娘们”或提起私人的性行为等话题。
4.死亡和疾病死亡和疾病也是普遍存在的禁忌话题。
在西方文化中，涉及到疾病和死亡时，应以关爱和同情为先，避免使用任何带有侮辱或贬低意味的语言。
而在中国社会中，则禁忌用直接的词语描述死亡或疾病，而是对生命和健康表示尊重和祝福。
5.政治和国际关系政治和国际关系是另类一个非常敏感的话题。
在西方国家中，针对其他国家、领袖或政治体系的侮辱和攻击被认为是不可接受的。
而在中国，夸大政治成就或带有贬低国家形象的言论同样被视为禁忌话题。
三、如何正确处理中西方禁忌语为了不冒犯他人或让他人产生不适，正确处理中西方禁忌语是非常重要的。
英汉禁忌语对比分析
英汉禁忌语对比分析一、本文概述语言，作为人类沟通与交流的主要工具，不仅承载着传递信息的功能，更在一定程度上反映了社会、文化、习俗和道德观。
然而，在不同的语言环境中，由于地域、历史、文化、宗教等因素的差异，某些词汇或表达方式可能被视为冒犯或禁忌。
禁忌语，就是在特定语言或文化中被视为不恰当或冒犯性的语言形式。
本文旨在对比分析英汉两种语言中的禁忌语现象，探讨其产生的深层次原因，以及在不同语境下的表现形式。
通过对比研究，我们期望能够增进对两种语言文化的理解，提高跨文化交际的能力，避免在交流中因误解而导致的冲突。
本文首先将对禁忌语的定义和分类进行界定，随后分析英汉禁忌语产生的历史、文化和社会背景，接着通过具体案例对比英汉禁忌语在表达方式和语义内涵上的差异，最后探讨如何在跨文化交际中妥善处理禁忌语问题，以促进有效和和谐的沟通。
二、禁忌语的分类禁忌语，作为一种语言现象，广泛存在于各种文化和语言之中。
在英汉两种语言中，禁忌语都有着各自独特的分类和特点。
以下是对英汉禁忌语进行的对比分析，主要从几个关键方面进行分类讨论。
在英汉两种文化中，宗教都是重要的组成部分。
因此，与宗教相关的禁忌语也格外显著。
在汉语中，佛教和道教的宗教用语和象征都有严格的禁忌，如不得随意提及佛祖、道祖的名字，以及与之相关的神圣事物。
而在英语中，基督教的影响深远，涉及上帝、耶稣等神圣名词的言论都需要谨慎处理，以避免冒犯信仰者。
社会禁忌语主要涉及与社会习俗、道德规范等相关的内容。
在汉语中，对长辈、权威人物的称呼和言论有着严格的规范，如不得直接称呼长辈的名字，以及避免使用贬低或侮辱性的词汇。
而在英语中，虽然表达方式有所不同，但对性别、年龄、种族、社会地位等敏感话题的讨论也需要谨慎，避免引起不必要的冲突和误解。
习俗禁忌语是指与特定文化习俗相关的禁忌用语。
在汉语中，许多与死亡、疾病等相关的词汇都被视为禁忌，如“死”字常常用“去世”“走了”等委婉语代替。
在英语中，同样存在类似的习俗禁忌，如对于死亡的表述，人们更倾向于使用“pass away”“departed”等委婉说法。
浅析中英语言禁忌(全英文)
浅析中英语言禁忌[Abstract] Language as the carrier of culture is created during the process of human beings productive labor and serves as the tool of communication to convey the message between people However it has been endowed with magic and power in particular language acts As the old saying goes troubles come out of the tongue Superstitious people think that the language itself can bring about fortune or misfortune so that taboos to restrict the use of language are created Anyone who violates them will get punishment whereas those who faithfully obey the restrictions of language taboo will get protection Furthermore linguistic taboos change with the development of society The paper firstly analyzes the evolution of linguistic taboo Secondly it is indicated in the paper that linguistic taboo exists in almost every aspect of peoples life and is a universal social phenomenon in China and Britain Both Chinese and English cultures are in agreement about linguistic taboos such as pronunciation taboo and vocabulary taboo However influenced by different cultural backgrounds ideologies and the concepts of value Chinese and English linguistic taboos also have differences as is discussed in the paper from the aspects of taboo subjects taboo numbers and names At last this paper puts forward two effective ways of avoiding taboo that is using euphemism and having a good knowledge of the taboo culture And this discussion would helpEnglish learners improve their ability of cross-cultural communication and achieve better communicational effects[Key Words] linguistic taboo evolution similarities differences摘要语言是人们在活动过程中产生和发展起来的一种社交工具其功能就是沟通信息但在特定的语言行为中却被赋予了它自身所没有的超人的感觉和超人的力量社会成员竟认为语言本身能给人类带来某种吉祥或不幸人为地设置了种种语言禁区他们相信谁要是违背这些语言禁忌谁就会受到应有的惩罚反之谁要是忠实遵循了语言禁忌的约束谁就会得到相应的庇护和保佑语言禁忌会随着社会的发展而变化本论文首先论述了语言禁忌的演变接着提出语言禁忌存在于人们生活的各个方面是一种普遍存在的社会现象在汉英两种语言中有些忌讳是一致的文中分析了中英语言禁忌在语音层面词汇方面的相似性但是由于汉英民族文化背景意识形态价值观念等的不同中英语言禁忌的内容和形式也有一些差异因此本论文还探讨了中英语言禁忌在私人话题数字和命名称谓方面的互异性这些异同和发展演进往往会给跨文化交际带来一些障碍为此有效避免使用禁忌语的方法主要是使用委婉语代替禁忌词并充分了解异国的文化背景希望本论文的研究能帮助英语学习者加深英汉两种语言和文化的理解提高跨文化交际能力避免交际失败达到理想的交际效果关键词语言禁忌演变相似点不同点1 IntroductionIt is manifested in language persons things and activities that are taboo should not be talked about or should be mentioned in a roundabout way in language Words and expressions related to these social taboos are linguistic taboos [1] The above definition shows that Linguistic taboo as an integral part of language is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a social phenomenonLike other parts of language the origin of linguistic taboo is deeply rooted in the primitive social and cultural background and its change is greatly influenced by the development of human society in order to satisfy human beings needs for smooth communications With the advancement of science and technology many puzzles about the universe are solved and with the increase of material wealth human demands for spiritual civilization are also becoming higher Evidently linguistic taboos are a reflection of these social development and the value concepts and beliefs of the culture in which they are born It exists in every aspect of peoples lifeThere are some similarities in English and Chinese linguistic taboo but different cultures may not all agree on what is or is not a taboo in a specific context So the differences also exist between English and Chinese linguistic taboo A Lack of knowledge in this field or improper use of linguistic taboos may lead to misunderstandings conflicts and other unknown serious consequences in the cross –culture communications whichis increasingly frequent and wider nowThis paper intends to study the evolution of linguistic taboo to analyze the similarities between Chinese and English linguistic taboo in pronunciation and vocabulary and present the differences from the aspects of names numbers as well as taboo subjects in both cultures Last but not least two effective ways are proposed to avoid linguistic taboos2 The evolution of linguistic tabooThe word taboo also spelled as tabu tapu and kapu was borrowed from Tonga an island group in Polynesia and its first recorded use in English was by Captain James Cook 1729-1779 a British navigator He came to the Archipelago of Tonga during his explorations in the southern part of the Pacific Ocean There he heard the word from the local people which originally referred to persons activities including speech or things under prohibition because they were considered on the one hand sacred and consecrated and on the other uncanny dangerous and unclean He introduced it into English in his description of his third voyage around the world in 1777But taboo phenomena are not unique in Tonga Instead it has long existed in all cultures and language throughout the world [2]As we have mentioned above linguistic taboo is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a kind of social phenomenon The development of society has influenced the development of linguistic taboo So if we want to revealthe whole picture of linguistic taboo we must have a review of the history of linguistic taboo The evolution of linguistic taboo has generally experienced three stages according to the history of human society the primitive superstitions stage the feudal patriarchal stage and modern democratic stage But there is no explicit demarcation line between three stages[3]21 The primitive superstitious stagesAs we all know In the primitive society people didnt get to know well about nature most natural phenomena such as lightning thunder storm earthquake were beyond the understanding of human beings When these phenomena happened they thought that certain supernatural creatures possessed great power They thought that if they were loyal to these supernatural creatures they would be safe or rewarded If they acted against them they would be punished severely As a result the primitive people created different kinds of gods They held a strong religious conviction that these gods controlled the world that they were living in So the first thing they did was to respect these gods through language There is an example from the Seventh Commandment of the Ten Commandment in Bible You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name [4]In a word the earliest linguistic taboo emerged as a result of the ignorance and superstition of the primitive people in ancient times22 The feudal patriarchal stageFeudal society is rigidly stratified A country of feudalism is usually controlled by the royals and sometimes together with those considered with great power given by godDuring the feudal times people were not equal to the rulers and were suppressed by their superiors The distinction between the upper and the lower classes was also reflected in the evaluation of the language used by them respectively The words of upper class used were considered good and elegant while those used by the lower class were regarded as vulgar and indecent and should be avoided in the speech of ladies and gentlemen For example when referring to 出汗 duchesses used the word perspire but the female servants used sweat when referring to 吐痰 the former people used expectorate but the latter used spit As for 月经 the former used menstruate but the latter used bleed The im Horses sweat men perspire young ladies glow more or less can reflect the stratified usage of words which have the same meaning in this period [5] In China during the feudal times men usually play a dominant role in family We can see it from the Chinese expressions 三从四德三纲五常etc In order to strengthen their position and to prevent their subjects from violating them the royals and kings put forward different kinds of prohibitions and bans For instance to show their authority and majesty the name of the emperor and his ancestors should not be mentioned At the same time people always avoided speakingout their parents names or even the characters in their parents names The old saying 古人闻父名而泣 can prove this pointMost linguistic taboos during this period were put into effect by rulers in order to maintain their superior social position and keep the society under their control However some of them because of their deep-rooted influence on peoples mind still remain in language even after the collapse of the social system23 The modern democratic stageIn modern society as a result of the development of science and technology many natural phenomena are no longer mysterious Human beings not only constantly improve their abilities to exploit the world where they are living through their great wisdom and knowledge but also make efforts to explore the extraterrestrial world Science has much more say in todays society Thereby the superstitious elements in linguistic taboos decrease while those reflecting spiritual civilization increaseDuring such an open-minded period people value freedom equality and democracy very much Many minorities struggle for equal rights with the majorities As a result linguistic taboos concerning racial discrimination arise For example in the United States nigger was widely used to call black people in the 1960s but now it is forbidden in normal interaction because such form of addressing shows contempt for the black and goes against the spirit of human rightsIn addition more and more women step outside their houses to work together with men They dont want to depend on men any longer However the traditional ideas about women stifle the fulfillment of their abilities and they are often treated unfairly in work This forces women to rise and fight for equalities with men and more and more men begin to learn to respect women which will have an influential effect on the language As a result taboos on sexist language increase Besides in an era of peace the relative stability of society and the fast pace of life people dont bother much to avoid things in the objective world Instead they prefer living a pleasant and harmonious life They enjoy spiritual entertainment very much so they try to avoid those words and behaviors that may make others feel unpleasant to keep the harmonious relationship Those professions that were looked down upon in the past are beautified now The substitution of sanitation engineer for garbage collector is a good example for this As a whole since the third stage people today show more respect for science and technology and human right so that the superstitious and feudal elements in linguistic taboos tend to reduce while those reflecting the advancement of human society and spiritual civilization tend to increase3 The similarities between Chinese and English linguistic tabooThere are taboos for religion sex death disease social bias etc in bothChinese and English cultures and they are reflected in their respective language and become a kind of linguistic phenomenon The similarities of Chinese and English linguistic taboo mainly embody in the following aspects31 In pronunciationBoth Chinese people and English people believe that saying words that imply misfortunes or disasters may bring them trouble and they thought misfortunes can be prevented by replacing the words with homophones that have better meaningsIn China many taboos have been caused by superstitions In Shanxi province of China there is a custom that mulberries can not be planted in front of the house and willows can not be planted behind the house because the Chinese character 桑mulberry sounds the same as 丧mourningand 柳willowsounds the same as 绺They may indicate that there will be a funeral and something will be stolen[6] Gamblers wont say 书 book because the Chinese shu书 book sound the same with shu输 defeat Chinese people will not present a clock as a gift in weddings or other ceremonies because clock pronounces zhong 钟 which has the same pronunciation as zhong 终 end meaning death in Chinese Many other examples also can be found in Chinese Some fisherman in South China avoid saying such word as fan 翻 turn over or chen沉 sink and any other words with similar sounds Some even change their surname chen陈 which sounds the same as chen沉 It is said that the chopsticks people in the East use when having meals were originally called zhu箸 in ancient China Since it had the same sound as zhu住stop it was replaced later by kuaizi 筷子 since kuai筷 sounds like kuai快quick In western countries there are also many such kinds of examples When a word sounds the same as a taboo word it needs changing into another expression For instance in earlier 18th century the female in English and American countries always tried to avoid using the word arse the bottom part of the body one sits on which was considered inelegant So people called the animal ass as donkey[7] Another typical example is that fuck a sail feck or fack fact are seldom used or even go out of use because they pronounce the same as fuck Neaman made a conclusion that the reason why some words disappeared were related to the fact that their pronunciation are the same as some taboo words [8]32 In vocabularyRoughly speaking taboo words in English fall into three types namely obscenities profanities and vulgarities[9] Based on this classification the part firstly analyzes the three types as followscom In obscenitiesObscene words refer to words relating to sex in a shocking and offensive way That is to say obscene words may cause offence to the social moral principles They usually go out of use in public occasion and cannot appear in literary language These words are related to human beings sexualbehaviors In both English and Chinese these words are to be avoided in polite conversations because they may cause strong disapprovalIn America the Sexual Revolution in 1960s and 70s made people more open toward sex but now words such as making love and having sex still seldom appear directly in writing let alone in conversation Western people are serious towards sex terms to a certain degree so to speakThe Chinese people also treat terms on sex seriously Chinese people always use the expression of 作风问题or不正当关系to show the immoral relationship between a man and a womanAs we all know pregnancy is a normal physiological phenomenon but in daily life people wont say it directly as it is related to sex If someone is pregnant English people will say she is expecting a baby or she is in a family way Similar euphemisms can be found in Chinese 有喜了行动不便了com In profanitiesProfanities refer to religious words used in a way that shows a lack of respect for God or holy things Religion is a fertile field of this type of taboo terms A typical example is that Christian cannot refer to God or Gods name The Ten Commandments forbid people to take the name of the Lord your God in vain So it is considered very rude to say goddame or goddamned [10] The words such as God Jesus damn and hell etc are considered holly and only properly used in religion If they appear in dailycommunication they will make people unpleasant and disgusted So people always try to avoid using these taboo words directly They would like to use their euphemisms Gosh Jeepers creepers dash and heck Some people also avoid referring to the devil which is considered disrespectful So they use the deuce the dickens old Nick to substitute the devilWe can find similar examples in Chinese In religion people use some complimentary address to refer to awesome gods eg 大帝大圣佛陀 Buddha Another example is that tiger is regarded as the divine animal near the Changbai Mountain situated in the Northeast of our country Therefore there was the custom of tiger is the god in ancient times People avoided calling the tiger directly and gave the tiger another name 山君 or 山佛爷com In vulgaritiesBoth in English and Chinese the vulgar words are usually rude and offensive and bring about unpleasantness anger or conflictsSwearwords in English are often called four-letter words because most of them are short and many are made up of four letters eg piss shit crap fuck These so-called four letter words are considered vulgar [11]Swear words formed by employing some of the animals names are vulgarities tooThey are very improper expressions in most conversations especially when there are male and female at the same time such as bitch cow swine pig etc The British Parliament has once published a word list The words onthe list are abusive and were unparliamentary expressions such as cad cheeky liar prevaricating fascist etc[12] In general situation even in daily communications these vulgar words are considered taboo wordsIn Chinese there are also many similar sayings such as 小兔崽子羊巴羔子狗娘养的小王八 etc These words are used to insult others People always try to avoid using them in a normal and polite communication The evolution of linguistic taboo indicates that taboos involve in almost every field of life Therefore the above three types of taboo words dont present a complete list of taboo terms and the author has found other types of taboo words in other referencescom In terms concerning disease death and physical disabilityEither in English or in Chinese culture disease death and physical disability may horrify people So people dont like to mention these directly in conversation Therefore they are considered taboosIn both English and Chinese death is viewed as departing In English we can find many euphemisms for death such as go depart depart from this world go to a better world go the ways of all flesh pass away etc In Chinese we also can find similar euphemisms 去了离开了我们辞世去见马克思了归西升天上路etc In both English and Chinese death is compared to sleeping sleep in English correspond to 正寝长眠or永眠in ChineseWords denoting terrible disease are also sources of horror In Englishpeople dont like to talk about terrible disease or disease related to sexual organs directly For instance they use VD instead of veneral disease use big C long disease or terminal illness to replace cancer Abbreviations are often used to alleviate the shocking effect For instance SARS is used to substitute the terrible name Severe Acute Respiratory SyndromesIn Chinese when we talk to a patient we may say 你今天不舒服别上班了Here we use 不舒服 instead of 病 As a soldier we may say 挂彩了 instead of 伤Mental illnesses are thought not to be mentioned directly For example when referring to a mental illness we just say a little eccentric or a little confusedEither in Chinese or Western people have sympathy for ones physical disability If someone looks ugly we will say shehe looks plainordinary and we wont use the word fat to describe a man We only use heavily set or on the heavy side If a girl is thin we wont use skinny We just say slender and when we refer to a crippled we will say physically handicapped In Chinese if one is deaf we will say 耳朵背耳朵有点不好说话得近点 In English it is called hard of hearingcom In terms concerning parts or excretion of the bodyIn both cultures people think that certain parts of the body and the excretion of body cannot be mentioned in daily conversations They are often considered taboosFor example in English there are so many euphemisms for lavatory such as washroom restroom bathroom comfort station If they want to go to lavatory they will say go to the bathroom do their business answer natures call In Chinese 厕所 is always avoided in public occasion one may say 去一号 or去方便一下com In discriminationIn recent years there is a growing tendency to regard as taboo language that reflects a demeaning attitude towards certain social or ethnic groups Racist language and sexist language for example are offensive to the social or ethnic groups discriminated against [13]Discrimination against woman is a universal and unreasonable phenomenon in the society And its reflection on language is sexist language Both in English and Chinese there are traces of sexist language Unless one is careful enough with hisher speech one may easily offend others unconsciouslyIn China under the control of strict hierarchy feudal society the females were regarded inferior They depend on male and were dominated by male So the discrimination and prejudice against women is the long-term accumulation which is inevitably reflected in Chinese For example the sayings 妇人之见头发长见识短男子汉不和妇人一般见识长舌妇 etc reflect the pejorative attitude toward women And there are also many derogatory titles for women such as 贱人泼妇母老虎母夜叉娘儿们悍妇etcSince the Chinese womens social statuses have increased these sayings are used much less frequently The using of the scornful and pejorative words for women in public often gets criticism and resentmentIn English there are also many sexist expressions For example a person of unknown sex is referred as he or him rather than she or her A person who presides a meeting is the chairman even if she is a woman There are many other examples about it cow means a woman who has many children mutton means a dissolute woman hen means a woman who likes gossip cat means a malicious woman crone means an ugly withered old woman etc Nowadays perhaps as a result of the Womans Liberation Movement in the 1960s and 70s in western countries especially the com and socio-culture development most native English speakers try to avoid sounding like a sexist[14] For example they change the word chairman into chairperson gentleman into gentleperson When referring to human beings people begin to use humankind or the human race instead of man or mankindRacism is the belief that certain human races are inherently inferior to others and racist language is that which shows a biased attitude towards certain racial or ethic groups[15] In English no matter intentionally or not the following words are against black people and annoying them unsatisfied For example white means pure clean benevolent which have positive meaning While black is related to evil wrongdoing and dirty suchas blackguard blacklist blackmarketc Besides nigger and boy for a black adult man often have offensive meaningIn Chinese there is also racist language For example using 蒙古大夫 for an incompetent doctors using 小鬼子for Japanese 洋鬼子大鼻子for westerners [16] Most of these words are derogatory It shows off that Chinese is more superior than other racial or ethic groups4The differences between Chinese and English linguistic tabooAlthough there are many similarities in English and Chinese different views about what is or isnt taboo can be found in two cultures Differences between Chinese and English linguistic taboo embody the following aspects 4 1 In subjectsEnglish people place a high value on privacy The English have a saying A mans home is his castle meaning a mans home is sacred to him no one should come in without permission So it is also with his life and personal affairs[17] Chinese people often like to greet to others like Have you had a meal This common greeting indicates we begin our conversation with our acquaintance just as foreigners ask How nice the weather But the Chinese greeting will make the foreigners suspect that you want to invite him to join the dinner Sometimes when we get together and talk naturally about these questions How about your salary Are you married What do your wifehusband do How much is your skirt In this way we express our care forour friends Generally speaking we never feel embarrassed about these conversations but when we ask the westerners the same questions they will think we may involve in their privacy Annoyingly in western countries it is also improper to ask about other peoples religious beliefs Are you religious What is your religion Are you Catholic etc are questions that might be offensive to most English speakers People dont like especially female others to ask them How old are you because they are very sensitive to their age Even on a birthday call one may find the following congratulation You may not like to be reminded that you are a year older today but that would not keep me from saying happy birthday [18] But in contrast there was no such concept of privacy in Chinese peoples mind 42 In numbersIn China the number 4 and the word 死 death almost sound the same People do not like the number 4 because it reminds them of death Among old people they think 73 and 84 are two key ages If you are 73 or 84 years old you will die before the King of hell invites you So many old people avoid talking their exact agesWhile in western countries one of the most influential taboo numbers is 13 According to the story of The last supper Judas the person who betrayed Jesus sat in the No13 chair therefore Number thirteen is universally considered to be unlucky No doors number is thirteen no hotel has the No13 Room they dont allow 13 people have dinner together All in a word theyavoid number thirteen in every aspect Ordinary people feel upset on 13th in every month Therefore thirteen became a taboo word in western countries Another number concerning taboo in western is Friday It also has long been considered as an unlucky day This taboo term affects people probably not only because they believe that Jesus Christ was put to death on the cross on Friday but also because Friday is for many years the day of execution of criminals commonly called hangmans day [19]Another striking contrast is that Chinese people like even numbers For example they say 好事成双成双成对Chinese people especially like the even number 6 and 8 The saying 六六大顺 can prove it But in western countries they like odd numbers The Roman poet Virgil says The god delights in an odd number In Shakespeares play Merry wives of Windsor Falstaff says Good luck lies in odd numbers They say there is divinity in odd numbers either in nativity chance or death [20]43 In namesHow to call others in verbal communication is very important In Chinese the ancestors and the older generations names cannot be referred directly For example because the second name of Sima Qians father was 谈 When writing the Historical Records Sima Qian changed 赵谈 into 赵同 and 李谈 into 李同[21] As a result we cannot find such a Chinese character 谈 in the Historical Records [22] But in the English culture there are no such name taboos The younger generation can refer the elder generationsname directly It shows that they are equal friendly and intimate In the United States many black people bear the name Lincoln apparently after Abraham Lincoln the 16th president of the country English babies may be named after their grandparents or other relatives to show respect or to honor them For example the British Prime Minister Churchills father was named Randolph Churchill and one of the Prime Ministers sons was also named Randolph Churchill The grandfather and grandson had the same name The American president Franklin D Roosevelts son also had the same name with his father [23] This practice was quite different from Chinese culture which was characterized by a clearly delineated stratified society in which the names for example of ones relatives one or two generations above or officials or other influential figures were taboos to the ordinary Chinese no one dared to name his babies after them5 Ways of avoiding linguistic taboo51 Using euphemismFrom the above discussion we know that some harsh blunt unpleasant offensive and taboo things or acts should not be expressed directly in our daily life So it is very important for us to know how to avoid these linguistic taboosMost linguistic taboos can be avoided by the employment of euphemisms Euphemism refers to the use of pleasant vague or indirect words or phrasesto take the place of more accurate direct or taboo ones In other words euphemism is a means of expressing the words or things that are prohibited Euphemisms are used almost in all fields of life For example when a judge gives the criminal a sentence he will directly say I hereby sentence you to five years in prison But the criminal himself or his relatives will tell others Somebody is sent to the big house for the purpose of saving faceAt the same time we must realize that language is alive and changing all the time Influenced by the social psychology and its culture euphemisms change constantly A euphemism may quickly acquire the stigma of the word it replaced and becomes a taboo after people use it for a time For example there is a series of expressions about the word poor At first I was poor then I became needy later I was underprivileged Now Im disadvantaged I still dont have a cent to my name but I sure have a great vocabulary [24] Another example is that in American English euphemisms for the word buttocks are arse ass prat can tail cheeks caboose fundament and now the newest one is sitting-down place52 Having a good knowledge of the taboo cultureLanguage and culture rely on each other and influence each other Languages are formed and develop under certain cultural background Linguistic taboo is a kind of social phenomenon Its existence and development are restricted and influenced by specific cultural background。
浅论中西方禁忌语对比
浅论中西方禁忌语对比
禁忌语是指在某种文化、环境、场合等情景下，被认为不得不侵犯的语言规范。
在不
同的社会文化背景下，禁忌语也会存在差异。
中西方作为不同文化的代表，其禁忌语的特
点也有所不同。
本文将从中西方禁忌语的定义、类型、文化背景等方面进行对比研究。
定义对比
在中文中，禁忌语通常是一种文化习惯，而在西方文化中，禁忌语往往与宗教信仰有关。
在中文中，禁忌语常常是指在某些情况下，不得撒谎、不得说脏话、不得诅咒等规定。
在西方文化中，禁忌语往往涉及到禁止提到神明、忌讳神圣物品等方面。
类型对比
在中文中，禁忌语的种类有很多，包括禁止谈论病死人，忌讳祖先、吃禁忌食物等等。
而在西方文化中，禁忌语主要包括禁止提到神明、禁止亵渎神圣物品等。
文化背景对比
中西方禁忌语的不同来源于其背后的文化背景。
在中文文化中，道德规范经常出现，
尤其在古代中国，儒家思想非常流行，道德约束的作用也是不可忽视的。
而在西方文化中，基督教信仰有着非常重要的地位，它对人们的价值观和社会行为产生了深远的影响。
总结
中西方禁忌语不同，主要是基于不同的文化背景而产生的。
我们应该在了解不同文化
的基础上，遵守当地的文化规范，尊重文化差异，避免不必要的冲突。
在人类发展的进程中，不同文化之间的交流和融合有着非常重要的意义，我们应该把握好它。
浅论中西方禁忌语对比
浅论中西方禁忌语对比中西方禁忌语是两种不同文化背景下的反映，每个文化都有自己的特点和价值观念，因此在表达中会有一些禁忌语涉及到的内容也会不同。
本文就中西方禁忌语进行对比，分析其差异和原因。
一、言辞直率与严肃性的差异在中西方文化中，禁忌语的差异主要表现在言辞直率程度和严肃性上。
在西方社会中，人们更加倾向于直接表达自己的思想和情感，因此禁忌语的使用相对来说会更加自由和宽松。
在西方国家中，人们在日常交流中经常使用一些带有性暗示或粗俗语言的表达方式，而这在中国文化中是禁忌的。
这主要是因为中西方文化中的性观念和道德观念有所不同，西方社会更加开放和进步，对性的认知和接受程度较高，因此涉及到性话题的禁忌语也相对较少。
在严肃性方面，西方社会更加倾向于幽默和调侃，对于一些严肃话题也会采用一些幽默和调侃的方式进行表达。
西方人在开会或讨论一些敏感话题时可能会用一些讽刺和讥讽的语言，来缓解紧张的氛围。
而在中国文化中，人们通常更加注重尊重和庄重，对于一些严肃话题会采用更加谨慎和谦虚的方式进行表达，禁忌语的使用相对会较为严格。
二、尊重和礼貌的不同观念三、宗教信仰对禁忌语的影响宗教信仰也是中西方禁忌语差异的一个重要因素。
在西方社会中，基督教是主要宗教之一，而基督教中强调的爱、宽容和谦逊等价值观念对西方人的行为方式有深远影响。
西方社会中对于一些与宗教相关的话题，如神灵、圣经等的讨论通常会更加谨慎和尊重。
与此相反，中国文化中的传统宗教是佛教和道教，这两者对于禁忌语的定义并没有那么明确，因此在中西方禁忌语中对于宗教话题的限制也会有所不同。
中西方禁忌语的差异主要体现在言辞直率程度、严肃性、尊重和礼貌观念以及宗教信仰等方面。
这些差异源于中西方文化的不同背景和价值观念，每种文化都有其独特的特点和禁忌。
在跨文化交流中，了解和尊重对方的文化差异是十分重要的，避免因为禁忌语的使用而引发不必要的误会和冲突。
浅析中英语言禁忌
浅析中英语言禁忌[Abstract] Language, as the carrier of culture, is created during the process of human beings’ productive labor and serves as the tool of communication to convey the message between people. However, it has been endowed with magic and power in particular language acts. As the old saying goes, troubles come out of the tongue. Superstitious people think that the language itself can bring about fortune or misfortune so that taboos to restrict the use of language are created. Anyone who violates them will get punishment, whereas those who faithfully obey the restrictions of language taboo will get protection. Furthermore, linguistic taboos change with the development of society .The paper firstly analyzes the evolution of linguistic taboo. Secondly, it is indicated in the paper that linguistic taboo exists in almost every aspect of people’s life and is a universal social phenomenon in China and Britain. Both Chinese and English cultures are in agreement about linguistic taboos such as pronunciation taboo, and vocabulary taboo. However, influenced by different cultural backgrounds, ideologies and the concepts of value, Chinese and English linguistic taboos also have differences, as is discussed in the paper from the aspects of taboo subjects, taboo numbers and names. At last, this paper puts forward two effective ways of avoiding taboo, that is, using euphemism and having a good knowledge of the taboo culture. And this discussion would help English learners improve their ability of cross-cultural communication and achieve better communicational effects.[Key Words] linguistic taboo; evolution; similarities; differences【摘要】语言是人们在活动过程中产生和发展起来的一种社交工具，其功能就是沟通信息，但在特定的语言行为中，却被赋予了它自身所没有的超人的感觉和超人的力量。
浅论中西方禁忌语对比
浅论中西方禁忌语对比中西方禁忌语是由不同文化传统和社会价值观念所塑造的，反映了不同文化间对某些话题的敏感度和对个人尊严、社会和谐的追求。
尽管中西方禁忌语在形式和内容上存在一定差异，但它们都有着深刻的文化背景和社会意义。
本文将从几个方面对中西方禁忌语进行对比分析。
中西方禁忌语在性话题上存在明显的差异。
在中国文化中，性是一个较为敏感的话题，通常被视为隐私的一部分。
中国人往往避免在公共场合或与陌生人之间谈论性话题，甚至连简单的性别暗示也会被视为不文雅。
相比之下，西方社会在性话题上较为开放和宽容。
在许多西方国家，人们可以在公共场合自由地谈论性相关的话题，甚至在电视、电影中表现出较为直接的性暗示和描写。
在宗教与政治话题上，中西方禁忌语也存在差异。
中国是一个多民族、多宗教的国家，尽管宗教信仰自由，但对于在公共场合谈论宗教话题存在一定限制。
在中国社会，以及许多东方社会中，政治话题也常常被视为敏感的禁忌，公众对于谈论政治会存在一定的担忧。
而在西方社会，宗教和政治话题相对较为开放，人们可以自由地进行讨论和表达政治观点，这体现了西方社会对言论自由的重视和宪法保障。
中西方社交礼仪也存在一些不同，涉及到禁忌语的使用。
在中国文化中，尊重他人、维护面子和形象是非常重要的。
在中文社交场合中，人们往往避免使用直接的批评或否定性的语言。
相对而言，西方社交中更注重直接和坦率的沟通，人们更倾向于直接表达自己的意见和对他人的评价。
这种直接和坦率的表达方式在中国文化中可能被视为失礼和冒犯。
中西方禁忌语在对待敏感话题时也有不同的观念。
在中国文化中，尊重长辈和上级的权威地位是非常重要的。
在与年长者或上级交流时，中国人通常会使用更加委婉的措辞，避免直接质问或批评。
相比之下，西方社会更强调平等和个人权利，人们更倾向于直接表达自己的意见和需求。
这也体现了中西方社会在价值观和权力结构方面的差异。
试论英汉禁忌语语用文化的差异
试论英汉禁忌语语用文化的差异摘要：语言是文化的重要载体，禁忌是一种普遍的社会文化现象。
一句完全合乎语法的话，用于不恰当的场合，就达不到交际的目的。
语言的使用规则实际上就是这种语言所属文化的各种因素。
因此，学习和运用外语必须了解与这种外语有密切关系的文化。
关键词：禁忌语，语用文化，差异1.引言关于禁忌语的研究还是比较多的，从禁忌语的产生到人们在日常生活中的使用，表明禁忌语是我们日常交往不可缺少的一部分。
特别是随着英语在我国越来越普及，关于西方的一些禁忌语也引起广大学者的注意。
对中英的禁忌语进行对比研究是很有进步意义的，但是大多数都是对于中、西方禁忌语的表面的，静态的认识。
还不够深刻，需要更多的去了解其深层次的文化背景，从历史传统方面深入研究。
本文主要从中英文化方面的对比对禁忌语的异同进行浅析，从而让更多的外语学者更加重视不同的文化，以达到更好的交流和学习。
2. 禁忌语的相关知识2.1 什么是禁忌语？禁忌分为行为禁忌和语言禁忌，本文所指的禁忌是语言禁忌。
它是人类社会普遍存在的一种复杂的文化现象，国际学术届对这一文化现象的通用名称是“taboo”，它源于汤加语，原指“神圣的”或“不可触碰的”，禁忌存在于世界上已知的各种文化之中，指社会力图避讳的某些行为、事物或关系，引申至用于表达这些内容的语言（Crystal，1978：8）禁忌语涉及生活的各个方面，并普遍存在于世界各个语言和文化中。
2.2 有关禁忌语的理论背景。
“禁忌语的产生，有赖于其文化背景即语境（context）。
语境是指言语行为赖以表现的物质和社会环境。
它最早由英国民俗学家Malinowski提出，他强调语言使用的场合和文化因素对言语交际的影响。
他认为，语言根植于社会文化之中，只有了解语言的社会文化背景，才能理解语言的确切含义。
”（吴小平2004：40-41）。
钱冠连又把语境分为语言性和非语言性的，前者是显性的、可见的现场，后者是隐性的，比如社会文化，风俗习惯等。
浅论中西方禁忌语对比
浅论中西方禁忌语对比在不同的文化中，禁忌语是一种被广泛遵守的规则或准则，用于规范人们的言行举止。
禁忌语通常是因为文化、宗教、社会价值观等原因而产生的，对于不同文化的交流和理解起着重要的作用。
对比中西方的禁忌语，可以体现两种文化的差异以及人们在交流中的差异。
中西方的禁忌语在内容和表达方式上存在差异。
在中文中，一些对粗俗、下流和不雅的话题或用语往往被视为禁忌。
谈论性行为和生殖器官等话题在中国文化中是不被认可的，被视为不礼貌和猥亵的。
同样地，在西方文化中，对于谈论性行为和生殖器官等话题，虽然不被视为禁忌，但是在正式场合和与陌生人的交流中，也会被视为不适当和不礼貌的。
对于一些敏感而容易引起争议的话题，中西方的禁忌语也存在差异。
在中国，政治、宗教和敏感的历史事件等话题往往被视为禁忌，并被认为是不得讨论的。
这是因为中国的政治体制和社会价值观念对于这些话题有着特殊的敏感性。
相比之下，在西方文化中，人们更容易对政治、宗教和敏感的历史事件等话题进行讨论和辩论。
言辞激烈和争议性的讨论是西方文化中思想自由和民主的一部分。
中西方禁忌语在礼貌和尊重上也有所不同。
在中国文化中，长辈、上级和学者被视为有权威的人，人们对他们的言行举止要尊重和遵守。
在与这些人交流时，人们通常要注意自己的言辞和态度，并避免使用冒犯或不尊重的语言。
相比之下，在西方文化中，人们更注重个人自由和平等。
在交流中，个体的言辞和态度更受到保护，人们更容易表达自己的意见和批评。
西方禁忌语往往更注重言论自由和个人权利。
中西方禁忌语在内容、表达方式，敏感话题和礼貌尊重上存在差异。
了解和尊重不同文化中的禁忌语对于跨文化交流和理解至关重要。
在跨文化交流中，人们应该注意并遵守相应的禁忌语，以避免冒犯和误解。
应该保持开放的心态和尊重他人的文化差异，以促进和谐的跨文化交流。
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矿产资源开发利用方案编写内容要求及审查大纲
矿产资源开发利用方案编写内容要求及《矿产资源开发利用方案》审查大纲一、概述
㈠矿区位置、隶属关系和企业性质。
如为改扩建矿山, 应说明矿山现状、
特点及存在的主要问题。
㈡编制依据
(1简述项目前期工作进展情况及与有关方面对项目的意向性协议情况。
(2 列出开发利用方案编制所依据的主要基础性资料的名称。
如经储量管理部门认定的矿区地质勘探报告、选矿试验报告、加工利用试验报告、工程地质初评资料、矿区水文资料和供水资料等。
对改、扩建矿山应有生产实际资料, 如矿山总平面现状图、矿床开拓系统图、采场现状图和主要采选设备清单等。
二、矿产品需求现状和预测
㈠该矿产在国内需求情况和市场供应情况
1、矿产品现状及加工利用趋向。
2、国内近、远期的需求量及主要销向预测。
㈡产品价格分析
1、国内矿产品价格现状。
2、矿产品价格稳定性及变化趋势。
三、矿产资源概况
㈠矿区总体概况
1、矿区总体规划情况。
2、矿区矿产资源概况。
3、该设计与矿区总体开发的关系。
㈡该设计项目的资源概况
1、矿床地质及构造特征。
2、矿床开采技术条件及水文地质条件。