工程经济学第二章(英文版)
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• Flexible resources
– Acquired as used and needed – Usually considered variable costs
Examples: materials, labor, energy, … Usually represented by variable costs.
• Workers on each line are supervised by a productionline manager who is paid $24,000 per year.
• Production up to 10,000 units, only one supervisor is needed. • When production is between 10,001 and 20,000 units, two supervisors are required.
Fixed costs are costs that in total are constant within the relevant range as the level of the activity driver varies.
Example: Two production lines each process 10,000 computers/yr.
ຫໍສະໝຸດ Baidu
What is the incremental cost?
18
Direct & Indirect Cost
Direct Cost - can be measured and allocated to a specific work activity
• Materials • Labor • Overhead
• Standards are estimated in advance of production to specify planned material, labor and overhead for a product or process. • As production progresses the actual use of material, labor and overhead is measured and compared against the pre-established (or planned) standard cost. 20
• Step-Variable costs
– Narrow increments – Approximate as a strictly variable assumption
• Step-Fixed costs
– Wide increments – Assigned to the fixed cost category
Y = $50X + $300,000
10
Mixed Costs
Days Computers, Inc.
Variable Fixed Cost of Selling $300,000 300,000 300,000 300,000 300,000 Cost of Selling Total Cost $200,000 $500,000 400,000 700,000 600,000 900,000 800,000 1,100,000 1,000,000 1,300,000 Computers Selling Cost Sold 4,000 8,000 12,000 16,000 20,000 per Unit $125.00 87.50 75.00 68.75 65.00
21
Standard Cost
22
Standard Cost & Variance
Material Variance AQ – Actual Quantity AP – Actual Price SQ – Standard Quantity SP – Standard Price
11
Mixed Costs
12
Mixed Cost - Breakeven
Example: Price = $10 per unit
Fixed Cost: $100, Variable Cost $5 per unit
13
Mixed Cost Alternatives
Ex 2-1 In connection with resurfacing a highway a contractor has a choice of two sites to set up asphault mixing equipment Cost Factors Average hauling distance Site rental Set up/removal Hauling Flagperson Job Requirements Asphault Working Months Working Days Solution Rent (Fixed) Setup/removal (fixed) Flagperson (fixed) Hauling (variable) Total Site A miles per month per setup per cubic yd-mile Site B miles per month per setup per cubic yd-mile per day 6 $1,000 $15,000 $1.15 Not Required 4.3 $5,000 $25,000 $1.15 $96
Costs that are directly and easily traceable to the work activity or product are directly assigned to the cost structure.
Indirect Cost - difficult to attribute or allocate to a specific output or work activity • Overhead • Burden
50,000 4 85
cubic yds months days
50,000 4 85
cubic yds months days
$4,000 $15,000 0 $345,000 $364,000
$20,000 $25,000 $8,160 $247,250 $300,410
14
Flexible vs. Committed Resources
Standard Cost
• Unit standard cost is the product of standard price and standard quantity Standard Standard Price Quantity SP SQ
• Quantity standards specify how much of the input should be used per unit of output • Price standards specify how much should be paid for the quantity of the input to be used
Costs that are not easily traceable to the work activity or product are usually assigned to the cost based on an allocation formula.
19
Standard Cost
Standard cost - cost per unit of output, established in advance of production or service delivery
9
Mixed Costs
Y = Total variable cost + Fixed cost
Y = VX + F
where Y = Total cost
V = Variable rate X = Variable Amount F = Fixed Amount For Days Computer, the selling cost is:
In the long run, all costs are flexible (variable)!
(buildings can be sold, work forces reduced, etc)
15
Step Cost Behavior
• Step cost behavior displays a constant level of cost for a range of output and then jumps to a higher level of cost at some point
5
Fixed Costs
6
Variable Costs
Days Computers, Inc.
Total Cost of CD-ROMs $120,000 240,000 360,000 480,000 600,000 Number of Computers Processed 4,000 8,000 12,000 16,000 20,000 Unit Cost of CD-ROMs $30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00
Cost Concepts and Design Economics
Ref Sullivan Ch 2
1
Objective
Analyze short-term alternatives when the time value of money is not a factor.
2
Fixed & Variable Cost
Fixed Cost - unaffected by changes in activity level
Variable Cost - vary in total with the quantity of output (or similar measure of activity)
3
Fixed Costs
4
Fixed Costs Days Computers, Inc.
Supervision $54,000 54,000 54,000 108,000 108,000 108,000 Computers Processed 4,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 16,000 20,000 Unit Cost $13.50 6.75 5.40 9.00 6.75 5.40
• Committed resources
– Acquired in advance of usage – Usually considered fixed costs
Examples: buying or leasing buildings, equipment, tools, contracts, … Usually represented by fixed costs.
16
Step Cost Behavior
What is the step cost?
17
Incremental Cost
Incremental Cost - additional cost resulting from increasing output of a system by one (or more) units
7
Variable Costs
8
Mixed Costs
Mixed costs are costs that have both a fixed and a variable component.
•Ten sales representatives each earn an annual salary of $30,000 plus a commission of $50 per computer sold. •10,000 computers are sold.
– Acquired as used and needed – Usually considered variable costs
Examples: materials, labor, energy, … Usually represented by variable costs.
• Workers on each line are supervised by a productionline manager who is paid $24,000 per year.
• Production up to 10,000 units, only one supervisor is needed. • When production is between 10,001 and 20,000 units, two supervisors are required.
Fixed costs are costs that in total are constant within the relevant range as the level of the activity driver varies.
Example: Two production lines each process 10,000 computers/yr.
ຫໍສະໝຸດ Baidu
What is the incremental cost?
18
Direct & Indirect Cost
Direct Cost - can be measured and allocated to a specific work activity
• Materials • Labor • Overhead
• Standards are estimated in advance of production to specify planned material, labor and overhead for a product or process. • As production progresses the actual use of material, labor and overhead is measured and compared against the pre-established (or planned) standard cost. 20
• Step-Variable costs
– Narrow increments – Approximate as a strictly variable assumption
• Step-Fixed costs
– Wide increments – Assigned to the fixed cost category
Y = $50X + $300,000
10
Mixed Costs
Days Computers, Inc.
Variable Fixed Cost of Selling $300,000 300,000 300,000 300,000 300,000 Cost of Selling Total Cost $200,000 $500,000 400,000 700,000 600,000 900,000 800,000 1,100,000 1,000,000 1,300,000 Computers Selling Cost Sold 4,000 8,000 12,000 16,000 20,000 per Unit $125.00 87.50 75.00 68.75 65.00
21
Standard Cost
22
Standard Cost & Variance
Material Variance AQ – Actual Quantity AP – Actual Price SQ – Standard Quantity SP – Standard Price
11
Mixed Costs
12
Mixed Cost - Breakeven
Example: Price = $10 per unit
Fixed Cost: $100, Variable Cost $5 per unit
13
Mixed Cost Alternatives
Ex 2-1 In connection with resurfacing a highway a contractor has a choice of two sites to set up asphault mixing equipment Cost Factors Average hauling distance Site rental Set up/removal Hauling Flagperson Job Requirements Asphault Working Months Working Days Solution Rent (Fixed) Setup/removal (fixed) Flagperson (fixed) Hauling (variable) Total Site A miles per month per setup per cubic yd-mile Site B miles per month per setup per cubic yd-mile per day 6 $1,000 $15,000 $1.15 Not Required 4.3 $5,000 $25,000 $1.15 $96
Costs that are directly and easily traceable to the work activity or product are directly assigned to the cost structure.
Indirect Cost - difficult to attribute or allocate to a specific output or work activity • Overhead • Burden
50,000 4 85
cubic yds months days
50,000 4 85
cubic yds months days
$4,000 $15,000 0 $345,000 $364,000
$20,000 $25,000 $8,160 $247,250 $300,410
14
Flexible vs. Committed Resources
Standard Cost
• Unit standard cost is the product of standard price and standard quantity Standard Standard Price Quantity SP SQ
• Quantity standards specify how much of the input should be used per unit of output • Price standards specify how much should be paid for the quantity of the input to be used
Costs that are not easily traceable to the work activity or product are usually assigned to the cost based on an allocation formula.
19
Standard Cost
Standard cost - cost per unit of output, established in advance of production or service delivery
9
Mixed Costs
Y = Total variable cost + Fixed cost
Y = VX + F
where Y = Total cost
V = Variable rate X = Variable Amount F = Fixed Amount For Days Computer, the selling cost is:
In the long run, all costs are flexible (variable)!
(buildings can be sold, work forces reduced, etc)
15
Step Cost Behavior
• Step cost behavior displays a constant level of cost for a range of output and then jumps to a higher level of cost at some point
5
Fixed Costs
6
Variable Costs
Days Computers, Inc.
Total Cost of CD-ROMs $120,000 240,000 360,000 480,000 600,000 Number of Computers Processed 4,000 8,000 12,000 16,000 20,000 Unit Cost of CD-ROMs $30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00
Cost Concepts and Design Economics
Ref Sullivan Ch 2
1
Objective
Analyze short-term alternatives when the time value of money is not a factor.
2
Fixed & Variable Cost
Fixed Cost - unaffected by changes in activity level
Variable Cost - vary in total with the quantity of output (or similar measure of activity)
3
Fixed Costs
4
Fixed Costs Days Computers, Inc.
Supervision $54,000 54,000 54,000 108,000 108,000 108,000 Computers Processed 4,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 16,000 20,000 Unit Cost $13.50 6.75 5.40 9.00 6.75 5.40
• Committed resources
– Acquired in advance of usage – Usually considered fixed costs
Examples: buying or leasing buildings, equipment, tools, contracts, … Usually represented by fixed costs.
16
Step Cost Behavior
What is the step cost?
17
Incremental Cost
Incremental Cost - additional cost resulting from increasing output of a system by one (or more) units
7
Variable Costs
8
Mixed Costs
Mixed costs are costs that have both a fixed and a variable component.
•Ten sales representatives each earn an annual salary of $30,000 plus a commission of $50 per computer sold. •10,000 computers are sold.