中西文化中礼貌原则的对比分析
中西社会礼貌原则及其差异分析
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礼貌是各社会共有的普遍现象,是人类文明的标志,是人们普遍推崇的一种社会美德,它也是维系人类和谐的工具和手段。
因此,了解并研究中西礼貌原则差异对减少双方误解, 交际顺利进行具有理论和实践意义。
一、中西方文化中的礼貌原则礼貌在人类社会中具有普遍性, 但关于礼貌语言问题, 国内外学者分别从社会语言学、心理语言学、语用学、修辞学等角度提出了不少理论模式和研究方法。
(一)西方文化中的礼貌原则。
早在20世纪50年代, 美国学者戈夫曼(Erving Goffman) 就从戏剧的观点提出了“面子行为理论”(贾玉新,1997),建立了礼貌模式。
他认为, 人们的行为分为前台行为和后台行为二种。
“脸面” 是人类行为准则之一, 渗透于人际行为之中。
很显然,“面子功夫”是作给其他人看的“前台”行为。
Goffman 同时指出,面子对于每个人都是神圣不可侵犯的,是人们在交际中都很关注的重要因素。
面子的需求是相互的,一个人要想自己不丢面子,最保险的办法是不去伤害他人的面子。
20世纪60年代, 美国语言哲学家Grice (1975)在Austin和Searle的言语行为基础上提出了会话合作原则, 该原则认为人们在所有会话中都应遵循质量, 方式和相关的四个准则。
合作原则提出后, 针对人们在会话中时常出现的故意违背某一准则的情况, Grice又增加了一条会话含义与之补充。
然而, Grice 的会话合原则与会话含义仍不能对语言本身的意义和语言的言外之力做出充分的解释。
koff (1972,1973,1975,1977) 在上个世纪七十年代提出礼貌三规则:规则一:不要强加于人;适用于交际双方权势和地位不均等的场合, 如学生和老师, 雇主和雇员之间;规则二:给对方留有余地和空间;适用于交际双方权力地位平等, 但社会关系不密切的场合, 如商人与顾客;规则三:增进双方的友情;适用于好友, 恋人之间。
koff 的礼貌准则由于提出较早, 在范围上, 系统性上都较为笼统, 未能引起足够重视。
中西方礼貌原则对比分析 语言学
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中西方礼貌原则对比分析不同文化类型中的“礼貌原则”存在着差异,这些差异在礼貌用语中有充分的体现。
礼貌是对比语言学中语用对比研究一个不可忽略的问题,在迥异的中西方文化中更是如此。
中西方两种文化的礼貌原则有着较大的差异,了解这种差异对我们的现实生活具有指导意义。
一、中西方“礼貌原则”的理论研究1.西方文化中的礼貌概念西方“礼貌”理论中较有影响的理论框架当属Brown & Levinson的“面子论”及Leech的“礼貌原则”。
两种理论对礼貌的内涵及外延作了较为系统深刻的研究,对不同文化领域的礼貌研究都有一定影响和借鉴意义。
Brown&Levinson的“面子”概念建立在Gofman的定义基础上。
根据Gofman的理论,面子对每一个人来说是最神圣的、不可侵犯的,对每一个交际者来说是最基本的、不容忽视的。
但Brown&Levinson 的面子概念更为具体,他们认为所有理性的社会成员都具有面子。
他们根据个人需要把面子分为两类:消极面子(negative face),即个人拥有行动自由、不受干涉的权利;积极面子(Positive face),即个人的正面形象或“个性”包括希望这种自我形象受到赞许的愿望。
面子有双层性,而且构成面子的双方面是相互矛盾的。
在交往时,一方面我们需要与对方有所关联,或者关注对方,并且要向对方表示出我们的关注。
面子的“关联”方面就是积极面子,Levinson把它称之为积极礼貌(Positive politeness)。
“积极面子”所常用的语篇方略是:恭听对方谈话,对其表示兴趣,表示与对方有共同之处,相互以名字称呼等。
如:“Agree,I have always believed that,too.”另一方面,我们要维护一定的独立性,并且向对方表示我们也尊重他们的独立需求。
面子的“独立”方面就是消极面子,Levinson把它称之为消极礼貌(negative politeness)。
试析中西方礼貌原则的对比差异
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试析中西方礼貌原则的对比差异语言和文化是密不可分的,语言是文化的载体,又是文化的写照。
任何生活在两种不同文化中的人,都会感到不同文化的人说话方式会有很大的差别,要掌握两种不同的语言,必须掌握两种文化。
只有跨越文化障碍,才能做到交际的得体与妥当。
礼貌作为人们交际活动的基本准则,是实现人与人之间成功交际的基本条件,是维系人际和谐的工具和手段,是人类文明进步的重要标志。
而语言就是表达礼貌的重要手段。
1 礼貌原则概述美国语言学家Grace1967年提出了“合作原则”。
他把说话者和听话者在会话中共同遵守的原则概括为量的准则、质的准则、关系准则和方式准则。
合作原则是我们平时谈话时通常都要遵守的语用规则。
20世纪80年代,英国语言学家Leech在Grace“合作原则”的基础上,从修辞学,语体学的角度出发,在其《语用学原则》一书中提出来著名的“礼貌原则”,弥补了合作原则在解释间接会话含义时的不足。
Leech指出,礼貌原则完善了“会话含义”学说,解释了合作原则中无法解释的问题。
因此,礼貌原则和合作原则是互为益补的关系,礼貌原则可以“援救”合作原则。
Leech将礼貌原则划分出六类。
(1)得体准则:减少表达有损他人的观点。
(2)慷慨准则:减少表达利己的观点。
(3)赞誉准则:减少表达对他人的贬损。
(4)谦逊准则:减少对自己的表扬。
(5)一致准则:减少自己与别人在观点上的不一致。
(6)同情准则:尽量减少双方的反感,增加双方的同情。
礼貌原则核心内容为:尽量使自己吃亏,而使别人获利,以取得对方的好感,从而使交际顺利进行,并使自己从中获得更大的利益。
在这六条准则中,得体原则是最根本的一条。
因为得体原则用于指令,而指令是各种语言行为中最需要讲究礼貌,也是最能体现礼貌的一种行为。
礼貌地使用语言就意味着得体地使用语言。
这六项准则互相作用的社会目标是说话人和听话人之间的礼让。
也就是说说话者说话时利他程度越高,多把好处给对方,话语就越有礼貌,礼貌程度就越高。
对中西方礼貌原则差异的研究
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对中西方礼貌原则差异的研究引言:在不同的文化背景下,人们对于什么是礼貌行为的理解和实践方式会存在差异。
中西方礼貌原则的差异一直是跨文化研究的重要课题之一、本文将探讨中西方礼貌原则的差异,并分析其背后的文化因素和原因。
一、语言交流方式上的差异1.直截了当VS委婉曲折在交流方式上,西方人更倾向于直截了当地表达自己的意见和要求,而中国人则更善于使用委婉曲折的语言表达方式。
例如,在提出请求时,西方人可能会直接说出自己的需求,而中国人则会通过言外之意或者暗示来表达。
这是因为西方文化注重个人主义和直接性,而中国文化注重集体主义和含蓄性。
2.控制话语VS尊重他人在对话交流中,西方人更倾向于控制话语,表达自己的观点和意见,而中国人则更注重尊重他人的意见和寻求共识。
这是因为西方文化强调个人权利和自由,而中国文化注重团队合作和和谐。
二、身体语言上的差异1.空间距离VS亲密接触在身体语言上,西方人更注重个人空间和独立性,在人际交往中保持一定的距离,而中国人则更习惯于亲密接触和身体接触。
这是因为西方文化注重个人边界和自我保护,而中国文化强调亲密关系和集体意识。
2.眼神接触VS礼貌避让在眼神接触方面,西方人注重眼神接触和直视,视对方为尊重的表现,而中国人则注重礼貌避让和眼神轻视,视直视为不礼貌的行为。
这是因为西方文化注重个人权利和表达,而中国文化强调谦逊和尊重。
三、社交场合上的差异1.个人独立性VS社交关系在社交场合上,西方人更注重个人独立性和私人空间,更倾向于进行面对面的、深入的一对一交流,而中国人则更注重社交关系和社交网络,更愿意进行团体交流。
这是因为西方文化注重个人表达和独立性,而中国文化强调群体合作和社会关系。
2.时间观念VS灵活安排在时间观念方面,西方人注重准时性和时间管理,更愿意按照计划和日程安排行事,而中国人则更注重灵活安排和相互关照。
这是因为西方文化强调效率和个人时间,而中国文化强调灵活性和团队时间。
结论:中西方礼貌原则的差异存在于语言交流方式、身体语言和社交场合等方面。
中西文化中的礼貌探究
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内容摘要
尽管中西方文化在礼貌用语上存在许多差异,但它们也有一些相似之处。例 如,中西方文化都注重家庭的重要性。在东方文化中,家庭被视为社会的核心单 元,而在西方文化中,尽管家庭观念不如东方强烈,但仍然被视为重要的社会单 位。
内容摘要
此外,中西方文化都讲究实用性和效率。在东方文化中,人们注重细节和过 程,而在西方文化中,人们更加结果和效益。最后,中西方文化都注重形象表达。 在东方文化中,人们注重言辞和举止的文雅得体,而在西方文化中,人们也注重 语言的恰当性和表达的清晰度。
2、社交礼仪:在社交礼仪方面,中西方的差异也尤为显著。中国人注重群体 和谐,强调集体主义,因此在社交场合中,尊重他人的意愿和感受是十分重要的。 而西方文化更强调个人主义,因此在社交场合中,个人的权利和自由往往会得到 更多的重视。
一、中西文化中的礼貌差异
3、餐桌礼仪:在餐桌礼仪方面,中西方的差异也非常明显。中国注重排场和 面子,餐桌上的菜肴数量和种类都十分丰富。而在西方,餐桌礼仪更注重实用和 简洁,食物的分量适中,不会浪费。
中西跨文化礼貌用语是指在中西方文化交流过程中,双方为表达尊重、友好 而使用的言语和行为。礼貌用语不仅是一种语言现象,更是一种文化传承和社会 交往的方式。在跨文化交流中,恰当的礼貌用语能够化解文化冲突,拉近双方距 离,促进沟通与合作。
二、中西跨文化礼貌用语的特征 分析
1、表达方式
1、表达方式
中西方文化在礼貌用语的表达方式上存在差异。中国人注重委婉、谦虚,往 往采用间接、含蓄的方式表达礼貌;而西方人则更倾向于直接、坦率的表达方式。 例如,中国人受到表扬时,通常会表示自己的不足或他人的优点,以示谦虚;
内容摘要
总之,礼貌用语在中西方文化中都占据着重要的地位。由于历史、社会制度、 宗教信仰等多种因素的影响,中西方文化在礼貌用语上存在着许多差异。然而, 它们也有一些相似之处。为了更好地进行跨文化交流,我们应当了解并尊重不同 文化之间的差
中西方文化礼貌原则内容
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中西方文化礼貌原则的对比与理解礼貌原则在任何文化中都是人际交往的核心。
它不仅代表着对他人的尊重,也是建立和维护和谐关系的基石。
在东方与西方的文化背景中,礼貌原则各自有着独特的内涵与表达方式。
通过比较的方法,我们可以更深入地理解这两种文化中的礼貌原则。
首先,在定义上,中西方都强调礼貌作为一种基本道德规范的重要性。
然而,在具体表达上,双方存在微妙的差异。
西方的礼貌更强调个体与个体之间的互动,而东方的礼貌则更注重个体与群体之间的关系。
这种差异反映了东西方文化对于个体与社会关系的不同理解。
在礼仪方面,中西方文化的差异尤为明显。
例如,在见面和道别时,西方人通常采用握手的方式,而东方人则更倾向于鞠躬或点头。
这种礼仪的不同不仅仅是一种形式,它也反映了双方对于人际交往距离的不同理解。
此外,在赞扬方面,西方人倾向于直接表达,而东方人则更为谦虚,避免过于夸大的言辞。
再来看礼节习惯,东西方的差异也十分显著。
在公共场合,西方人注重个人空间,而东方人则更注重群体和谐。
这种差异在言谈举止中也有所体现。
例如,西方人更强调个人的独立和平等,而东方人则更注重社会秩序和群体和谐。
交际用语方面也存在差异。
例如,“谢谢”在英语中是表达感激之情的常用词汇,而在汉语中还可以用于表达敬意或赞美。
这种差异反映了双方在情感表达上的不同方式。
跨文化交际中,理解对方的交际策略至关重要。
我们应该尊重对方的文化习俗和礼仪习惯,以避免误解或冲突。
通过适应和融合两种文化背景下的交际方式,我们可以更有效地进行跨文化交际。
总结以上内容,中西方文化礼貌原则存在许多差异,但这些差异并不意味着双方是互相对立的。
相反,通过比较和理解这些差异,我们可以更好地欣赏彼此的文化特色,促进和谐的人际交往关系。
在全球化的今天,这种跨文化的理解与尊重对于建立互信、促进友谊具有重要意义。
浅析中西方礼貌原则的异同
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浅析中西方礼貌原则的异同语言是我们的思维工具,根据萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说,有什么样的语言就有什么样的思维方式,那就不难论证中西文化差异的渊源了。
不同语言所传递的是不同的思维方式,虽然中西方语言在社会交际中都会使用礼貌原则来更好地表情达意,但由于中西方在文化背景、社会风俗、宗教信仰、思维方式、道德观和价值观等方面存在着较大的差异,所以表现在实际交际的过程中,就出现了一个很大的问题,即双方对礼貌原则理解的差异,而这个问题如不能得到恰当解决,就会给跨文化交际带来一不可逾越的阻碍。
1.语言学上的礼貌原则1983年,英国学者利奇(Leech)提出了礼貌原则,礼貌原则是对美国语言学家格莱斯(Grice)合作原则的补充、解释和完善。
格莱斯指出会话的言语含义是一种现象,即字面意思之后都会隐含某种言外之意。
而合作原则的目的就在于解释会话含义,是使说出的话语更加趋近于交际的双方共同目的。
其中会话有四种准则:一是质准则,即说话要真实,不能说没有充分根据的话,不能说自知是虚假的话;二是量的准则,即说出的话要包括理解它所需要的足够信息,既不过,又不及;三是关联原则,即说话应该有关联,包括目标、语境、交际双方的关联;四是方式准则,即言语交际要明晰、有层次,不能晦涩,不能有歧义。
美国分析学家赛尔(Searle)发展了英国哲学家奥斯汀(Austin)的言语行为理论,提出了“直接言语行为”和“间接言语行为”。
人际间的交流是一种合作,而语言是一种施为行为。
利奇认为人们不用直接的言语行为,而用间接地言语行为,就是因为礼貌原则的存在。
2.中西方的礼貌原则2.1中国的礼貌原则汉文化中的“礼貌”概念有着悠久的历史,它起源于古代的“礼”,即礼制。
中国古代社会所遵循的“礼”,即上尊下卑,君臣父子,长幼有序。
每个人都有其固定的身份及与其身份相配的权和义务,人是社会性的存在,表现方式是人际交流、互通有无,而只有遵守“礼”节,社会才会变得更加有序、和谐。
中西方表达时的礼貌原则
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最使东西方不同文化背景的人们感到困 惑的是双方在别人家做客后,告别时所 使用的礼貌用语存在惊人的差别,如西 方人会说: “Thank you so much for a wonderful evening”,而中国人会说: “实在不好意思,给您添麻烦了”(I am so sorry, I have given you so much trouble)。西方人使用感谢语来表示礼貌, 而中国人则使用道歉语来表示礼貌。仅 此一例,中西方礼貌原则的差异即可见 一斑。
我国学者顾曰国提出了中国文化中的礼 貌特征, 即尊重、谦逊、热情、文雅。
尊重, 就是自我尊重和赞赏对方; 谦逊, 表现为贬己尊人; 热情, 表现为关心、体贴、好客; 文雅, 指举止、谈吐得体大方。 礼貌原则具有普遍性, 世界各民族都有自 己的礼貌准则,具体表现在存在一定的差 异。笔者认为, 在中西方文化中礼貌表现 的差异, 主要有以下几个方面:
又如请求对方帮助, 在西方, 不管事大事 小, 不管对方与自己是上下级关系、师生 关系或亲属关系, 或别的什么关系, 都会向对方表达感激, 说“Thank you”, 否则就是不礼貌的。中国人则不一样, 一 是不常表达感激, 认为说“谢谢”是客气; 二是会区别事大事小和关系的上下、尊 卑、亲疏远近。一点小帮助, 无需客气; 上对下、尊对卑及亲属之间, 也无需客气, 因此在这些情况下, 一般都不说“谢谢”。
西方文化从古希腊开始就注重逻辑, 注重 分析, 重理性。亚里士多德把演说的篇章 概括为: 开头、提出问题、分析论证、结 尾。西方人的思维方式一般是直线形的,
说话、写文章习惯开门见山, 把话题放在 最前面, 先表达中心意思。中国人受儒家、 道家与佛教哲学思想和“天人合一”思想 的影响, 重视悟性和事物之间的联系, 所 以汉语重顿悟、讲含蓄, 语言有一定的模 糊性。中国人的思维方式以自觉、具体为 特征, 思维活动多是螺旋式地绕圈向前发 展。如中国人打电话, 通常开始都不谈自 己的意图、目的( 除了急事重大的事情 外) , 而总是谈些关心对方的话, 最后才说 出打电话的真正目的, 而西方人则习惯于 开门见山, 先说出打电话的目的和要谈的 正事, 然后再细说和谈些其它的事。
中西方文化中礼貌原则之差异及原因分析
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An Analysis of Differences of Politeness Principle betweenChinese Culture and English CultureAbstract:Politeness is a symbol of the human civilization and a means for maintaining a harmonious interpersonal relation. Politeness is a social statute that constrains people‟s behaviors in any society. However, it shows different characteristics in Chinese culture and western culture. In recent years, scholars have shown great interest in politeness. In the west, Goffman‟s notion of face, Brown and Levinson‟s Face Theory and Geoffrey N. Leech‟s Politeness Principles are the representatives; in China, Professor Gu Yueguo‟s Five Notions of the Politeness is the pioneer in this field. This paper attempts to throw light on the differences of politeness principles between Chinese and western culture and its reasons based on the basic introduction of polite principles in Chinese and western culture. The better understanding of these differences and reasons can improve the English learners‟ cultural sensitivity, reducing pragmatic failure. Also, it can help them get the effective communication through the proper modes of politeness.Key words: Polite Principles,Cultural Differences, ReasonsTable of ContentsI. Introduction (1)II. Polite Principles in Chinese and English Culture (2)2.1 Politeness Principles in Chinese Culture (2)2.2 Politeness Principles in English Culture (3)III. Differences of Politeness Principles between Chinese Culture and English Culture (5)3.1 Terms of Address (6)3.2 Thanks and Apology W ords (7)3.3 Contents of the Conversation (7)3.3.1 Compliment and Modest Words (8)3.3.2 Euphemisms and Taboos (8)3.3 .3 Greeting and Farewell Words (9)IV. Reasons of Differences of Politeness Principles between Chinese Culture and English Culture (10)4.1 Different Values Influenced by Cultural Background (10)4.1.1 V alues of Chinese Culture (10)4.1.2 V alues of English Culture (11)4.2 Different Ways of Thinking Influenced by Cultural Backgrounds (12)4.2.1 Chinese Ways of Thinking (12)4.2.2 Western Ways of Thinking (12)V. Conclusion (12)Bibliography (14)Chinese title, abstract, key words (15)An Analysis of Differences of Politeness Principle betweenChinese Culture and English Culture I.IntroductionPoliteness is a universal phenomenon and it can be observed in all languages and cultures. In addition, it plays an important role in human communication: it helps to establish, maintain or consolidate harmonious interpersonal relationships and facilitate social interactions. Politeness as an observable phenomenon is something superficial and a reflection of specific cultural values in the language. Thus, while admitting the universality of politeness, we should realize the cultural characteristics of politeness that is, due to the influences of cultural value orientations, the actual manifestations of politeness and the standards for its judgment differ substantially from culture to culture. To explore politeness, we should consider its cultural specificity and accordingly go into the depth where cultural values are firmly rooted. Only in doing so can we uncover the essence of politeness and successfully account for its cross-cultural differences. We view politeness as one of the major social constraints on human interaction which regulates participants‟ communication behavior by constantly reminding them to take into consideration the feelings of the others (He ziran,2003:57). Politeness is a universal phenomenon, which can be observed in every society. People connect, communicate, and cooperate with each other. To some extent, the globe is a huge society; however, it can operate safe and sound. Except some laws and regulations, the social ethics plays a significant role in maintaining the social order, keeping the harmonious interpersonal relationships, reducing social conflict and misunderstandings. Among the social ethics, politeness is a key factor that can not be neglected. It is of great necessity to consider the feelings of others in order to establish mutual comfort and enhance rapport.With the trend of globalization, people in the diplomatic, intellectual, and business circles have more chances to connect with the foreigners. Through the political, economicaland cultural exchange, people around the world are getting closer and closer. However, more and more problems occur. Realizing the difficulties on our way to globalization, we need to know some basic polite Principle in communication so that a healthier discourse pattern can be adopted (Hu zhuanglin, 2007:98-99). There is a famous saying which goes like this: Courtesy costs nothing. But what is polite in one culture may be impolite in another. Thus, we should do in Rome as Romans do. Polite Principle is further highlighted. Many scholars in growing number attach great importance to the politeness Principles. This paper intends to research into the differences of polite principles between western and Chinese culture and its reasons in the hope to achieve a better understanding of them, to raise our cultural awareness and to promote English-Chinese cross-cultural communication. It also is hoped that it can give some inspirations to the college students and readers.II. Polite Principles in Chinese Culture and English CulturePolite theory is used to accounts for the redressing of the affronts to face posed by face-threatening acts to addressees (Gu Yueguo ,1992:30) . First formulated in 1978 by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson, polite theory has since been expanded academia‟s perception of politeness (Wikipedia, part 1). In the English culture, on the basis of Brown and Levinson‟s Face Theory and Grice‟s Cooperative P rinciples, Geoffrey N. Leech (1983:132) developed the face theories and formulated the polite Principles.2.1 Politeness Principles in Chinese CultureDue to different values, different cultural orientations and different ways of thinking, languages are different greatly from one another in expressing and understanding politeness. And in different cultures, the importance of each politeness maxim is different. Some cultural associations in the east (such as China and Japan) prefer modesty maxim; English-speaking countries (especially England) focus on tact maxim; the countries around the Mediterranean prefer generosity maxim to modesty maxim. Based on Leech‟s theory and Chinese politeness features, Prof. Gu Yueguo studies the politeness phenomenon in the C hinese culture. He summarizes the polite Principles with Chinese characteristics.According to Gu Yueguo there are basically four notions underlying the Chineseconception of “politeness”,which reads respectfulness, modesty, attitudinal warmth, and refinement. Respectfulness is self‟s positive appreciation or admiration of other concerning the latter‟s face, social status, and so on. …Modesty‟ can be seen as another way of saying …self-denigration‟. …Attitudinal warmth‟ is self‟s demonstration of kindness, consideration, and hospitality to other. Finally, …refinement‟ refers to self‟s behavior to other wh ich meets certain standards. The four essentials are elaborated into politeness maxims. Gu Yueguo (1992:37) demonstrates four maxims:(1) the self-denigration maxim;(2) the address term maxim;(3) the tact maxim and the generosity maxim;(4) the Principles of Balance, and the Principles of Sincerity;According to the characteristic of Chinese culture, Gu Yueguo(1992:43) has proposed five politeness maxims:(1) Self-denigration Maxim: a). Denigrate self;b). Elevate other;(2) Address Term Maxim, which requires addressing your interlocutor with an appropriate address form;(3) Refinement Maxim, which requires using refined language, including the use of euphemisms and indirectness, and avoid foul language;(4) Agreement Maxim, which maximizes agreement and harmony between interlocutors, and minimizes disagreement between them;(5) Virtues-words-deeds Maxim, which minimizes cost and maximizes benefit to other at the motivational level, and maximizes benefit received and minimizes cost to self at the conversational level.2.2 Politeness Principles in English CultureTalking about the polite principles in English culture, we should know that it mainly includes Brown and Levinson‟s Face Theory and Geoffrey Leech‟s Politeness Principles. These two theories have important roles in politeness principles in English culture.Brown and Levinson‟s influential theory is based on Grice‟s maxim theory and Goffman‟s“face” as the positive social value a person effective ly claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact‟ (Goffman, 1967:51) face can be likened to a person‟s public self-esteem or self-image, which can be damaged, maintained or enhanced in interaction with others (Leo, 2001:57). Brown and Levinson divided the notion of face into positive face and negative face, according to interactants‟ wants. Brown and Levinson define …positive face‟ as the positive and consistent image people have of themselves, and their desire for ap proval. On the other hand, …negative face‟ is “the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, and rights to non-distraction” (Brown and Levinson, 1987:61). Deviations from Gricean maxims are motivated by employing strategies to counteract so-called “f ace-threatening acts” (FTAs) by using these politeness strategies speakers communicate both their primary message and also the message that they intend to be polite, which has the status of a Gricean conversational implicature (Leo, 2001:57).Leech divides the Politeness Principles into six different maxims:(1) Act maxim: a) Minimize cost to otherb) Maximize benefit to other(2) Generosity maxim: a) Minimize benefit to self.b) Maximize cost to self.(3) Approbation maxim: a) Minimize dispraise of other.b) Maximize praise of other.(4) Modesty maxim: a) Minimize praise of self.b) Maximize dispraise of self(5) Agreement maxim: a) Minimize disagreement between self and other.b) Maximize agreement between self and other.(6) Sympathy maxim: a) Minimize antipathy between self and other.b) Maximize sympathy between self and other.(Leech 1983:132).Leech‟s Polite Principle is built on the basis of the concept of “cost” and “benefit”. Costrefers to the inconvenience or loss that the content of the interaction brings to the speaker and the hearer; benefit means the convenience or the advantage to the speaker and the hearer. The degree of politeness is consistent with the scale of indirectness, which can be observed superficially. As a matter of fact, the level of politeness is in contrast to other‟s cost or self‟s benefit. Generally speaking, the more the content of interaction benefits the hearer, the less the speaker‟s goods, thus the communication is politer. Otherwise, it is impolite. This is the essence of the phenomenon. This is why people choose to use euphemism or the indirect language to minimize the impolite speech. For example, when a woman is pregnant, it is impolite to say you are pregnant directly. However, it is better to say “She has canceled all her social engagements.” or “She is in an interesting condition.” The six maxims of Leech‟s Politeness Principles are interrelated with one another, restrained with one another and can not be understood in isolation.According to Leech, not all the maxims and sub-maxims are equally important. Of all the maxims, Tact Maxim is more powerful on conversational behavior than Generosity Maxim and Approbation Maxim is more powerful than Modesty Maxim. In all maxims, part a) is more important than part b) as it emphasizes not to impose or disagree in conversation (Sara, 2003:129). In all, the Principles are not motivated by the need of the cross-cultural communication; they seem to be derived from strategies used by English speakers. In addition, these Principles do not always apply to other culture. Though some of the maxims can be applied to other cultures, the differences still exist. In the English culture, individualism is the center of their value system. The privacy, freedom and personal realization are sacred and inviolable. Tact Maxim is frequently used. Even when the parents “order” their children to do something, they will follow the tact maxim in order not to threaten their children‟s nega tive face. People often use indirect and tactful language.For example:Would you please pass me the salt?Would you mind passing me the salt?Could you possibly pass me the salt?I was wondering if you could pass me the salt?…Some of the people can give order, request, suggestion or even threatening, while others have no choice but to accept the instructions unconditionally. In a word, Leech‟s Politeness Principle is measured by the speaker‟s and the hearer‟s benefit and cost.III. Differences of Politeness Principles between Chinese Culture and English CultureStemming from different cultural backgrounds, the Chinese politeness Principle and the English politeness Principle may have different response and explanation to the same politeness phenomenon. Different cultures may focus on different maxims. In the English-speaking countries, the tact maxim is the most important, which forms the core of the English language and culture. People usually follow this maxim when they perform the speech act, such as requesting, ordering or warning. While in the Chinese society, the self-denigration maxim is the core. This well explains why whenever Chinese people hear the compliment, they would negate the compliment and depreciate themselves to show modesty. In addition, we may observed that the Chinese place more emphasis in their talk on the needs of the group rather than those of the individual, but we can not conclude on the basis of these observations alone that they are genuine more altruistic than members of o ther communities. The major differences between Chinese and English politeness Principles are discussed as follows.3.1 Terms of AddressThe differences between the Chinese and English politeness Principles are also reflected in the terms of address. Every language has its own specific address system and its usage is closely related with the cultural background. When people greet, people in the English-speaking country use the terms of address as well. The terms of address show the social relationships between people. From top to bottom, there are social ranks, high or low, young and old. The change of the terms of address means the change of the relationship. Affected by the social structure, traditional ethics, blood relation and religious factors, Chinese address system is rather complicated than those of the English-speaking countries.Chinese people like to use the blood relations to call their family members and relatives; what‟s more, they call non-family friends and relatives, which is rare in the English-speaking countries. Owning to its social structure and cultural orientation, the interpersonal relationship of the English-speaking countries is totally different from that of Chinese. So the use of the address is varied as well. Generally speaking, English people like to call each other‟s name. This fully shows the cultural orientation of equality. Friends usually address each other‟s name (not including the family name). On the formal occasion, “Mr”, “Miss”, “Mrs” and some other appellations are often used. There are a few titles can be used to address others, except Doctor, Professor, President, etc. the terms of address in the Chinese culture is rather complicated. Chinese people like to add the title before someone‟s family name, such as Director Huang, Manager Ma, or Deputy Li. Thus, the addresses that Chinese people think is polite may be rude according to the English culture. For instant we add “small” or “old” before one‟s family name. This is considered rude in the English-speaking countries. People do not like to be named with words like small or old. When referring to old people, they use the senior citizen instead. For instance, in China, if we call someone “老李”, it actually shows ours respect for him. But if you call a foreigner “Old Brown”, he may think you are impolite or rude.3.2 Thanks and Apology W ordsThe words of thanks belong to the polite language. When one spends time and energy in helping another, it is the basic politeness for one to express his gratitude to the other part. In the aspect of “Thanks”, the English use “thank you” more often than the Chinese. For the English, everyone says “Thank you” even the family members have no exception. While in China, the more intimate the relationship is, the less they say “thank you” to each other. Saying “thank you” is considered to enlarge the interpersonal distance. When people are praised by others, they do not usually say “thank you”, so as not to leave an impression of immodesty. The differences also exist in different culture for using the words of apology. But Chinese people do not apologize very frequently. In China, when doing the wrong things or making mistakes, the authority and the elder do not need to apologize. It is the embodiment ofthe power. There are also some young people, even though their parents have done a lot for them, they seldom say “thank you” to their parents. Westerners consider attitudes like this as rude and unreasonable.3.3 Contents of the ConversationPeople who use different language may hold different views about the world. About one thing, people of different cultural backgrounds may have different ideas. For the English value, “individualism” is the core. They advocate individualism. Individual rights and the private property are inviolable, while the Chinese people appreciate collectivism, promoting mutual friendship. The English people focus on the concept of privacy, but the Chinese people prefer the intimacy. Respecting for individual privacy is one of the major values of the English ideology. In daily life, the English do not want to interfere in other‟s private business, particularly with regard to age, family, income, marital status. In China, on the contrary, nothing is private. People do not think these acts are intrusive other‟s private space. In their mind, it is natural and ordinary. In fact, these acts are beyond the English people‟s psychological limit and privacy. This may fail to achieve the communicative purpose and it may lead to other‟s indifference and alienation.3.3.1 Compliment and Modest W ordsLeech's Modesty maxim is equivalent to part of Gu‟s self-denigration maxim. When referring to self, one should depreciate oneself and be modest. When referring to other, one should show one‟s appreciation and respect to other. For the usag e of compliment and modest words, the Chinese and the English have significant differences. In the English-speaking countries, people usually adopt agreement maxim when they are praised. They seldom negate the praise in order not embarrass others. For example, an actor just finished his performance, one of his friend said to him: “Hey, you really did a good job tonight!” The actor may answer: “Well, thank you very much.” However, in China, it is the other way round, in the face of such recognition; one can not be so straightforward. It is customary to use "self-negation" or "deny" approach. China's historical and cultural traditions emphasize collectivism, resulting in a unique habit of modesty. In this case the Europeans may think Chinese are impolite becausethey have been rejected bluntly.3.3.2 Euphemisms and TaboosThe refined language maxim requires not using offensive language, being more tactful and less straightforward. In order to avoid rude words in the English language there are a number of taboo words and euphemisms. People use those words to avoid direct reference to something unpleasant or something embarrassing. These taboo words and euphemism can be widely used. They are the products of the conventional social orders and politeness Principles. To some degree, Chinese and English are the same in the use of taboo words. For example, talking about the body organs and sex on the public occasions is rude. The differences lie in the following aspects. The English do not like to ask people‟s privacy, such as age, income, marital status, political orientation, religious belief and so on. These inquiries may be considered inappropriate, offensive and unrespectable for other‟s privacy. However, it is common in China. If your friend introduces another friend to you, you may ask your new friend “where is your hometown? What do you do?” or “where do you live?” The common interpersonal communication may look weird in the foreigners‟ eyes. It is, to some degree, an act of invading their privacy rights.3.3 .3 Greeting and Farewell W ordsIt is natural to greet when people meet. The expressions may vary from one culture to another. In the English-speaking countries, there are some fixed greetings, such as: How are you? (In fact, people are not really care about other‟s health status), replies often go like this: Fine, thank you (Regardless of whether the listener really feel good). For greeting, Chinese people often say: "do lunch", "Where to", "Where to go" and so on, we think those expressions are very natural, it is just greeting. Hearing the Chinese style of greeting, foreigners may have a misunderstanding: Chinese people like to mind other‟s business. Respectively the English people often say: "Goodbye. Bye-bye. So long or See you later, tomorrow on the next morning". It is equivalent to Chinese like "Good-bye, Bye, now see, See you tomorrow, or see you next Monday." Chinese people sometimes say so. Although in the English-speaking countries, biding farewell is roughly the same, yet there are differentways to bid farewell. Compared with the English, Chinese are more subtle. Although the Chinese and the English are more or less the same in the farewell words, Chinese are more reserved.IV. Reasons of Differences of Politeness Principles between Chinese Culture and English CultureDifferent cultural factors may result in cultural differences, and consequently, the acknowledgment of the factors affecting the cultural differences will facilitate the understanding of such differences. However, it is impossible to cover all of the factors in this thesis, so the factors discussed here are some important ones. So, we can see there are many differences of politeness principles between the western and Chinese culture as we discussed in chapter three. In this chapter, we will talk about the main reasons from their different families‟ features and concepts as well as different values between them.4.1 Different Values Influenced by Cultural BackgroundsAnother cultural reason for differences between China and western countries is different value under the different cultural backgrounds. In the following, we will talk about the values in Chinese culture and western culture.4.1.1 Values of Chinese CultureIn spring and autumn and Warring‟s periods of China, Confucianis m, Taoism and other ideologies emerged. As different ideologies developed and combated each other, the basic framework of Chinese civilization was established. And then Confucianism became the foundation stone of Chinese philosophy system. Confucianism‟s c entral doctrine is that of the virtue of Ren. What is Ren? Ren is translated variously as goodness, benevolence, humanity and human-heartedness. In short, Ren means affection and love. For more than two thousand years it has molded and shaped the civilization of China and exerted a profound influence upon almost one fourth of the human race. The core of the Chinese value has some relationship with the Confucianism. That is the well-known Five Relationships: ruler-minister, father-son, husband-wife, elder-younger brother and friend-friend. This was explained as“There should be affection between father and son, righteous sense of duty between ruler and minister, division of function between husband and wife, stratification between old and young, and good fait h between friends.” During the more than two thousand years of the feudal period, the ruling class arranges every thing by this relationship, and then formed a class society. In this kind of society, a minister owes loyalty to his ruler, and a child filial respect to his parent. As a result, humanity is neglected and people have no equality. In recent years, this kind of relations has changed greatly. People in China also hope to have an equal status, but the Confucianism is still rooted in people‟s mind, a nd it needs a long time to realize to be truly equal.4.1.2 Values of English CultureThe concept of Chinese values is usually placed in opposition with English values. Therefore, it is necessary to determine how people define English values. Some have stated that the modern English value system originated in Victorian England, and describe it as social norms and behaviors well-known in European people during that time. The core of English values is individualism. English values have three levels: 1) physical level –science, technology, business, public administration, and modern capitalist economics; 2) conceptual level – equal opportunity, the role of law; and time management; and 3) core values – open debate, equality, balance of power, Free speech and democracy( Zhangzhanyi, 1990:103). Different from China, religion plays an important role in English culture. The English speaking countries are generally considered as religious countries, and among all the religious groups by which people seek to worship, Christianity is by far the most influential in the west. Almost every phase of man‟s life is touched by religion, so much so that it has become part and parcel of English culture. Christianity is the religion based on the life and teaching of Jesus Christ, who is the founder of Christianity. According to the doctrine of Christianity, the Trinity is the union of the three forms of God, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Although in the English countries religion provides the customs and ceremonies that mark lif e‟s most important events-birth, coming of age, marriage, and death, religion has declined in importance in terms ofinfluencing behavior and philosophical outlook. Now when people need personal advice, they usually turn to psychiatrists or to professional counselors rather than to Fathers for help. Although, the power of the church cannot compare with the past, it still influences many aspects of people's daily life. For example, there are a few important festivals in the English countries is concern with Jesus Christ. Christmas day is a festival in celebration of the birth of the Jesus Christ on Dec.25 (Chenlinhua, 1998:67).4.2 Different W ays of Thinking Influenced by Cultural Backgrounds4.2.1 Chinese W ays of ThinkingChinese people lived in a vast and rich land in East Asian Continent in the North Temperate Zone. In ancient times, they enjoyed the favor from nature without too much fear. The stable agricultural society made Chinese people in harmony with nature. On one hand, Chinese people were clear that everything came from nature, and the relationship between man and nature was very close; on the other hand, nature was so mysterious to them that they were satisfied with what they had got, and they thought their existence relied on the bounty of nature. This kind of viewpoint resulted in the fact that Chinese people lacked the feelings of hostility to nature, and tried to seek for the harmony between man and nature. They made efforts in the stability of society and happiness of people. As for the traditional Chinese thought, Confucianist thought originated from the semi-closed continental surroundings and the small peasant economy. What‟s more, the Taoism influences Chinese thought pattern as well. LaoZi holds that the world is full of opposites and contradictions. In order to eliminate them to come to harmony, man must get to the level of “Wu Wei”, which derived from a point of Dao and De. Influenced by the above Chinese philosophy, Chinese thought pattern tend to be synthetic and subjective. Chinese way of thinking decides Chinese people express their polite culture more directly.4.2.2 Western Ways of ThinkingContrary to the Chinese, English speaking people usually consider the objective things。
中西方文化礼貌原则内容
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中西方文化礼貌原则内容文化礼貌是各种文化中的一个重要方面,它涉及到人与人之间的相互尊重、合作和友好交流。
中西方文化有着不同的礼貌原则,本文将分别从中西方的尊重对方、言辞礼貌、社交礼仪和态度谦和等四个方面进行探讨。
一、尊重对方在中西方社会中,对他人的尊重是一种基本的礼貌原则。
然而,在表达尊重的方式上存在着差异。
中方的尊重主要体现在尊重长辈和上级、尊重他人的意见和建议、尊重他人的隐私等方面。
在中方社会中,尊重长辈和上级被视为一种传统的美德。
人们会特别注意对待长辈和上级,遵循适当的礼节和称谓用语。
此外,中方人士通常会在讨论或决策时,给予他人充分的尊重和听取意见。
同时,中方人士也尊重他人的隐私,不会过问他人不愿意透露的私人信息。
而在西方社会中,尊重他人主要表现为尊重个人权利和选择、尊重他人的空间和隐私等方面。
在西方社会中,个人权利被视为一种基本的社会价值。
因此,人们会尊重他人的个人选择,不会干涉他人的决策和行为。
此外,在西方社会中,人们也注重尊重他人的空间和隐私,不会过分打扰他人或询问他人不愿透露的私人信息。
二、言辞礼貌言辞礼貌是中西方文化中的重要部分。
不同的文化会对交流中的语言和表达方式有不同的要求。
在中方社会中,人们注重以委婉的方式表达自己的意见和批评。
中方人士通常会使用含蓄和间接的说法,以避免冒犯他人。
此外,中方人士在交流时也会使用一些客套话和敬语,以展示对他人的尊重和好意。
而在西方社会中,人们注重直接和直接表达自己的想法和意见。
西方人士会直接说出自己的意见和批评,以促进有效的沟通和解决问题。
此外,在西方社会中,人们在交流中通常比较直接和简短,不会花费太多时间去客套和委婉地表达自己的意见。
三、社交礼仪社交礼仪是中西方文化中的重要组成部分,它体现了文化中对待他人的方式和态度。
在中方社会中,人们注重社交活动中的亲密和热情。
在社交场合中,中方人士通常会主动向他人问候、打招呼和寒暄,以展示友好和尊重。
此外,中方人士还会注重礼品的赠送和接收,视为对他人的尊重和感谢。
中西礼貌差异论略
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中西礼貌差异论略
1.中西礼貌差异
随着世界不同文化的交流,中西文化在礼貌方面有很大的差异。
在中国,必须遵守传统标准的礼貌礼仪,比如父母的尊重,东道主的
招待以及礼节性的互动环境。
而西方国家注重自由公正的价值观,礼
貌习俗主要体现在对待陌生人的交往方式和礼貌的行为表现上。
2.中国的礼貌
中国人从小就被训练为尊敬别人和尊重社会伦理。
在中国,最高
的礼貌是孝顺。
在家里,一个子女必须尊重自己的父母,在社交层面,若有客人到家里时,一定要以敬谦的态度招待。
此外,中国人在与朋
友之间的交流中也比较注重仪式感,诸如赠送小礼物、行礼、以及宾
语的使用都很重要。
3.西方的礼貌
在西方国家,尊重他人、有礼貌的行为被认为是很重要的社会表现。
礼貌起于基本的礼仪,如礼貌地说话、尊重他人和遵守公共规范,也就是所谓的“尊重他人”。
此外,西方人也会加入一些像开玩笑之
类的元素来改善社交氛围,这些可以帮助人们更好地沟通和理解。
4.总结
总而言之,中西礼貌差异在于概念不同,但都会用来调节社会关系。
西方强调的是自由价值观以及文明交流的礼仪,而中国用尊重他
人,尊重传统以及尊重父母来表现礼貌。
保持礼节,无论是在中国还是西方,都是一种社会精神文明。
中西跨文化交际中的礼貌原则的差异
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中西跨文化交际中的礼貌原则的差异中西不同文化中的礼貌原则在其内涵、方略及侧重点上大相径庭,这些差异影响跨文化交际的顺利展开; 文章列举了一些中西文化背景下的礼貌行为的差异,尤其是称呼语,问候语,致谢语,道歉语的异同之处及产生的原因, 引出注意以运用于实践,避免文化冲突。
关键词礼貌原则跨文化交际文化差异称呼语问候语一、引言Geoff Leech(1983)提出礼貌原则是一系列解释在会话交流中如何运用礼貌的规则。
他定义礼貌是建立和保持礼让的行为模式,即在社会交流中,参与者在一种相对和谐的环境中参与互动的能力。
由于文化差异,这些原则会因内容、重点和策略而不同,并且有时成为跨文化交际的障碍。
因此,我们有必要在中西不同文化背景下对比研究礼貌原则,以便获得更有效地沟通。
在日常生活中,我们经常对什么是礼貌,什么是没有礼貌作出判断。
例如,在早上,对跟你第一次见面的人问候早安是礼貌的,而询问西方人的年龄是不礼貌的; 称呼西方人的名很可以的,但直呼中国人的名则是不恰当的。
由此推断,礼貌原则称呼,问候,感谢,道歉等许多方面是不同的,有待我们探讨和研究。
二、差异调查(一)称呼语在沟通中,如何根据个人的身份、地位、社会角色来称呼是非常重要的,这是维持人们之间各种关系的重要方式。
在一种语言文化中,有些称呼是礼貌、诚信的,但是在另一种语言文化中却可能不被接受。
因此,我们必须在不同语言文化中对称呼原则加以关注和解释。
首先,第一个问题就是如何处理姓氏和名字?我们都知道,中西方人名都由两部分构成--姓和名。
但姓名的顺序和用法是不同的。
在中国,姓第一,名随后,但在西方,这一顺序正好相反,例如:黄(姓)立行(名); Linda Jane(名) Chapman(姓)。
因此,我们必须非常明确英文的姓和名分别是什么。
接下来,我们需要了解如何称呼。
在中国,对于名为李毕菽的人,最普遍的称呼有李师傅,李先生,李毕菽,毕菽或菽;在西方,对名为Andrew Lewis的人通常称为Mr. Lewis,Andrew和Andy。
中西方对待礼貌
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中西方对待礼貌
中西方对待礼貌的态度和方式存在一些差异。
以下是一些可能的比较:
1. 语言使用:在西方,礼貌用语通常包括“请”、“谢谢”、“对不起”等,而在中国,礼貌用语可能更加复杂,包括“您”、“请”、“劳驾”等。
此外,在西方,人们更注重直接表达自己的想法和感受,而在中国,人们可能更加注重委婉和含蓄的表达。
2. 饮食文化:在西方,人们通常会在餐桌上分享食物,而在中国,人们则更注重个人用餐。
此外,在西方,人们通常会在餐后清理餐具,而在中国,这可能不是一种常见的做法。
3. 社交礼仪:在西方,人们通常会更加注重个人隐私和独立,而在中国,人们可能更加注重社交和人际关系。
此外,在西方,人们通常会在公共场合保持安静和秩序,而在中国,人们可能更加注重互相尊重和礼貌。
总的来说,中西方对待礼貌的态度和方式存在差异,但这并不意味着一种方式比另一种方式更好或更差。
相反,我们应该尊重和理解彼此的文化差异,以促进更好的交流和理解。
中西方礼仪文化差异
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中西方礼仪文化差异中西方之间存在着一系列的礼仪文化差异。
这些差异不仅表现在日常生活中的社交行为上,还涉及到商务、宴会等各个方面。
了解并尊重彼此的礼仪文化差异是促进跨文化交流与合作的重要前提。
本文将探讨中西方礼仪文化差异,并从不同角度进行比较。
1.礼貌与尊重中西方对待礼貌和尊重的态度存在一定差异。
在中西方文化中,对待长辈、上级和年长者都要表示敬意。
然而,西方文化中强调个人独立与平等,人们在交流中更加直接和开放,并且更加注重个人的权利和个性的发展。
因此,西方人会更加直接地表达自己的意见,甚至在公共场合批评他人。
相比之下,中国文化中更注重尊重他人的面子和尊严,往往会回避直接的争执和冲突,更多地采取间接的方式来表达自己。
2.礼节与仪式中西方的社交礼节和仪式也存在差异。
在西方文化中,人们更注重自由和自发,往往形式较为简单。
比如,西方人会在宴会上自由交谈,非正式的举止也比较普遍。
而中国传统的宴会礼仪非常严肃,人们需遵循固定的规则和程序,还有特定的座次安排和酒令等。
中国人也更喜欢通过宴请客人来表示自己的社会地位和财富。
3.应酬与商务礼仪中西方在商务交往方面的礼仪也有所不同。
在西方文化中,商务交流更注重效率和实用性,谈判和商业决策往往会快速进行。
西方人更加直接和坦诚地表达自己的意见,喜欢通过问问题和辩论来达到共识。
而中国文化中,商务谈判更侧重于建立人际关系和信任,人们会花更多时间进行洽谈和了解对方的意图。
此外,中国人在商务交往中更重视面子和人际关系的维护,会尽量避免公开拒绝对方的要求或提议。
4.礼物与慷慨在中西方礼仪文化中,对待礼物的态度也有很大差异。
在中国文化中,送礼是表示尊重和感谢的一种方式,礼物的价值和选择都很重要。
特别是在重大场合如婚庆和节日,人们通常会送一些贵重的礼物。
另一方面,在西方文化中,虽然送礼也表示尊重和感谢,但更注重礼物的意义和个性化。
西方人更加看重礼物的心意,而不一定在乎其价值。
总结起来,中西方礼仪文化差异在社交、商务和日常交往中体现得很明显。
中西礼貌原则对比分析
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中西礼貌原则对比分析摘要礼貌在不同文化背景中既存在普遍性, 又有差异性,特别是中西方文化价值体系的不同导致中西方礼貌文化的差异十分明显。
国内学者大多对中西礼貌差异的比较研究较多,很少对其背后的成因进行深层次的分析。
本文结合利奇和顾曰国提出的礼貌原则,对英汉语礼貌原则及几类具体的言语行为中礼貌方略的文化差异进行对比分析, 揭示了两者的差异并从文化根源,价值体系及认知模式三方面对其差异的成因做出进一步的解释,为今后外语跨文化交际教学提供更加有意义指导。
关键词礼貌原则文化差异跨文化交际1.引言礼貌是各社会各群体共有的普遍现象, 但不同语言和文化的国度有其各自表达礼貌的方式。
在跨文化交际中,说话者要选用得体的礼貌语言, 避免语用失败(pragmatic failure), 保证交际意图的顺利实现[1]。
国内外研究礼貌原则的学者都有从语用和人际修辞学得角度对交际活动中的礼貌原则提出过自己的原则标准,其著名的标准有语言学家利奇的礼貌六原则和我国著名学者顾曰国的礼貌五原则,国内也有不少学者对中西方礼貌差异做过不少的比较性研究[2][3],如对问候,致歉或者餐桌礼貌用语的异同做过很深的比较研究,甚至提出过如何应对这些差异的积极策略。
但是鲜有研究对中西方礼貌原则差异的成因提出过系统的解释。
本文从利奇的礼貌六原则和顾曰国的礼貌五原则的比较入手,深入分析礼貌比较的中西方礼貌原则的差异,并进一步阐释差异的形成原因,为今后英语跨文化交际教学提供有意义的帮助。
2.利奇的礼貌六原则和顾曰国的礼貌五原则2.1利奇的礼貌六原则20世纪 60年代, 美国语言学家 Grice提出了言语交际中的合作原则,他发现,人们在交际过程中有时并不遵守交际原则, 甚至故意违反这些原则。
针对这一现象, 英国语言学家利奇Leech在总结 P. Brown和 S. Levinson研究成果时, 认为人们违反言语交际合作原则的最根本理由是他们要遵循另一原则———礼貌原则, 并从语用学 (Pragmatics)和人际修辞学( Interpersonal Rhetoric)角度对交际活动中的礼貌原则进行了归纳和分类 ,为人们礼貌用语的正确使用提供了一个可借鉴与遵循的标准。
中外社会礼貌原则及其差异分析
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尊重长辈是中国社会的基本礼 貌原则之一
尊重长辈体现在日常生活中的 言行举止中
尊重长辈包括尊重他们的意见 和建议
尊重长辈也包括尊重他们的生 活习惯和兴趣爱好
面子是中国社会礼貌原则的核心 面子代表着一个人的尊严和地位 面子的维护和维护他人的面子是中国社会礼貌原则的重要表现 面子的维护和维护他人的面子是中国社会礼貌原则的重要表现
中国社会结构:强调集体主义和团结合 作
西方社会结构:强调个人主义和竞争精 神
中国社会结构:注重礼仪和礼节,强调 尊卑有序
西方社会结构:注重平等和尊重,强调 个人权利和自由
中国:注重礼仪,讲究礼节 和礼貌
西方:注重个人主义,强调 自由与独立
中国:注重集体主义,强调 和谐与团结
西方:注重平等,强调尊重 和平等
尊重文化差异:理解并尊重不同文化的 礼仪规范
语言表达:使用礼貌、得体的语言表达 方式
肢体语言:注意肢体语言的使用,避免 误解
礼物赠送:了解不同文化的礼物赠送习 惯,避免冒犯
餐桌礼仪:了解不同文化的餐桌礼仪, 避免失礼
社交场合:了解不同文化的社交场合礼 仪,避免尴尬
尊重文化差异:了解并尊 重不同文化的价值观和行 为规范
礼貌原则包括尊重他人、遵守社会规范、避免冒犯他人等。 礼貌原则在不同文化中有不同的表现形式和侧重点。 礼貌原则的遵守有助于建立良好的人际关系,促进社会和谐。
发展:随着社会的发展和进步, 礼貌原则逐渐演变为现代社会 的礼仪规范
起源:礼貌原则起源于古代社 会,是人们在交往中逐渐形成 的一种行为规范
影响:礼貌原则对人们的行为 和交往方式产生了深远的影响
尊重他人:尊 重他人的权利 和尊严,避免
冒犯他人
谦逊有礼:谦 虚谨慎,不张
中西文化中礼貌原则的差异分析
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中西文化中礼貌原则的对比分析[Abstract]Politeness is a universal phenomenon in all human societies. Languages differ greatly from different countries in expressing and understanding politeness. When we acknowledge the universality of politeness, we must recognize the culture characteristics of politeness. This thesis emphasizes a contrastive analysis of politeness principle in Chinese and English cultures and the culture values which caused the differences. Some implications of cross-cultural communication are proposed as well in the thesis.[Key words]politeness principle,cultural differences,cross-cultural communicationI. IntroductionPoliteness is a significant element of human communication. The understanding and use of appropriate polite behaviors play an important role in successful or unsuccessful communication. The contrastive analysis focuses on English and Chinese politeness and their cultural differences through the theories proposed by Leech, Brown and Levinson, Gu Yueguo.Ⅱ. Studies of Politeness in English CulturePoliteness has been the focus of the study of pragmatics for decades. Leech’s politeness principle and Brown and Levinson’s face theory are the two most representative theories among many scholars in the West.2.1 Leech’s politeness principleCrace proposed the Cooperative Principle (CP) in 1967 which demands interlocutors cooperate with each other by observing the following four maxims: Quantity maxim, Quality maxim, Relation maxim and Manner maxim. However, Leech found the CP cannot give an elaborate explanation of why people often infringe the CP with indirect expressions. Leech (1983) believes that people in communication sometimes violate some maxims of CP to express politeness and the PP can be seen“as a necessary complement, which rescues the CP from serious troub le.”[1]80-132 Based on Crace’s CP, Leech summaries six maxims of the PP as follows:(1)Tact Maxim(a)Minimize cost to other(b)Maximize benefit to other(2)Generosity Maxim(a)Minimize benefit to self(b)Maximize cost to self(3)Approbation Maxim(a)Minimize dispraise of other(b)Maximize praise of other(4)Modesty Maxim(a) p(b) Maximize sympathy between self and other[1]2.2 Brown and Levinson’s face-saving theoryThe Face-saving Theory was advanced by Brown and Levinson in 1987 based on the notion of “face” raised by Goffman in the late 1950s. Face can be divided into two aspects: positive face and negative face. According to Brown and Levinson (1987), positive face contains “the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others” and also “the perennial desire that his wants should be thought of as desirable”. Negative face is “the want of every ‘competent adult member’that his actions be unimpeded by others”.[2]62-101 Some speech acts are intrinsically threaten face in daily life, such as ordering,offering,thanking,etc. So they are called face-threatening acts (FTAs). To avoid the potential threat to FTAs, people often use politenessstrategies to redress FTAs. There are five politeness strategies: (1) bald on record without redressive action (2) positive politeness (3) negative politeness (4) off-record (5) don’t do FTA.Ⅲ. Studies of Politeness in Chinese CultureTracing the origin of the notion of politeness in the Chinese culture and history, Gu Yueguo proposed his own politeness principle, which is more suitable to Chinese culture. Gu advances four basic elements within the Chinese concept of politeness, they are, respectfulness, modesty, attitudinal warmth and refinement. In addition, Gu puts forwards five politeness maxims which are consistent with Chinese culture as follows:(1) Self-denigration Maxim: (a) denigrate self; (b) elevate other.(2) Address Term Maxim: Address your interlocutor with an appropriate address term.(3) Refinement Maxim: Using refined language, including the use of euphemisms and indirectness, and avoid foul language.(4) Agreement Maxim: Maximize agreement and harmony between interlocutors, and minimize disagreement between them.(5) Virtues-words-deeds Maxim: Minimize cost and maximize benefit to other at the motivational level, and maximize benefit receivedand cost to self at the conversational level.[3]1-14Gu (1990) believes that the Chinese concept of face is different from Brown and Levinson’s face theory. He points out some speech acts, such as “inviting”“offering” and “promising” in China don’t threaten the hearer’s negative face. For example, it is regarded as polite to invite someone to dinner in China even if invitee declines the invitation. Such an act does not pose a threat to the invitee’s negative face, as it might in an English-speaking context.[4]237-257Ⅳ. Contractive Analysis of Politeness Principles inEnglish and Chinese CulturesEnglish and Chinese politeness principles share something in common: minimize impolite expressions and actions and maximize polite expressions and actions. They also have differences because of different cultures. Next part contrasts the differences of English and Chinese politeness principles through five maxims.4.1 Self-denigrating and other-respecting“Self-denigrating and other-respecting” is the core of Chinese limao and the polite manner in Chinese culture. If Chinese speakers are complimented, they customarily try to deny the fact of the praise orclaiming that they aren’t worthy appreciating to show modesty. Modesty maxim is also included in Leech’politeness principle, however, comprises a different connotation. English speakers respect others but not denigrate selves. They accept the compliment directly, saying “Thank you” to show their recognition of achievement and their appreciation of the compliment. For example:— Your son’s handwriting is so beautiful!— Nali, nali.When English people hear Chinese people deny the compliment or achievement, they consider Chinese people as rude and speaking insincerely, whereas Chinese people regard English people as conceited and self- important.4.2 AddressingThe use of address terms plays an important role in both Chinese and English cultures. But the form of them varies greatly in different cultures. Gu Yueguo (1992) argues that people should address others with appropriate vocatives.[4] People address others with respect and have many kinship terms in China, but kinship terms are seldom used in English culture. In America and Britain, people usually use first name to address their relatives besides their lineal relatives, such as, their parentsand grandparents to show intimacy. However, in China, this situation never happens because of impoliteness. Moreover, English people often use Mr. /Mrs. / Miss. with last name to address older people or with higher status, whereas, Chinese use last name with their status to address, such as 王老师,赵经理.4.3 Refinement maximRefinement maxim refers to the use of refined language, containing the use of euphemisms and indirectness, and avoids foul language. Martin Joos proposes five styles of taking, they are: frozen, formal, consultative, casual and intimate. The five styles can not only used in English culture, but also used in Chinese culture. However, it works differently in contexts. For example, people use gaoshou or guigeng to ask elder people about their age to show their politeness and respect in Chinese culture. On the contrary, English people use “age” or “old” as a general term to ask for age in communication.4.4 Agreement maximThe interlocutors’face wants are concerned in agreement maxim. Brown and Levinson argue that nearly all speech acts threaten the interlocutors’face, such as inviting, offering and ordering, etc. But there are differences of face concept in Chinese and English cultures. Mianziand lian are the component of Chinese face concept. According to Li Yi (2001), mianzi and lian are “associated with reputable images that individuals can appreciate from their communities.”[5]18-19 Chinese face is closely connected with the community or the society, focusing on harmonious relationships between the personal identities and integrated with others. While English concept of face concerns with individual’s public-image, it only emphasizes individual want and desire, focusing on individual freedom and independence.4.5 Virtues-words-deeds maximSolidarity-oriented relationship is the major social relationship in English culture because they insist on equality and independence. We always hear a child calling older people, even his/her parents or grandparents by their first names. This is not a sign of disrespect or rudeness, but a signal to display intimacy and solidarity in English culture.In contrast, power-oriented or status-marked relationship is the main interpersonal relationship in Chinese culture, because Chinese people value power and authority and emphasize status and age differences. For example, nin is often used by people to those with higher status or older generations to show respect.Ⅴ. ConclusionIn conclusion, politeness can be considered as a common phenomenon in all cultures; however, politeness is culture-specific. People from one culture cannot impose their standards of politeness on people from another culture; otherwise it will lead to misunderstanding or even breakdown of cross-cultural communication. As a result, for communicating effectively and successfully in cross-cultural communication, people should tolerate people from other cultures, respect their value systems, and develop cross-cultural awareness. 【References 】[1]Leech, Geoffrey. 1983. Principles of Pragmatics[M].London: Longman.[2] Brown, Penelope, Levinson, Stephen. 1987. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage[M].Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.[3] 顾口国.礼貌、语用与文化[J].外语教学与研究,1992(4).[4] Gu Yueguo. 1990. Politeness phenomenon in Modern Chinese [J].Journal of Pragmatics, 14(2).[5] Li Yi. 2001. The Dynamics of Politeness[M].Tianjin PeoplePress.[摘要]礼貌是人类社会共有的普遍现象。