语言学高级教程(第二版)解析
语言学高级教程重点知识梳理
Chapter oneIntroduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性（创造性）Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递5.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点1. L anguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋 Semantics
Relational （关系）opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husbandwife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, …
evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator（合作者） accomplice（帮凶）,…
4) Collocational（搭配的） synonyms, e.g.
accuse…of（控告）, charge…with, rebuke（ 谴 责）…for; …
5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze （suggesting confusing and bewilderment）, astound (suggesting difficulty in believing),…
Chapter 5 Semantics
▪ Semantics----the study of language meaning.
▪ What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（下）【圣才出品】
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（下）【圣才出品】第8章语⾔与社会1. How is language related to society?Key: (1) While language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the use of such utterances as “Good morning!”, “How is your family?”, “Nice day today, isn’t it?”(2) Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker.(3) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and social environment of a society. For example, while there is only one word in English for “snow”, there are several in Eskimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos to make distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather thanlinguistic.Key: As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.To a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communication functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore,judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic.A case in point is the use of the postvocalic []. While in England accents without postvocalic [] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [] enjoys more prestige and considered more correct than without it.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter? How do they jointlydetermine idiolect?Key:The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, age and gender. Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. These factors jointly determine the way she/he talks. While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization of these potentials is individualized by a number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language?Key: (1) The standard dialect is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language users, but it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age.(2) The standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language;usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation’s political and commercial center. For example, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London as they were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities and writers. Gradually, the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly from the English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those who wished to speak and write well.(3) The standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; imposed from above the range of regional dialects.(4) The standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purpose as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday? Illustrate it with an example of your own. Key: According to Halliday, “Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on biology in a technical college could be identifiedas:Field: scientific (biological)Tenor: teacher-students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know? Do you think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English? Why (not)?Key: (1) Linguistic features of Black English:Phonological features: simplification of consonant clusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position consonants are often deleted; thus “passed” is often pronounced [], mend [], desk [], and told [].Syntactic features one: the deletion of link verb “be”. In Black English, we often come across many sentences without copula verb: “They mine”, “You crazy”, “Her hands cold”, and “That house big”. In fact, copula verb deletion is not a unique feature of Black English, it is often found in other dialects of English and in languages like Russian and Chinese.Syntactic features two: the use of double negation structure. e.g.He don’t know nothing. (He doesn’t know anything.)I ain’t afraid of no ghosts. (I am not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives make positive. But in fact, such double negative constructions werefound in all dialects of English of earlier period.(2) I don’t think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English.Linguists are agreed that no variety of a language is inherently better than any other. They insist that all languages and all varieties of a particular language are equal in that they quite adequately serve the needs of those who use them. The only exception they recognize are pidgins, which are by definition restricted varieties, or the varieties we associate with people who are impaired in some way, e.g. certain mentally or physically handicapped people. American English is considered “better”only in a social sense: it has a preferred status; it gives those who use it certain social advantages; and it increases their life chances. Black English, being a nonstandard variety, tends to produce the opposite effect. These are some of the consequences that follow from elevating one variety and denigrating others, but there is no reason to suppose that any one of the varieties is intrinsically more worthy than any other.7. What peculiar features does pidgin have?Key: A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. Pidgin arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders andmissionaries. Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammatical structure characterized by the loss ofinflection, gender and case. The “simplified” variety performs its function as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common? Key: Differences:(1)Bilingualism refers to the situation that two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(2)Diglossia, refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. In a diglossic situation, two varieties (high variety and low variety) of a language, instead of two different languages, exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. One of the most important features of diglossia is the specialization of function of the two varieties. Each variety is the appropriate language for certain situations with very slight overlappings.Similarity:The two languages of bilingualism and two varieties of diglossia exist side by side and have different role to play as situation changes.。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版戴炜栋10LanguageAcquisition
Language environment & the critical period hypothesis
▪ Two important factors: the linguistic environment children are exposed to and the age they start to learn the language.( P.147 Victor 12; Genie 13.5)
Theories of child language acquisition
▪ A behaviorist (行为主义者）viБайду номын сангаасw of language acquisition (Skinners)
▪ An innatist （语法天生主义者） view of language acquisition (Chomsky)
▪ The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases)
Stages in child language development
An interactionist view of language acquisition
▪ The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Integrated with the innatist view, the interactionist further claims that the modified language which is suitable for the child’s capability is crucial in his language acquisition. (motherese 保姆式语言)
新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案
新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案Study Guide for New Practical English Language Teaching 2nd EditionIntroductionThe New Practical English Language Teaching 2nd Edition is a comprehensive guide for both students and teachers who are interested in English language learning and teaching. This study guide is designed to help learners navigate through the content of the book and provide additional explanations and exercises to enhance their understanding.Chapters 1-3: Introduction to Language and Language LearningIn these chapters, readers will learn about the nature of language, the historical development of English, and different theories of language learning. To deepen your understanding, try the following exercises:1. Define language and explain its functions.2. List the main components of language learning.3. Discuss the differences between first and second language acquisition.Chapters 4-6: The Sound System of EnglishThese chapters cover phonetics and phonology, including the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and pronunciation rules. To practice your phonetic skills, try these exercises:1. Transcribe the following words into IPA: cat, dog, house.2. Identify the stress patterns in the following words: banana, computer, dictionary.3. Pronounce the following consonant and vowel sounds: /θ/, /æ/, /ʃ/, /uː/.Chapters 7-9: The Structure of EnglishThese chapters focus on grammar and syntax, including word classes, sentence structure, and verb tenses. To test your grammatical knowledge, try the following exercises:1. Identify the parts of speech in the following sentences: The cat chased the mouse. She is a talented singer.2. Construct sentences using different verb tenses: past simple, present continuous, future perfect.3. Analyze the sentence structure of the following sentences:I can't believe you did that!Chapters 10-12: Vocabulary and SemanticsThese chapters explore vocabulary development, word formation, and meaning in language. To expand your vocabulary, try these exercises:1. Create a semantic map for the word "happy" and its synonyms.2. Identify the affixes in the following words: uncomfortable, misunderstanding, redevelopment.3. Use context clues to determine the meaning of the following words: ambiguous, exhilarating, juxtaposition.Chapters 13-15: Language Teaching MethodologiesThese chapters introduce different approaches to language teaching, including the Communicative Approach, Task-Based Learning, and Content-Based Instruction. To evaluate your teaching strategies, try these exercises:1. Compare and contrast the Communicative Approach with Grammar-Translation Method.2. Design a task-based lesson plan for teaching vocabulary to beginners.3. Integrate content knowledge into a language lesson for intermediate learners.ConclusionThe New Practical English Language Teaching 2nd Edition is a valuable resource for students and teachers alike. By using this study guide and completing the exercises, you will enhance your language skills and teaching abilities. Remember to practice regularly and seek feedback from others to improve your proficiency in English. Happy learning!。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when theneed arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language答：First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the abilityto acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language Think of your own examples for illustration.答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shoppi ng with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication Of the two, which one is primary and why答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused答：Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, . the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It i s called dark [] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [pht] and spit is transcribed as [spt].4. How are the English consonants classified答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels答：Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [] 4) [w] 5) [] 6) []答：A. (1) [] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ] (5) [ :] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist Why答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone How is it different from a phoneme How are allophones related to a phoneme 答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phoneswhich can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, . discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . []; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”count eract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntaxSyntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N,3. What is category How to determine a word's categoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it haveThe structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elementsbeing conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element playA phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriatetree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) + VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) + VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrowyou would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party。
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题详解-第5~8章【圣才出品】
第5章英语语言结构（Ⅱ）5.1 复习笔记【本章要点】1. English paragraphs 英语段落2. English texts 英语语篇3. Cohesion in English texts 英语语篇的衔接4. Thematic progression in English texts 英语语篇主位推进【本章考点】英语段落，语篇的衔接等。
【本章内容索引】Ⅰ. English paragraphsⅡ. English textsⅢ.Cohesion in English texts1. Different means to develop cohesion in texts2. Classification of referenceⅣ. Thematic progression in English textsⅠ. English paragraphs（英语段落）A typical English paragraph employs a topic sentence stating the controlling idea of the paragraph.一个典型的英语段落中会用一个主题句来陈述整个段落的主旨大意。
To develop a paragraph, one may employ such means as exemplification, instantiation, comparison or contrast, cause effect reasoning, definition, analogy, and enumeration.为丰富段落，人们可能会用举例，例示，对比，因果推理，定义，类推和列举等。
Ⅱ. English texts（英语语篇）A well-written text is not a simple amalgam of paragraphs. It must be properly organized around a central purpose or coherent topic.一篇好的文章不是简单的段落叠加。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific studyof language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used forhuman communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some pointof time in hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changesthrough time3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards thespoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言):refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all haveto abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules ofhis language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge inlinguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔 ---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds withletter symbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound withletters symbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素 is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communicationare all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, somedo, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particularsound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phoneticcontext, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt],[tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of soundsin a particular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound toanother by copying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the twophones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a soundin a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates ofvibration of the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure ofwords and the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies therules that govern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentencewhich results form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form andwhat it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linkedthrough the mediation of concepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contextsare recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheepdiffers in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguisticform. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form;it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physicalworld; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic elementand the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound,they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling,they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义): When two words are identical inboth sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediateforms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one memberof the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (B ritish G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1).Pragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatic s is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situationof communication, or simply in a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry onthe talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the currentpurpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。
英语语言学导论第二版课后题答案
英语语言学导论第二版课后题答案这篇课件介绍的是英语语言学导论第二版的课后题，也就是 predictional node,可以说是很多英语学习者学英语的入门。
这本课教程主要包括四个部分，第一是基础知识：英语语言学导论第二版的学习指南；第二是词汇、语法等部分内容；第三句话；第四个单元：基本语法和常识性语法。
由于这些部分主要针对英语学习者的，所以大部分人都不会太过深入。
第一部分主要介绍基本语法和常识性语法。
第二段从词汇开始教起，介绍常见单词表方法和有关单词表规则。
第三部分就是理论部分，主要对相关理论进行介绍和讲解。
第四部分则是一些语法结构、语法知识方面的练习和讲解，包括长难句设计和语义分析法等方面内容。
一、基本语法基本语法主要是指由名词、动词、形容词、谓词和定冠词等组成的句式结构。
语法有两个重要的特点，一是强调在逻辑上主谓一致和主谓宾一致；二是强调在形式上主谓一致和主宾一致。
在英文里，句式的基本形式是名词或形容词+名词修饰短语，这就决定了句子的结构是主宾并列式组合而非主谓宾非主有定冠词修饰短句。
这种结构以主从为主，主从搭配为辅，辅音连用为主就成了这种结构典型例句。
如: go up with not a london’s a doing; to was in the way for the doing; was the doing of this will with london; but as that way so that in the denim; proposition of that to that dots等。
这种结构式语法类型。
还有一些例子表明主谓一致或主次有序在形式上没有明显区别。
这种结构式还可以用不同形式表示宾语、代词和不定冠词等等；也有一些句子仅在主句之间使用谓词介辞方式而不运用动词主句的时候会用谓语短词组替代原句主句中未出现过的或不需要过多动词介辞元素（如 frontiers、 state等）而不用宾语或非宾语修饰动词和介词短语等。
新编语言学教程第2版第4章答案
新编语⾔学教程第2版第4章答案《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》第⼆版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).第7—13⼩题⼤部分要求画树形图，这⾥省略。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋11 Second Language Acquisition(课堂PPT)
14
Individual differences
▪ Language aptitude (语言能力） ▪ Motivation ▪ Learning strategies ▪ Age of acquisition ▪ Personality
12
The role of native language in
2nd language learning
▪ Language transfer: positive & negative (behaviorism) Three interacting factors in determining language transfer: A learner’s psychology Perception of native-target language distance Actual knowledge of the target language
▪ SLA is different from first language acquisition. ▪ Interlanguage （中介语 ）
2
Contrastive analysis (CA)
对比分析 (1960s)
▪ Positive transfer----facilitate target language learning ▪ Negative transfer----interfere or hinder target language
▪ What learners produce, correct or wrong, are evidence or the approximation from their first language to the target language.
矿产
矿产资源开发利用方案编写内容要求及审查大纲
矿产资源开发利用方案编写内容要求及《矿产资源开发利用方案》审查大纲一、概述
㈠矿区位置、隶属关系和企业性质。
如为改扩建矿山, 应说明矿山现状、
特点及存在的主要问题。
㈡编制依据
(1简述项目前期工作进展情况及与有关方面对项目的意向性协议情况。
(2 列出开发利用方案编制所依据的主要基础性资料的名称。
如经储量管理部门认定的矿区地质勘探报告、选矿试验报告、加工利用试验报告、工程地质初评资料、矿区水文资料和供水资料等。
对改、扩建矿山应有生产实际资料, 如矿山总平面现状图、矿床开拓系统图、采场现状图和主要采选设备清单等。
二、矿产品需求现状和预测
㈠该矿产在国内需求情况和市场供应情况
1、矿产品现状及加工利用趋向。
2、国内近、远期的需求量及主要销向预测。
㈡产品价格分析
1、国内矿产品价格现状。
2、矿产品价格稳定性及变化趋势。
三、矿产资源概况
㈠矿区总体概况
1、矿区总体规划情况。
2、矿区矿产资源概况。
3、该设计与矿区总体开发的关系。
㈡该设计项目的资源概况
1、矿床地质及构造特征。
2、矿床开采技术条件及水文地质条件。
语言学高级教程(第二版)解析
Chapter 8 Language, Culture, and Society Chapter 9 Cognitive Linguistics Chapter 10 Pragmatics Chapter 11 Issues of Stylistics Chapter 12 Computational Linguistics Chapter 13 Second Language Acquisition Chapter 14 Modern Theories and Schools of Linguistics
Chapter 5 Functional Syntax
5.1 Vilém Mathesius 5.2 Frantiek Dane 5.3 Michael Halliday 5.4 Summary
Chapter 6 Semantics
6.1 Introduction 6.2 Meanings of “Meaning” 6.3 The Referential Theory 6.4 Sense Relations 6.5 Componential Analysis 6.6 Sentence Meaning
Chapter 3 Morphology
3.1 Morphemes, Morphs and Allomorphs 3.2 Classification of Morphemes 3.3 Morphemization 3.4 Allomorphy 3.5 Word, Wordform and Lexeme 3.6 Morphology and Wordformation 3.7 Approaches and Problems
目录
第1章 语言学——一门导向性科学 第2章 音位分析 第3章 形态学 第4章 生成句法 第5章 功能句法 第6章 语义学 第7章 对比语言学
【考研专业课笔记】戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)复习攻略(第7章)
每本教材每个章节都包含：学霸笔记，强化练习，过关检测，思维导图，复习要点，学习目标，时间安排，重难点分析，易错点分析，考点分析，音频笔记等......如果参考教材有多个版本，那么每个版本都有全套资料；如果目标院校没有指定参考书，那么所有推荐的参考书都有全套的资料可供学习。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）这本书的第7章语言变化的复习攻略。
一、复习要点1.语言变化的定义：语言系统任意时刻内的某些方面或整体性质随时间而发生的改变。
2.语言变化的分类：语音、词汇、语法三个方面。
涉及语音的变化包括元音依赖婚姻、辅音弱化等；涉及词汇的变化包括借词、派生、缩略、反义词等；涉及语法的变化包括句法、话语行为等。
3.语言变化的原因：语言变化可能是因为社会文化变迁、外来语影响、语言接触等原因所引起的现象。
4.语言变化的结果：语言变化会导致语言差异产生。
同时，也会引起新单词、新短语、新语法等的出现和传播。
二、学习目标1.了解语言变化的概念和分类。
2.掌握语音、词汇、语法三个方面的变化形式和例子。
3.熟悉语言变化的原因和结果。
4.能够辨析不同地区、不同年代的语言差异并理解其产生原因。
三、时间安排1.第一步（1小时）：复习第7章内容，对语言变化的定义、分类、原因和结果进行梳理和重点记忆。
2.第二步（1小时）：仔细阅读第7章注释中涉及到的语音、词汇、语法三个方面的变化形式和例子，并进行分类和总结。
3.第三步（1小时）：查阅相关资料，了解不同地区、不同年代的语言差异并理解其产生原因。
可参考以下相关资料：-《英语语言变迁史》-《英语历史与语言学》-《英语漫谈》4.第四步（1小时）：以幕布思维导图的形式整理复习内容，包括语言变化的定义、分类、原因和结果、语音、词汇、语法三个方面的变化形式和例子、不同地区、不同年代的语言差异及其产生原因等。
5.第五步（1小时）：通过讨论、自测等方式巩固所学知识。
四、总结本次复习攻略包括语言变化的定义、分类、原因和结果，以及语音、词汇、语法三个方面的变化形式和例子，不同地区、不同年代的语言差异及其产生原因等。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)即第二版
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k”itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement.The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’sdiachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English hasundergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event.What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can beconsidered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes throughcertain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place ofarticulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and thensuddenly releasing it. In English, [] are stops and[] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escapewith friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip,close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without thevocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English thisclass of sounds includes [].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream fromthe lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [] is theonly lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that theunderside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hardpalate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the shortprojection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards eachother.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsPlace of articulationManner ofarticulation Bilabial Labio-dentalDental AlveolarPost-alveolarPalatal Velar GlottalStop NasalFricative Approximant LateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairsof consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degreesare recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have beennasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowelsCardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to providea frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[],CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47.2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel[] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel[] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the twosubjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of thedifferent forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at thebeginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when // occursdin the word like speak //, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirate[ ] in peak and the unaspirated [ =] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heardand identified as // and not as //; they are both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative → voiceless / __________ voiceless.This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, itis put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //.It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similarunits. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unitthat cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech orwriting.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example.If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and thesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties,which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separateword class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements ina sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版戴炜栋6pragmatics分析解析32页PPT
析解析
41、实际上，我们想要的不是针对犯 罪的法 律，而 是针对 疯狂的 法律。 ——马 克·吐温
42、法律的力量应当跟随着公民，就 像影子 跟随着 身体一 样。— —贝卡 利亚
43、法律和制度必须跟上人类思想进 步。— —杰弗 逊
44、人类受制于法律，法律受制于情 理。为了保证每一个人 自由发 挥自己 的才能 ，而不 是为了 束缚他 的才能 。—— 罗伯斯 庇尔
61、奢侈是舒适的，否则就不是奢侈 。——CocoCha nel 62、少而好学，如日出之阳；壮而好学 ，如日 中之光 ；志而 好学， 如炳烛 之光。 ——刘 向 63、三军可夺帅也，匹夫不可夺志也。 ——孔 丘 64、人生就是学校。在那里，与其说好 的教师 是幸福 ，不如 说好的 教师是 不幸。 ——海 贝尔 65、接受挑战，就可以享受胜利的喜悦 。——杰纳勒 尔·乔治·S·巴顿
资料-戴炜栋新编简明英语语言学教程2版考点
第1章导言本章要点：1．The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2．Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3．The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4．Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
2.有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的识别特征(任意性、能产性、二重性、移位性、文化传递)；语言的功能。
本章内容索引：I.The definition of linguisticsII.The scope of linguistics1．Micro-linguistics2．Macro-linguisticsIII.Some important distinctions in linguistics1．Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 2．Synchronic vs. Diachronic3．Speech vs. Writing4．Langue vs. Parole5．Competence vs. Performance6．Traditional Grammar vs. Modern LinguisticsIV.The definition of languageV.The design features of language1．Arbitrariness2.Productivity3.Duality4．Displacement5．Cultural Transmission6．InterchangeabilityVI.Functions of language1．Main functions2．Basic functions3．MacrofuntionsI.The definition of linguistics（语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言学通常被定义为对语言进行科学性研究的学科。
矿产
矿产资源开发利用方案编写内容要求及审查大纲
矿产资源开发利用方案编写内容要求及《矿产资源开发利用方案》审查大纲一、概述
㈠矿区位置、隶属关系和企业性质。
如为改扩建矿山, 应说明矿山现状、
特点及存在的主要问题。
㈡编制依据
(1简述项目前期工作进展情况及与有关方面对项目的意向性协议情况。
(2 列出开发利用方案编制所依据的主要基础性资料的名称。
如经储量管理部门认定的矿区地质勘探报告、选矿试验报告、加工利用试验报告、工程地质初评资料、矿区水文资料和供水资料等。
对改、扩建矿山应有生产实际资料, 如矿山总平面现状图、矿床开拓系统图、采场现状图和主要采选设备清单等。
二、矿产品需求现状和预测
㈠该矿产在国内需求情况和市场供应情况
1、矿产品现状及加工利用趋向。
2、国内近、远期的需求量及主要销向预测。
㈡产品价格分析
1、国内矿产品价格现状。
2、矿产品价格稳定性及变化趋势。
三、矿产资源概况
㈠矿区总体概况
1、矿区总体规划情况。
2、矿区矿产资源概况。
3、该设计与矿区总体开发的关系。
㈡该设计项目的资源概况
1、矿床地质及构造特征。
2、矿床开采技术条件及水文地质条件。
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Chapter 7 Linguistic Comparison
7.1 Introduction 7.2 Comparative and Historical Linguistics 7.3 Typological Comparison 7.4 Contrastive Linguistics
Chapter 8 Language, Culture, and Society 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Language and Culture 8.3 Language and Society 8.4 Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching 8.5 Summary
Chapter 2 Phonological Analysis
2.1 Transcribing Speech Sounds 2.2 Consonants and Vowels 2.3 Phonemic vs. Phonetic Transcriptions 2.4 Distinctive Features and Rule Representation 2.5 Suprasegmentals and Feature Geometry 2.6 Optimality Theory 2.7 Conclusion
Chapter 8 Language, Culture, and Society Chapter 9 Cognitive Linguistics Chapter 10 Pragmatics Chapter 11 Issues of Stylistics Chapter 12 Computational Linguistics Chapter 13 Second Language Acquisition Chapter 14 Modern Theories and Schools of Linguistics
目录
第1章 语言学——一门导向性科学 第2章 音位分析 第3章 形态学 第4章 生成句法 第5章 功能句法 第6章 语义学 第7章 对比语言学
目 录（续）
第8章 语言、文化与社会 第9章 认知语言学 第10章 语用学 第11章 文体学相关问题 第12章 计算语言学 第13章 二语习得 第14章 现代语言学理论与流派
Chapter 9 Cognitive Linguistics
9.1 Introduction 9.2 Cognitive Abilities and Cognitive Processes 9.3 Cognitive Semantics 9.4 Cognitive Grammar
Chapter 10 Pragmatics 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Speech Act Theory 10.3 The Classical Theory of Implicature 10.4 PostGricean Theories 10.5 Recent Developments in Pragmatics
Chapter 5 Functional Syntax
5.1 Vilém Mathesius 5.2 Frantiek Dane 5.3 Michael Halliday 5.4 Summary
Chapter 6 Semantics
6.1 Introduction 6.2 Meanings of “Meaning” 6.3 The Referential Theory 6.4 Sense Relations 6.5 Componential Analysis 6.6 Sentence Meaning
章节详细目录
Albert_Dillon
Chapter 1 Linguistics—A Pilot Science
1.1 Why Study Linguistics? 1.2 What Is Language?—Defining the Object of Study 1.3 Origin of Language 1.4 Design Features of Language 1.5 Animal Communication Systems, Gesture and Other Language Forms 1.6 Perspectives of Language Studies 1.7 Functions of Language 1.8 Important Distinctions in Linguistics 1.9 Data of Linguistics 1.10 Status and Prospect of Linguistics
Chapter 4 Generative Syntax
4.1 Generative Grammar: Some Basic Assumptions 4.2 Phrase Structure Rules 4.3 Projection from Lexicon 4.4 The Minimalist Approach
语言学高级教程（第二版）
甘肃农业大学 李宪博
总目录
Albert_Dillon
Contents
Chapter 1 Linguistics—A Pilot Science Chapter 2 Phonological Analysis Chapter 3 Morphology Chapter 4 Generative Syntax Chapter 5 Functional Syntax Chapter 6 Semantics Chapter 7 Linguistic Comparison
Chapter 3 Morphology
3.1 Morphemes, Morphs and Allomorphs 3.2 Classification of Morphemes 3.3 Morphemization 3.4 Allomorphy 3.5 Word, Wordform and Lexeme 3.6 Morphology and Wordformation 3.7 Approaches and Problems