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Chapter 1 What is language?
[A] The origins of language
Some speculations of the origins of language:
① The divine source
The basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without
hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the
original god-given language.
Actually, children living without access to human speech in their
early years grow up with no language at all.
② The natural-sound source
The bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could
have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women
heard around the

m.
The “Yo-heave-ho” theory: the sounds produced by humans when
exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other
humans, may be the origins of speech sounds.
Onomatopoeic sounds
③ The oral-gesture source
It is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was
developed as a means of communication.
The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as
gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from waving
hand.
④ Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）
This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and
development of human language.
Physiological adaptationàdevelop naming abilityàinteractions and
transactions
Physical adaptation:
Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.
Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very
flexible.
The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.
The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity called the
pharynx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces
of food, but making the sound speech possible.
The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using
and language) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the
brain for most humans.
Two major functions of language:
Interactional: a social function of language.
Transactional: a function involving the communication of knowledge
and information
[B] The properties of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication.
a) System: combined together according to rules
b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word “pen” and the
thing in the world which it refers to
c) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages
d) Human: language is human-specific（交际性与信息性）
Communicative vs. Informative:
Communicative: intentionally using language to communicate something
Informative: through/via a number of signals that are not
intentionally sent
Design features (unique properties): the defining properties of
human language that distinguish it from any animal system of
communication
① Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）
Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate
situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to
other locations)
② Arbitrariness（任意性）

There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form
(either sound or word) and its meaning.
While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.
a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic words
b) some compound words
③ Productivity（能产性，创造性）
Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction
and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or
open-endedness)
④ Cultural transition（文化传递性）
While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was
born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any
language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to
be taught and learnt.
⑤ Discreteness（可分离性）
Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.
⑥ Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）
Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The
lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless.
The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)
The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human
language.
Vocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization,
non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated
as ways of describing human language, but not as a means of
distinguishing it from other systems of communication.
[C] The development of written language
① pictograms & ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）
Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular
images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as
a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.
Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than
its entity is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or
ideogram
Hieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字
② Logograms（语标书写法）
When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they
are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms.
“Arbitrariness”—a writing system which was word-based had come into
existence.
Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)
Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.
Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing
system.
Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.
③ Syllabic writing（音节书写法）
When a wr

iting system employs a set of symbols which represent the
pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.
The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of
a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)
④ Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）
Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this rule
The Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the
Phoenicians via the Romans
Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)
⑤ Rebus writing
Robus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an
entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for
that entity.




Chapter 2 What is linguistics?
[A] The definition of linguistics
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of
language.
Process of linguistic study:
① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;
② Hypotheses are formulated;
③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;
④ A linguistic theory is constructed.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication.
[B] The scope of linguistics
General linguistics: the study of language as a whole
Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds
(or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds
are produced and classified)
Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and
patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems
and function to convey meaning)
Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to
form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)
Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of
words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are
combined to form sentences)
Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction
Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use
Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society
Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the
workings of the mind
Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and
theories to language teaching and learning
Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical
linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics
[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics
① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive
② Synchronic vs. Diachronic

The description of a language at some point in time;
The description of a language as it changes through time.
③ Speech and writing
Spoken language is primary, not the written
④ Langue and parole
Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)
Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the
members of a speech community
Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use
⑤ Competence and performance
Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)
Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language

Chapter 3 Phonetics and phonology
[A] The definition of phonetics
Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is
concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or
articulated.
Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as
sound waves in the air.
Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via
the ear, of speech sounds.
Forensic phonetics: has an application in legal cases involving
speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances.
[B] Organs of speech
Voiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the
lungs passes between them unimpeded.
Voiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the
lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a
vibration effect.
All the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).
The important cavities:
The pharyngeal cavity
The oral cavity
The nasal cavity
Lips, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus), hard palate, soft palate
(velum), uvula, tip of tongue, blade of tongue, back of tongue,
vocal cords
[C] Orthographic representation of speech sounds
Broad and narrow transcriptions
IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)
Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only
Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics
E.g.:
[l]à[li:f]--à a clear [l] (no diacritic)
[l]à[bild]--àa dark [l] (~)
[l]à[helW]--àa dental [l] ( )
[p]à[pit]--àan aspirated [ph](h)
[p]à[spit]--àan unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)
[n]à[5bQtn]àa syllabic nasal [n] (7)
[D] Classification of English consonants
In terms of manner of articulation (the manner in which obstruction

is created)
① Stops: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going
abruptly
[p]/, [t]/[d], [k]/[g]
② Fricatives: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced
through a narrow passage in the month
[f]/[v], /[z], [W]/[T], [F]/[V], [h] (approximant)
③ Affricates: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly
as in fricatives
[tF]/[dV]
④ Liquids: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape
through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof
of the mouth
[l]àa lateral sound; [r]à retroflex
⑤ Glides: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)
Liquid + glides + [h]à approximants
⑥ Nasals: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to
let air pass through it
[m], [?], []
By place of articulation (the place where obstruction is created)
① bilabials: upper and lower lips are brought together to create
obstructions
[p]/, [w]à(velar)
② labiodentals: the lower lip and the upper teeth
[f]/[v]
③ dentals: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth
[W]/[T]
④ alveolars: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge
[t]/[d], /[z], [n], [l], [r]
⑤ alveo-palatals (palato-alveolars): tongue and the very front of
the palate, near the alveolar ridge
[F]/[V], [t]/[d]
⑥ palatal: tongue in the middle of the palate
[j]
⑦ velars: the back of the tongue against the velum
[k], [g], [N] … [w]
⑧ glottals: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the
larynx
[h]
[E] Classification of English vowels

Front
i: Central Back
Close i `
u:
u
Semi-close e E:
Semi-open E C:
Open A
B Q R
B:
① The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back;
② The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open;
③ The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):
All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except [B]
All the back vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels
④ The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowels
Larynx à (tense) or (lax)
Monophthongs, diphthongs
Cardinal vowels
[F] The definition of phonology
Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in

all human
languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other,
what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified,
etc.
Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds
of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in
a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey
meaning in linguistic communication.
[G] Phone, phoneme, and allophone
Phone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phoneme
Phoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in
slash marks
Allophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme
[G] Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same
environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in
phonemic contrast.
E.g. pin & bin à /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe à /p/ vs. /b/
Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the
same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because
they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different
environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.
Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way
except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the
strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.
When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the
others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then
all of these words constitute a minimal sets.
[H] Some rules in phonology
① sequential rules
Syllable

Onset rime

Nucleus coda

[Consonant] vowel [consonant(s)]
Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset:
No1:
___/s/
___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/
___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/
No2:
The affricates [tF]/[dV] and the sibilants , [z], [F], [V] are not
to be followed by another sibilants.
② assimilation rules
Co-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at
the same time as the next is called co-articulation.
Assimilation & elision effects
Assimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one
phoneme is taken or copied by the other
E.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.
③ deletion rule-Elision
Definition: the omission of a sound segment wh

ich would be present
in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation
E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant
[I] Suprasegmental features
① Stress
Word stress & sentence stress
The stress of the English compounds always on the first element
② Tone
Definition: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the
differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.
Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones.
Level, rise, fall-rise, fall
③ Intonation
When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather
than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as
intonation.
English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones
The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the
rise-fall tone
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