西方思想经典 复习资料

Leviticus 利未记Numbers 民数记Deuteronomy 申命记
Genesis 创世记Exodus 出埃及记
Matthew, Mark, Luke, John
Hebrew patriarchs(创始人)：Abraham, Isaac and Jacob
God formed man of the dust of the Ground, and breathed into his nostrils(鼻孔) the breathe of life, and man became a living soul.
The Acts of the Apostles 使徒行传
The Epistles 使教书信
The Revelation 启示录
Gospel According to Matthew –New Testament
Beatitudes(八福词)
Blessed are the poor in spirit; Blessed are they that mourn(哀悼); Blessed are the meek(温驯)；Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness; Blessed are the merciful; Blessed are the pure in heart(清心寡欲)；Blessed are the peace-maker; Blessed are they which persecuted for righteousness’s sake.
Salt and light 将真信徒比作盐和光
House upon a rock 聪明的人把房子建在岩石上
House upon the sand 无知的人把房子建在沙土之上
Salt of the earth 精英份子
Miracle and wonders and signs: pervasive activities 无所不在的行为
Thunders and lightning: God’s mighty power
⑦a jealous God: a God who tolerant no rivals
⑥original sin: is the Christian doctrine of humanity’s state of sin resulting from the fall of man, naturally the sin of eating fruits from the tree of knowledge of God and evil stemming from Adam’s rebelling in Eden. Saint Augustine link this to human sexuality.
2. What are the difference between the God in the Old Testament and Jesus in the New Testament?
God is cruel and violent; Jesus is merciful and gracious. Curses and blesses, fearing God and Loving God.
To the glory, that may Greece;
And the grandeur that was Roman!
The Dark Age(1000—750?BC): lack of written records
Archaic Age(750—480BC) 古代时期
Classical Age (480—323BC)古典时期
The Apology申辩论—Socrates(469—399BC)
Socrates’s Accuser: Meletus and Augtus and Lycon\
Death is a dreamless sleep and a relocation to another place
Socrates is accused of
1. Corrupting the young
2. Not believing in the gods of the city
3. Believing in other spirits
Plato(428—347BC) established the first “European University”, the Academy in Athens.
Forms: Forms are those changeless, eternal, and nonmaterial essences or patterns of which the actual visible objects we see are only poor copies.There is the Form of the Triangle, and all the triangles we see are mere copies of that Form.
Allegory of the Cave ：①Imprisonment in the cave
Plato has Socrates describe a gathering of people who have lived chained to the wall of a cave all of their lives, facing a blank wall. The people watch shadows projected on the wall from things passing in front of a fire behind them, and they begin to give names to these shadows. The shadows are as close as the prisoners get to viewing reality.
②Departure from the cave
Plato then supposes that one prisoner is freed, being forced to turn and see the fire. The light would hurt his eyes and make it hard for him to see the objects that are casting the shadows. But slowly, his eyes adjust to the light of the sun. First he can only see shadows. Gradually he can see the reflections of people and things in water and then later see the people and things themselves. Eventually he is able to look at the stars and moon at night until finally he can look upon the sun itself.
③Return to the cave
Plato continues, saying that the freed prisoner would think that the real world was superior to the world he experienced in the cave, he would want to bring his fellow cave dwellers out of the cave and into the sunlight. The returning prisoner, whose eyes have become acclimated to the light of the sun, would be blind when he
re-enters the cave, just as he was when he was first exposed to the sun. The prisoners, according to Socrates, would infer from the returning man's blindness that the journey out of the cave had harmed him and that they should not undertake a
similar journey. Socrates concludes that the prisoners, if they were able, would therefore reach out and kill anyone who attempted to drag them out of the cave
The world we see are the world of Forms. Knowledge of forms is innate, they are abstract and we know them through our soul, through intuition. Every object we see copies a Form. These objects are just shadow of a Form. We can come to grasp the Forms with our heads cultivated by instructors.
Axial Age: Karl Jaspers created the term “Axial Age”of human civilization for the period 800-200BC exemplified by world’s greatest spiritual leaders in The Origin and God of History.The most extraordinary events are concentrated in this period. Everything implied during these few centuries almost simultaneously in China, India and the West, without any one of these regions knowing of the others.
14.What is Plato’s ideal state composed of?
The lowest class (merchant class) are governed by their appetite, the soldier (military class) is governed by his will, the philosophic person is governed by reason.
In the best form of government, which Plato considers to be aristocracy, justice occurs when each of these types of person does his a appointed task; this means that justice is served when everyone keeps his or her place. This is ruled by a group of carefully trained men and women over fifty, who are all philosophers
Lyceum 逍遥学派
10. Differences between Plato and Aristotle?
Plato observed the world with the way of mathematics. He is an idealist and interested in Forms. He applied deduction (from general to specific) and looked for the ideal state. Aristotle was more interested in sense and became an empiricist with the way of biology. He applied the way of induction (from specific to general), seeking solution problems of living.
The Politics 政治学--Aristotle
15. What are the true forms and perversions of government according to Aristotle?
The true forms of government are those in which the one, or the few, or the many, govern with a view to the common interest. But government which rule with a view to the private interest, whether of the one or of the few, or of the many, are perversions, and the perversion are as follows of royalty, tyranny; of aristocracy(贵族政体), oligarchy(寡头政府); of constitution government, democracy.
Doctrine of mean 中庸application of reason to fulfill one’s innate abilities.
中庸the nature of happiness, asserting that human happiness derives from
“self-sufficiency”
On the Laws – Cicero (Roman 106—43BC)
The principle of natural law was open to reason and human judgments
3. What is the law meant in Cicero’s On the Laws? How does Cicero’s law different from the law we meant today?
⑴There are 3 categories of law.
Citizen law：private law and public law
Law of nations: beginning of international law
Natural law：there were universal rules of conduct that flow from people as rational beings, irrespective of where or when they live.
⒅
⒅.Cosmopolitanism:All people are citizens of the same human community.
❝To look at the world process as a drama is to admit that everyone has a role in it.
❝What relates people to each other is the fact that each person shares a common element.
❝It is as though the Logos is a main telephone line and all people are on a conference call, therefore connecting God to all people and people to each
other.
Ethics 伦理主义13. The Roman world contributed Jesus to Western civilization, but an equally important contribution is the Roman laws, military art and civil administration. Justice is the bond of men in states
Constantine the Great 君士坦丁大帝Byzantium 拜占庭Constantinople 君士坦丁堡Istanbul 伊斯坦布尔The Early Middle Age(350—1050) The High Middle Age(1050—1300) The Late Middle Age(1300—1450)
⒄the Patristic era(教父时期): The period extending from the beginning of the Christian speculation(思索) to the time of St. Augustine is known as the Patristic era in philosophy and theology. This era included Platonism and underestimated the importance of Aristotle.
⒃Scholasticism(经院哲学)：the philosophical and theological movement that attempted to use natural human reason.
⒀the Age of Faith : During the Medieval Ages from the 5th century to the 15th centuryinEuropeanhistory there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and
learning for hundreds of years. It shaped people’s lives. That is why the Middle Ages is also called the “Age of Faith”
The Enchiridion(手册)—St. Augustine (354—430)
⒁The Enchiridion: It is a writing of St. Augustine. A Christian layman wanted a hand book(Enchiridion) which would sum up the essential Christian teaching in the briefest possible form. The shorted complete summary of the Christian faith Augustine said is that God is to be served by man in faith, hope and love. He proceeds to expand in an essay his answer that he acknowledged to be too brief. It is a “conscious effort of the theological magistrate of Western Church to stand on final ground of testimony to the Christian truth.” This “Enchiridion” or “manual” is a bold expression at the time of what we tend to accept as common talks today.
⑸Free will: Evil or sin is the product of the will. In spite of the fact of original sin, we still posses the freedom of the will. But we use free will wrongly. Even when we choose rightly, we don’t possess the spiritual power to do the good we have chosen. We must have the help of God’s grace. Whereas evil is caused by free will, virtue is not the product of our will but of God’s grace.
4. What is true liberty according to Augustine?
Summa Contra Gentiles 反异教大全Thomas Aquinas
He tries to build the consonance(协调) between philosopher’s quest for mundane （世俗）truth based on reason and Christian’s quest for divine truth based on revelation（启示）. It is literally means summary against the Gentiles.
The divine intellect surpasses the angelic intellect much more than the angelic surpasses the human.
5. Why is reason alone unreliable according to Augustine?
Three disadvantage would result if divine truth were left solely to the inquiry of reason: One is that would have knowledge of God; because very many are hindered(阻碍) from gathering the fruit of diligent (勤劳的) inquiry, which is the discovery of truth. The second disadvantage is that those who arrive at the discovery of the aforesaid truth would scarcely succeed in doing so after a long time. The third disadvantage is that much falsehood is mingled(混入) with the investigation of human reason, on account of the weakness of our intellect in forming its judgments, and by reason of admixture of phantasms(幻觉).
6. ⑴Machiavelli wrote The Prince under the background of Italy of his time during which his country was political unrest, remaining divided, balkanized and eruptive state with foreign invasion.
⑵From the view of consequentialism, it ends justify means.
⑶Machiavelli stressed on rational, original thought with little traces of religious orientation.
⑷It is also a clarion(号角) of nationalism and rationality
⑸Machiavelli had his target audience : the prince who will raise, a banner Italy ready and willing to follow.
Unit 6 .
Martin Luther(Greman theologian and religious reformer): An Open Letter to the Christian Nobility 致基督教贵族的公开信Ninety-Five Theses 九十五条论纲
We ought to go boldly forward to test all that they do or leave undone, according to our interpretation of the Scriptures, which rests on faith
John Calvin :Institution of the Christian Religion 基督教要义
He is a French theologian and most important figure in the second generation of the Protestant Reformation
Lutheranism Calvinism 加尔文主义
Protestantism ①Luther’s idea of justification by faith 因信称义
②Calvin’s notion of double predestination 双重预定the elect 选民salvation 得救And the unelect 弃民destruction 沉沦
Pride was the beginning of all evil.
Double Predestination: Eternal election, by which God has predestinated some to salvation, other to destruction.
How did Calvin illustrate the relationship between prescience and predestination?
The predestination by God adopts some to the hope of life, and adjudges others to eternal death, no man who would be thought pious(虔诚的) ventures simply to deny; but it is greatly caviled(挑剔) at , especially by those who make prescience its cause.
Francis Bacon held that philosophy should be kept separate from theology, not intimately be blended with it as in Scholasticism.
Francis Bacon : the most powerful mind of modern times.
Novum Organum 新工具：Drew our attention to the importance of “method” or “instrument”by which we perceive things. The principle of Novum Organum include accurate observation and experimentation, calling for abandoning prejudices and preconceived attitudes, which he called idols
Why are the four idols archenemy for Bacon?
The Idols of the tribe (人的共同错误) have foundation in human nature itself, and in the tribe or race of men. The human understanding is like a false mirror, which, receiving rays irregularly, distorts and discolors the name of things by making its own nature with it.
The Idols of the cave(个人专有错误) are the idols of individual man. For everyone(beside the errors common to human nature in general) has a cave or den of his own, which refracts(折射) and discolors the light of nature.
The Idols of the marketplace(人云亦云的传闻) are idols formed by intercourse and associating of men with each other. The ill and unfit choice of words wonderfully obstructs the understanding.
The Idols of the Theater are idols which have immigrated into one mind from the various dogmas of philosophies and also from wrong laws of demonstration. For all the received systems are but so many stage plays, representing worlds of their own creation after an unreal and scenic fashion.
Rene Descartes(French) Discourse on Method 谈谈方法
Descartes attempted to the rational deductive methods of science, and particularly of mathematic to philosophy.
The power of forming a good judgment and of distinguishing the truth from the false is properly speaking that what is called Good sense or Reason
Follow the straight road.
Those who proceed very slowly way, provided that they always follow the straight road, really advanced much faster than those who, though they run, forsake it
What is the “Method” to Descartes and why is it important?
Thomas Hobbes（English）is best known for his publication on individual security and the social contract
Leviathan 利维坦
Leviathan, a Hebrew name for huge monster, is represented in the Bible as crocodile, whale, or sea-serpent. Here it is symbol of an absolute state. Upon this image, Hobbes intended to build a comprehensive theory of government and social structure. It is the first great and comprehensive political philosophy produced by an English thinker.
Leviathan is called commonwealth or state which is but an artificial man, though of greater stature and strength than the natural, for whose protection and defense in was intended. Covenant 协议
John Locke founded the school of empiricism. 经验主义学派
Two Treatises of Government 政府论两篇Of Civil Government 政府论
He advanced a system of check and balance in government
Legislative is more powerful than the executive or judicial.
What is political power and law of nature according to John Locke？
Political power was believed by John Locke to be a right of making laws, with penalties(处罚) of death, and consequently all less penalties for the regulating and preserving of property, and of employing the force of community in the execution of such laws, and in the defence of the commonwealth from foreign injury, and all this only for public good.
The state of Nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges every one, and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions; for man being all the workmanship of one omnipotent and infinitely wise Maker; all the servants of one sovereign Master, sent into the world by His order and about His business; they are His property, whose workmanship they are made to last during His, not one another’s pleasure.
What does Classical Liberalism(经典自由主义) oppose?
They argue for political, economic, and social reform:①they oppose feudal restraints that prevent individual from any change of social status, barriers such as censorship and arbitrary power(强制权力). ②In international affairs, they opposed domination by military consideration and the exploitation of native colonial people, and argued instead for a cosmopolitan policy of international cooperation. ③In economics, liberals have attached monopolies and mercantilist(重商主义) state policies that subject the economy to state control.④In religion, liberals fought against interference in the affairs of the state and attempts by religious pressure groups to influence public opinion.
Adam Smith (British): father of modern economics
The Wealth of Nations 国富论
7.Why does Adam Smith oppose monopoly?
The respect of the monopoly lead the officers of the army to oppose with the same zeal and unanimity any reduction in the numbers of forces with which master manufactures set themselves against every law that is likely to increase the number of their rivals in the home marker. This monopoly has so much increased the number of some particular tribes of them that, like an overgrown standing army, they have become formidable to the government, and upon many occasions intimidate the legislature.
What is free trade?
To explain this concept, Adam Smith proclaimed the principle of “invisible hand”. Every individual in pursuing his or her own good is led to achieve the good for all. Individuals become socialized, market oriented, class-bound. Therefore, any interference with free competition by government is almost certain to be injurious.
⑽By pursuing his own interest, he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intend to promote it.
Unit 11.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau （French）
谈科学艺术对人类道德的影响The Social Contrast 社会契约论Confession 忏悔录
What is Anti-Liberalism ?
Distrust for the enlightenment ideals of reason and science. Appeal to return to the ideal of a simple, primitive society uncontaminated by modern civilization. It was based on a furtherance of the ideals of classical liberalism.
A Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences
Science, art and social institution have corrupted human kind and that the nature or primitive, state is morally superior to the civilized state.
The appearance of all the virtues, without being in possession of one of them.
Men are perverse , but they would have been far worse, if they had had the misfortune to be born learned.
Why is Rousseau critical of science and art?
①Historical evidence: Rousseau pointed to historical evidence. Egypt was the mother of philosophy and the fine arts; soon she was conquered by Cambyses, and then successively by the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs and finally the Turks. Greece, Rome
②Conformity: Modern manners have made everyone conform in speech, dress, and attitude, always following the laws of fashion, so we no longer dare appear to be what we really are. The herd of humanity all act exactly alike, and so we never know even among our friends with whom we are dealing. Human relationships are now full of deceptions, whereas earlier people could easily see through one another, which prevented them from having many vices.
③Differences: The danger to morality and to society caused by the confusion of contending theories or points of view. If everyone was allowed to pursue their own thoughts about moral values or even about scientific truth, inevitably, there would be serious differences of opinion. If differences of opinion were to be found everywhere, it would not be long before a deep skepticism spread through the population.
What keep society together is faith, not knowledge.
Diffusion among the population of the spirit of doubt culminates(达到高潮) in skepticism
To counteract these disintegrating treads in society, strong governments becomes necessary and this paves leads to despotism
Friedrich Nietzsche(German) Existentialism and deconstructionism owe much to him.
Unit 13,14.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Manifesto of the Communist Party 共产党宣言Cofounder of scientific socialism or modern Communism
Marxism or scientific socialism constitutes one of the principle currents of contemporary political thoughts.
Marx’s analysis of capitalism economy and his theories of historical materialism, class struggle and surplus value(剩余价值) have become the basis of modern socialist doctrine.
Eduard Bernstein, declares that socialism could best be attained by reformist.
Manifesto of the Communist: The draft of the Communist Manifesto in 1848 was first prepared by Friedrich Engels, and elaborated and finalized by Karl Marx. It declares principles and objects of the Communist League. The Manifesto is the most concise and intelligible statement of Marx’s materialist view of history. Hence, although it produced little immediate effect, it has since become the most widely read of his books and the single most influential document in socialist canon.
Bourgeois 资本家Proletarians 无产者
Optimism about human nature and the glorious future of civilization was discredited. Sigmund Freud: An Outline of Psychoanalysis 精神分析学大纲
Freud explored the dark side of man’s inner world for an explanation of the slaughter(屠夫) Edmund Husserl tried to secure an order in philosophy in the decadence(堕落) of civilization. John Dewey suggested that signs of hope for the declining West might be best found in education.
Three Jews, Sigmund Freud, Karl Marx, Albert Einstein, changed the 20th century.
Unconscious 潜意识
Some of the most powerful influence on human personality are things about which we are not conscious. Many of our experience, especially our childhood experience, are forgotten and buried in the unconscious. Although we don’t recall them consciously, they continue to influence our behavior.
What is important is that he opened up enormous areas for humanities and social science. Psychological man and along with political man, or economic man has become the dominate self –image in the 20th century.
15. Id, Ego, and Super-ego(455): Freud divided human personality into 3 functional parts–Id, Ego and Superego. In Freudian system, the Id is the container of the instinctual urges. It is the unconscious part of mind, which seeks immediate satisfaction of desires. It is concerned with what a person wants to do. Ego is the rational, thoughtful, realistic personality process. It is characterized by a desire for
independence, autonomy and self direction. It is concerned with what a person can do. Superego is the idealized image that a person builds of himself in response to authority and social pressures.。