语义学
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意义即使用理论( meaning-is-use theory) ‚ the meaning of an expression is determined by, if not identical with, its use in the language‛ 验证性主义理论(verificationist theory) ‚the meaning of an expression, if it has one, is determined by the verifiability of the sentences, or propositions, containing it‛ 真值-条件理论(truth-conditional theory) ‚ the meaning of an expression is its contribution to the truth-conditions of the sentences containing it‛
7.2.4
Types of meaning
意义( meaning )是语言符号与客观世界的 一种关联。 Zhang Weiyou gives a more detailed classification of meaning.
7.2.5 Five elements of meaning
Lexical semantics
成分分析(Componential analysis)
In semantics, the term component is a synonym for semantic feature and refers to an irreducible feature in terms of which the sense of lexical items can be analyzed, for example, girl can be analyzed into the components ‘human’, ‘female’, ‘child’, etc. The way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components is known as componential analysis[ John Lyons (2000: 108) gives it an alternative term: lexical decomposition. ] (also semantic feature analysis). The idea that the total meaning of a word may be described in terms of its smaller parts is similar to the case that a speech sound can be analyzed as a set of distinctive features. So we can analyze a word as a set of semantic features or semantic components with the values: plus (﹢) or minus (﹣).
进行分类是一件非常复杂的事情。)
Terms of different types of semantics can be found, such as operational semantics, frame semantics, natural semantics, denotational semantics, lexical semantics, formal semantics, syntaxlexical semantics, functional semantics, and so on and so forth.
In terms of different expression levels within language, Wen Qiufang (1995: 210) makes a distinction between lexical semantics and sentence semantics, (根据它在语言中的不同表达层面,文秋芳 ( 1995 : 210 )将语义学分为:词汇语义学( lexical semantics)和句子语义学)。
延申(extension):即用语言符号所正确表示的实体 类别(the class of entities to which a linguistic expression is correctly applied) 意图(intention):决定语言符号可用性的一套识别 性特征(the set of defining properties which determines the applicability of a linguistic expression)。 概念(concept或notion):是客观事物在人们头脑中 的印象,是在客观事物或现象的基础上概括而成的。 它说于思维范畴。概念是意义( meaning )、词义 (sense)的基础,而后者是前者在语言中的表现形 式,双方相互依存。‛概念‛是个抽象的东西,靠 词来表达,而词语(linguistic expression)通过‛ 概念‛来(concept or notion)反映客观世界 (referent, the object we refer to )。 字义(signification)是指一个词的‛词典意义‛ 以及相关联的其它意义,与‛价值‛(value)相对 应。
内涵 (connotation) :与情感联想有关,是词汇意义 的一部分,是语言表达的情感成分,是依赖语境的, 与语言的弦外之音有关。 指称对象(referent):也就是我们所谈论的事物,即 语言符号所指的客观事物或现象。 词义(sense):John Lyons 所说的‛意义‛(sense) 或‛词义‛是指这个词在与其它语言词汇中其它词所 构成的关系中所占的位置。这纯粹是一种只限于语言 词汇系统中词与词之间的语义关系,与客观世界中的 事物不发生直接联系。‛意义‛、‛词义‛(sense) 或词义除了词汇意义外还常常带有感情色彩,即情感 义。而外延 (denotation) 只有词汇意义( lexical mwaning.)。 内涵( connotation 、意涵( impicature )或含义 (implication)皆指人们的言外之意。
7.2.2 Theories of meaning
John Lyons(2000 : 40)述及了六个可以区分的、具 有哲学性的意义理论:
指称理论(referential theory or denotational theory) ‚ the meaning of an expression is what it refers to (or denotes), or stands for‛ 意念理论(ideational or mentalistic theory) ‚the meaning of an expression is the idea, or concept, associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows and understands the expression‛); 行为主义理论(behaviorist theory) (‚the meaning of an expression is either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both, on particular occasions of utterance‛);
(根据不同的标准我们可以有不同的 分类。笼统地说,我们可以发现这样的分支学科,如,操 作语义学、框架语义学、自然语义学、词汇语义学、形式 语义学、功能语义学、句法-词汇语义学等等。) Faced with so many terms, we need some criteria to classify semantics. For example, in terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons (2000: 11) distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics,( 根据它是否属于语言学范畴, John Lyons (2000:11) 将语义学分为语言语义学、非语言语义学)。
7.2.3 Basic concepts related to :语言表达(命名、词语符号) 与其所表示的客观事物或现象之间的关系( the relation between the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which it refers to),它表现于一定的上下 文。 外延(denotation):即语言符号本身固有的,恒定 的、抽象的、基本意义。是从无数同类事物中抽象 出来或概括出来的特征。它不依赖话语语境和使用 场景,与内涵意义相对。它是语言体系中语言表达 意义的一部分。外延只有词汇意义。要注意的是指 称(reference )与此恰恰相反,是变化的、依赖 话语的;使用场合不同,指称义相应改变。
7.2 What is “meaning”?
7.2.1 Uncertainty of meaning
‚What is meaning?‛ is a question which semantics cannot parry. But as a technical term, meaning is not so easy to define.
成分分析——分析词汇的一种方法。成分分析(Componential analysis) 即语义特征分析。词义并非是不可分析的整体,它可以看作是不同语义 特征的复合体,有比词义更小的语单位,即所谓的语义特征(semantic features)。由结构语义学家们提出:一个单词的意义可以分析为被称作 语义特征的意义成分。这一方法和把一个音位分析为更小的叫做区别性 特征的成分的方法类似。用加减号来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是 存在或者省缺,这些特征符号通常用大写字母来写。
‚语义学‛就是研究‛意义‛的学科,即研究 语言的意义及其交际功能。
Sub-branches of semantics(语义学的分支)
It is a very complicated problem how to classify semantics into different sub-branches.(将语义学
Chapter 7
Semantics
语义学
徐红 雷琪 马艳 王苏雨
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1
What is semantics?
Semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning. This is what John Lyons (2000: 11) calls linguistic semantics.
Lexical semantics, as the name suggests, is concerned with the meaning of lexical items, i.e. words. Different theories have arisen concerning the study of word meaning.