跨文化交际

商务跨文化交际
“跨文化传播”的概念:
什么是跨文化传播学呢？跨文化传播学是由美国人类学家、跨文化研究学者爱德华•霍尔在20世纪50年代建立的一门学科，其英文表达为“Intercultural Communication 或Cross-cultural Communication”，在我国也翻译为“跨文化交际学”或者“跨文化交流学”。

跨文化传播学作为传播学的一个分支学科，旨在研究来自不同文化背景的人们是如何进行交流以及研究如何提高跨文化交流技巧，跨越跨文化交流障碍的方法和途径。

跨文化传播学是一门跨领域的学科，融合了人类学、文化学、心理学以及传播学等领域的研究成果。

跨文化传播的主要理论见诸于有关文化差异（文化维度）的著作中，特别是吉尔特•••••霍夫斯泰德（Geert Hofstede）、哈里• C. 特兰狄斯（Harry C. Triandis）、方斯•特龙皮纳尔斯（Fons Trompenaars）、沙龙•施瓦兹(ShalomSchwartz)及克里佛德•吉尔兹（Clifford Geertz）等人的著作中。

目前，这些学者的相关理论已经广泛地运用到传播理论和传播情景中，特别是商务、管理和市场营销之中。

爱德华•霍尔（1914年5月16日出生于美国的密苏里州），社会学/文化人类学博士后。

20世纪50年代，爱德华•霍尔在美国美国政府部门的外派人员培训学院（Foreign Service Institute）任教，对外派出国人员进行跨文化技能培训。

期间，他提出了“高语境”和“低语境”文化，并撰写了几部非常畅销的有关跨文化传播的著作。

目录
1，General Introduction…,
2, What Does Cross-Cultural Communication Mean to Business People 3，How to Make Introduction
4，How to Deal with Business Cards
5，How to Schedule Visiting and Entertaining
6，ABC for Gifts Exchanging ,
7, Are There Any Differences in Male and Female’s Communication
8，How Are Roles Females Playing in International Business?
9, What Is the Range of Non-Verbal Communication in Business? … 10，Similar Encoding and Decoding of Non-Verbal Signals
11，What Is Culture Conflict?
12，What Is Culture Shock，and Acculturation
13，What Is It Like at Negotiation Table
14，The Device of Stereotyping in Cross—Cultural Communication 15，How Can We Be International
Hofstede and his Five Cultural Dimensions
"Culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster." Prof. Geert Hofsted霍夫斯泰德, Emeritus Professor, Maastricht University. Increasing internationalization has led to an appreciation that cultural differences are a key factor in getting things done in business. Working in France, Japan or the USA, for example, requires totally different styles of managing and co-operating.
Professor Geert Hofstede has developed a five-dimensional model which explains cultural differences in a unique and powerful manner.
Description for each of Hofstede's Dimensions
1.Power Distance权利距离Index (PDI) that is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. This represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from below, not from above. It suggests that a society's level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. Power and inequality, of course, are extremely fundamental facts of any society and anybody with some international experience will be aware that 'all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others'.
2. Individualism (IDV) on the one side versus its opposite, collectivism, that is the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. On the individualist side we find societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family. On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. The word 'collectivism' in this sense has no political meaning: it refers to the group, not to the state. Again, the issue addressed by this dimension is an extremely fundamental one, regarding all societies in the world.
3. Masculinity (MAS) versus its opposite, femininity, refers to the distribution of roles between the genders which is another fundamental issue for any society to which a range of solutions are found. The IBM studies revealed that (a) women's values differ less among societies than men's values; (b) men's values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women's values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women's values on the other. The assertive pole has been called 'masculine' and the modest, caring pole 'feminine'. The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men's values and women's values.
4. Uncertainty Avoidance不确定性规避指数Index (UAI) deals with a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man's search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and we have it'. People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. The opposite type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions.
5. Long-Term Orientation (LTO) versus short-term orientation:长期观和短期观this fifth dimension was found in a study among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars. It can be said to deal with Virtue regardless of Truth与真理无关，与传统美德有关. Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift节俭，坚忍不拔（中国人）and perseverance and protecting one's 'face'; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations,. Both the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 500 B.C.; however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage.
CHINA
Geert Hofstede analysis for China has Long-term Orientation (LTO) the
highest-ranking factor (118), which is true for all Asian cultures. This Dimension indicates a society's time perspective and an attitude of persevering; that is,
overcoming obstacles with time, if not with will and strength. (see Asian countries graph below)
The Chinese rank lower than any other Asian country in the Individualism (IDV) ranking, at 20 compared to an average of 24. This may be attributed, in part, to the high level of emphasis on a Collectivist society by the Communist rule, as compared to one of Individualism.
The low Individualism ranking is manifest in a close and committed member 'group', be that a family, extended family, or extended relationships. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount. The society fosters strong relationships where everyone takes responsibility for fellow members of their group.
U.S.A
There are only seven (7) countries in the Geert Hofstede research that have Individualism (IDV) as their highest Dimension: USA (91), Australia (90), United Kingdom (89), Netherlands and Canada (80), and Italy (76).
The high Individualism (IDV) ranking for the United States indicates a society with a more individualistic attitude and relatively loose bonds with others. The populace is more self-reliant and looks out for themselves and their close family members.
The next highest Hofstede Dimension is Masculinity (MAS) with a ranking of 62, compared with a world average of 50. This indicates the country experiences a higher degree of gender differentiation of roles. The male dominates a significant portion of the society and power structure. This situation generates a female population that becomes more assertive and competitive, with women shifting toward the male role model and away from their female role.
The United States was included in the group of countries that had the Long Term Orientation (LTO) Dimension added. The LTO is the lowest Dimension for the US at 29, compared to the world average of 45. This low LTO ranking is indicative of the societies' belief in meeting its obligations and tends to reflect an appreciation for cultural traditions.
The next lowest ranking Dimension for the United States is Power Distance (PDI) at 40, compared to the world Average of 55. This is indicative of a greater equality between societal levels, including government, organizations, and even within families. This orientation reinforces a cooperative interaction across power levels and creates a more stable cultural environment.
Intrinsic
The last Geert Hofstede Dimension for the US is Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI), with a ranking of 46, compared to the world average of 64. A low ranking in the
Uncertainty Avoidance Dimension is indicative of a society that has fewer rules and does not attempt to control all outcomes and results. It also has a greater level of tolerance for a variety of ideas, thoughts, and beliefs.
"high context" and "low context"
The general terms "high context" and "low context" (popularized by Edward Hall) are used to describe broad-brush cultural differences between societies.
High context refers to societies or groups where people have close connections over a long period of time. Many aspects of cultural behavior are not made explicit because most members know what to do and what to think from years of interaction with each other. Your family is probably an example of a high context environment.
Low context refers to societies where people tend to have many connections but of shorter duration or for some specific reason. In these societies, cultural behavior and beliefs may need to be spelled out explicitly so that those coming into the cultural environment know how to behave.
Monochronic Time VS Polychronic Time
Monochronic Time
A monochronic time system means that things are done one at a time and time is segmented into precise, small units. Under this system time is scheduled, arranged and managed.
The United States is considered a monochronic society. This perception of time is learned and rooted in the Industrial Revolution, where "factory life required the labor force to be on hand and in place at an appointed hour". For Americans, time is a precious resource not to be wasted or taken lightly. "We buy time, save time,
spend time and make time. Our time can be broken down into years, months, days, hours, minutes, seconds and even milliseconds. We use time to structure both our daily lives and events that we are planning for the future. We have schedules that we must follow: appointments that we must go to at a certain time, classes that start and end at certain times, work schedules that start and end at certain times, and even our favorite TV shows, that start and end at a certain time.”
Monochronic Cultures
* United States
* Canada
* Switzerland
* Germany
* Scandinavia
Polychronic Time
A polychronic time system is a system where several things can be done at once, and a more fluid approach is taken to scheduling time. Unlike Americans and most northern and western European cultures, Latin American and Arabic cultures use the polychronic system of time.
These cultures are much less focused on the preciseness of accounting for each and every moment. As Raymond Cohen notes polychronic cultures are deeply steeped in tradition rather than in tasks -- a clear difference from their monochronic counterparts. Cohen notes that "Traditional societies have all the time in the world. The arbitrary divisions of the clock face have little saliency in cultures grounded in the cycle of the seasons, the invariant pattern of rural life, and the calendar of religious festivities".
Instead, their culture is more focused on relationships, rather than watching the clock. They have no problem being “late” for an event if they are with family or friends, because the relationship is what really matters. As a result, polychronic cultures have a much less formal perception of time. They are not ruled by precise calendars and schedules. Rather, “cultures that use the polychronic time system often schedule multiple appointments simultaneously so keeping on schedule is an impossibility.
Polychronic Cultures
* Saudi Arabia * Egypt * Mexico * Philippines Monochronic People Polychronic People
do one thing at a time do many things at once
concentrate on the job are highly distractible and subject to
interruptions
take time commitments (deadlines, schedules) seriously consider an objective to be achieved,
if possible
are low-context and need information are high-context and already have
information
committed to the job are committed to people and human
relationships
adhere religiously to plans change plans often and easily
are concerned about not disturbing others; follow rules of privacy and consideration are more concerned with those who are closely related than with privacy
show great respect for private property; borrow and lend things often and
seldom borrow or lend easily
emphasize promptness base promptness on the relationship
are accustomed to short-term
relationships have strong tendency to build lifetime
relationships
GENDRE ROLES
Gender is a set of characteristics distinguishing between male and female, particularly in the cases of men and women. Depending on the context, the discriminating characteristics vary from sex to social role to gender identity.
Stereotypes
Generalization of all national cultures. Use this kind of summary to have a
pre-impression of your customers. But never take any prejudice.
Stereotypes make more sense when you consider the cultural roots of the group being stereotyped. For example:
NATIONALITY: GERMAN
STEROTYPE: The Germans are usually seen as rigid, somewhat humorless and obsessed with order formality. A smile does not come easily and business is taken seriously. They are particularly focused on detail.
NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS: Low-contest culture that values precise communication. Focuses on what is being said rather than who is saying it. Monochronic, that is, they are a very linear concept of time and prefer to do one thing at a time. The German culture is one of very high risk-avoidance.
NATIONALITY: AMERICAN
STEROTYPE: Brash, materialistic. A cowboy culture where individuals are obsessed with time and deadlines. A society played by crime and violence. NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS: American culture is task-driven and places great value on individual achievement and thinking. Monochronic, with a very low risk-avoidance, which allows American to speak without thinking and often act without thinking, sometimes in a violent manner. It is a very masculine culture, which means that society appreciates assertiveness while respecting the goal or material acquisition.
NATIONALITY: JAPANESE
STEROTYPE: Very group-oriented, quiet, shy, reserved and highly respectful of status and position. Negotiate in groups or teams and avoid criticism of partners or proposals. Japanese will work their whole career at a singly company.
NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS: The Japanese culture is collectivist by nature, that is, group achievement and harmony comes before that of individual fulfillment. It is a high power-distance culture where workers do not seek personal decision-making powers. It is high risk-avoidance.
NATIONALITY: FRENCH
STEROTYPE : Romantic, fond of good food, food art, and not overly concerned about doing great business, more eager to argue politics and art than to do business.
NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS: A highly feminine culture which values interpersonal relationships,putting quality of life before material acquisition and applauds concern for other individuals. Also high-context, which mean that the
medium is the message and not overly concerned about precise detail or communication.
NATIONALITY: ITALIAN
STEROTYPE:Excitable and seem to relish chaos,. Not very detail-oriented when it comes to business, which seems to take forever conclude. They are romantic and seem to shake hands with and kiss visitors forever, very demonstrative and physical.
NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS:
Italians are poly-chronic which means they prefer to do several takes at one time in no particular order. Their concept of time is nonlinear. It is also a high-context, relationship-driven culture.
NATIONALITY: BRITISH
STEROTYPE:Stuffy, prim and proper, Business if done through on "old boy's network".
NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS: Low-context, low risk-avoidance, monochromic, mixture of relationship-driven and task-driven cultures.
NATIONALITY: CHINESE
STEROTYPE:Like the Japanese, they always seem to travel in groups. They are quite, reserved and never lose their temper. But at times they can seem chaotic and unfocused.
NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS:The Buddhist philosophy plays an important role in business dealings and the approach to life. It is a collectivist, high-context, poly-choronic culture.
NATIONALITY: NIGERIAN
STEROTYPE:Gregarious, outgoing and eager to please. Seem never to say "no" and enjoy physical contact but are never on time for anything. Great schemers. NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS:A poly-chronic, high-context,relationship driven society.
NATIONALITY: ISRAELI
STEROTYPE:The Israelis are brash and rude wheeler-dealers who always seem to have something to say about just about everything.
NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS:Poly-chronic, high-context, individualist culture that features low power-distance, i.e. society members insist on having decision.
Culture shock
Culture shock is the difficulty people have adjusting to a new culture that differs markedly from their own.
People go through different phases in getting used to life in a new environment and culture. The process of experiencing and adapting to a new culture is acculturation. It is usually divided into four stages，namely，euphoria (excitement-the honeymoon stage)，depression(crisis), adjustment(getting to know the ropes)，and acceptance (recovery-getting used to it)．
It presents the first stage when Thomas writes the first e-mail to his girlfriend：he sees the novelty in everything．All is new and exciting．He likes whatever is happening to him and sees no future problems．In this stage．one may become comfortable with some of the more obvious differences between home culture and the new one such as music，food and clothing，and the fresh appeal of the new experience keeps him/her feeling interested and positive．
The second e-mail shows us the second stage：unacceptance of the new
culture-the crisis stage．The characteristics of this stage are：
a．Novelty wears off．
b．Things become boring．difficult and challenging．
c．Feeling of depression grows．
In this stage，there may be feelings of discontent，impatience，anger，sadness，and feeling incompetence，this happens when a person is trying to adapt to a new culture that is very different from the culture of origin．Transition between the old methods and those of the new country is a difficult process and takes time to complete．During the transition，there can be strong feelings of dissatisfaction to prevent one from the smooth further going of communication with the local people．
The third stage is demonstrated quite clearly in Thomas's third e-mail：He began to make sense of the new culture and know not to hope for all the difficulties being smoothed in a short time．Time is sometimes a good medicine to cure the pain in the heart．In this stage，the more interaction with the local people, the more understanding of the host culture will be achieved．He may learn the systems，procedures，language，or nonverbal behaviors of the new environment so that he can cope with it on the basis of some mastery，competence，and comfort．Finally，the fourth stage，when he became more reasonable about the differences of home culture and host culture，as is revealed in the last e-mail Thomas wrote when staying in Japan．In this stage, the person realizes that the culture has good and bad things to offer，and starts to define him/herself and establish goals for living．
In reality，the process may not be so simple．When one revives from the first shock，a second one may already be somewhere waiting，sometimes，even before the reviving．Or in some occasions，there would be some problems with the way one has got used to．So the fourth stage not usually means the end of a shock．The four stages go in circles．Moreover，this is also not the only way to describe culture
shock and adjustment of the shock. Other scholars draw it like this：
The Adjustement Process in a New Culture P54 (图)
These stages are present at different times and each person has their own way of reacting in the stages of culture shock．As a consequence．some stages will be longer and more difficult than others．Many factors，for example，the individual's state of mental health，type of personality，previous experiences，socio-economic conditions，familiarity with the language，family and／or social support systems，and level of education，etc．，contribute to the duration and effects of culture shock.
Situation D：
Compare the following two different promotional strategies for the same product. The Plymouth Laser and the Mitsubishi Eclipse are identical sports coupes built by Diamondstar Motors, a 50-50 partnership between Chrysler and Mitsubishi. Last year Chrysler’s 3,000 dealers sold 40,000 Lasers while Mitsubishi’s 500dealers sold 50,000 Eclipses! Here’s a case w here the products were more than just similar; they were identical. Yet, the Eclipse far outsold the Laser. Why?
Situation A：
The head of TCL，Li Dongsheng，once went to France for a meeting on a weekend after he had acquired the color TV business from Thompson. He was annoyed and puzzled by the finding that none of the senior French officials came to that meeting．
Question：
Why were there no French officials come to the meeting?
Discussion：
It seems that Mr．Li Dongsheng failed to understand how important weekends are for Europeans．In Europe，weekends are for rest．Nobody works on weekends．Therefore，it is quite．normal that none of the senior French officials came to meet Mr．Li on weekend for business. But the corporate culture of Chinese businessmen is that business does not recognize holidays．It is not surprised that Mr．Li felt annoyed and puzzled when he found there were nobody attending the meeting．
To some extent，this story shows us different understanding of time in different cultures.
1．Different cultures value time in different ways．Most western cultures value much in the future while most oriental cultures in the past. Accordingly，oriental cultures are more likely to look back in the history while western cultures prefer to look forward or future-oriented .
2．In communication．mono-chronic time attaches importance to working on timetable．Everything should be well planned on schedule and to be dealt with one by one．North American，North European and German cultures are typical mono-chronic time oriented cultures．
Poly-chronic time weighs the participation of each individual more important than time keeping．Latin American，Mid-eastern，African，Asian，French and Greek cultures are of typical poly-chronic time oriented cultures．
3．In a lot of mono-chronic cultured countries，like the Netherlands，Scandinavia and Germany．working life and private life are kept separate and only in unusual circumstances do they expect to talk business outside working hours or in non-work environment．
The effects of culture confliction are the fruits of accumulation(累积)-and sometimes they might go unnoticed as they creep in with each minor irritation(ordering the wrong meal at a restaurant because you could not read the menu)，each failure of self-expression(unable to ask for directions on the street)，
and each business setback (another appointment canceled)．The symptoms of an individual suffering from culture shock are easy to spot，when you know what you are looking for.。