5.The Seventeenth Century
英国文学Exercise 3
Exercise 3I.Fill in the following blanks.1.I n 1642, the civil war broke out in England. The royalists were defeated by the parliament army led by _____. In 1649, _____ was beheaded and England was declared to be a commonwealth.2.T he Revolution Period is also called _____, because the English Revolution was carried out under a religious cloak.3.T he _____Revolution in 1688 was so called because it was bloodless and there was no revival of the revolutionary demands.4.I n Revolution Period _John Milton____ towers over his age as William Shakespeare towers over the Elizabethan Age and as Chaucer towers over the Medieval period.5.I n Milton’s works, “_Paradise Lost_____”is the greatest, indeed the only generally acknowledged epic in English literature since “Beowulf”.6.T he finest thing in “Paradise Lost” is thedescription of hell, and _Satan ____ is the real hero of the poem.7.J ohn Bunyan’s masterpiece “_The Pilgrim’s Progress____”is a religious allegory, a narrative in which general concepts such as sins, despair, and faith are represented as people or as aspects of the natural world.8.A bout the beginning of the 17th century appeared a school of poets called _____, among whom John Donne was the leading one.9._John Dryden ___ wrote many works on literary criticism, and has been regarded as the earliest literary critic of real important in the history of English literature.10.The main literary achievements of the 17th century lies in the poetry of _____, in the prose writing of _____, and in the plays and literary criticism of _____.II.Choose one or more answers for thefollowing.1.T he revolution of 1688 meant three of the following things EXCEPT _____.A. the supremacy of ParliamentB. the beginning of modern EnglandC. the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in the countryD. the Restoration of monarchy2.J ohn Milton was _____.A. one of the giants of English literature in the 17th centuryB. blind in his later lifeC. a distinguished Revolutionary writerD. the greatest poet and pamphleteer in his age3.“Paradise Lost” is _____.A. a great epic of 12 booksB. based on Bible storyC. written in blank verseD. about the heroic revolt of Satan against God’s authority4.W hich work was not written by John Milton?A. Paradise LostB. Paradise RegainedC. Samson AgonistesD. V olphone5.A mong the poets of the seventeenth century, Milton was the greatest. Besides him, there were two groups of poets. They were _____.A. the lake poetsB. the university witsC. the Metaphysical poetsD. the Cavalier poets.III.Decide whether the following statements are true or false1.E nglish literature of the 17th century witnesses a flourish on the whole.2.T he Revolution period produced one of the most important poets in English literature, William Shakespeare.3.T he main literary form in literature of Revolution Period is drama.4.“The Pilgrim’s Progress” is one of the mostpopular pieces of Christian writing produced during the 17th century.5.J ohn Dryden is the most excellent representative of English classicism in the Restoration period.IV.Answer the following questions1.W hat are the different aspects between the literature of Elizabethan period and the literature of the Revolution period?2.W hat is the story of “Paradise Lost”?3.M ake a comment on the image of Satan in “Paradise Lost”.4.D iscuss the theme and characterization of “Paradise Lost”.5.W hat are the features of Milton’s poetry?。
剑桥雅思阅读5原文翻译及答案（test1）
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READING PASSAGE 1You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.Johnson’s DictionaryFor the centur y before Johnson’s Dictionary was published in 1775, there had been concern about the state of the English language. There was no standard way of speaking or writing and no agreement as to the best way of bringing some order to the chaos of English spelling. Dr Johnson provided the solution.There had, of course, been dictionaries in the past, the first of these being a little book of some 120 pages, compiled by a certain Robert Cawdray, published in 1604 under the title A Table Alphabeticall ‘of hard usuall English wordes’. Like the various dictionaries that came after it during the seventeenth century, Cawdray’s tended to concentrate on ‘scholarly’ words; one function of the dictionary was to enable its student to convey an impression of fine learning.Beyond the practical need to make order out of chaos, the rise of dictionaries is associated with the rise of the English middle class, who were anxious to define and circumscribe thevarious worlds to conquer —lexical as well as social and commercial. it is highly appropriate that Dr Samuel Johnson, the very model of an eighteenth-century literary man, as famous in his own time as in ours, should have published his Dictionary at the very beginning of the heyday of the middle class.Johnson was a poet and critic who raised common sense to the heights of genius. His approach to the problems that had worried writers throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries was intensely practical. Up until his time, the task of producing a dictionary on such a large scale had seemed impossible without the establishment of an academy to make decisions about right and wrong usage. Johnson decided he did not need an academy to settle arguments about language; he would write a dictionary himself and he would do it single-handed. Johnson signed the contract for the Dictionary with the bookseller Robert Dosley at a breakfast held at the Golden Anchor Inn near Holbom Bar on 18 June 1764.He was to be paid ￡1.575 in instalments, and from this he took money to rent Gou gh Square, in which he set up his ‘dictionary workshop’.James Boswell, his biographer, described the garret where Johnson worked as ‘fitted up like a counting house’ with a long desk running down the middle at which the copying clerks would work standing up. Johnson himself was stationed on a rickety chair at an ‘old crazy deal table’ surrounded by a chaos of borrowed books. He was also helped by six assistants, two of whom died whilst the Dictionary was still in preparation.The work was immense; filling about eighty large notebooks (and without a library to hand), Johnson wrote the definitions of over 40,000 words, and illustrated their many meanings with some 114,000 quotations drawn from English writing on everysubject, from the Elizabethans to his own time. He did not expect to achieve complete originality. Working to a deadline, he had to draw on the best of all previous dictionaries, and to make his work one of heroic synthesis. In fact, it was very much more. Unlike his predecessors, Johnson treated English very practically, as a living language, with many different shades of meaning. He adopted his definitions on the principle of English common law —according to precedent. After its publication, his Dictionary was not seriously rivalled for over a century.After many vicissitudes the Dictionary was finally published on 15 April 1775. It was instantly recognised as a landmark throughout Europe. ‘This very noble work,’ wrote the leading Italian lexicographer, ‘will be a perpetual monument of Fame to the Author, an Honour to his own Country in particular, and a general Benefit to the republic of Letters throughout Europe" The fact that Johnson had taken on the Academies of Europe and matched them (everyone knew that forty French academics had taken forty years to produce the first French national dictionary) was cause for much English celebration.Johnson had worked for nine years, ‘with little assistance of the learned, and without any patronage of the great; not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academic bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction, in sickness and in sorrow’. For all its faults and eccentricities his two-volume work is a masterpiece and a landmark, in his own words, ‘setting the orthography, displaying the analogy, regulating the structures, and ascertaining the significations of English words’. It is the cornerstone of Standard English an achievement which, in James Boswell’s words ‘conferred stability on the language of his country.’The Dictionary, together with his other writing, made Johnson famous and so well esteemed that his friends were able to prevail upon King George Ⅲ to offer him a pension. From then on, he was to become the Johnson of folklore.Questions 1-3Choose THREE letters A-H.Write your answers in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.NB Your answers may be given in any order.Which THREE of the following statements are true of Johnson’s Dictionary?A It avoided all scholarly words.B It was the only English dictionary in general use for 200 years.C It was famous because of the large number of people involved.D It focused mainly on language from contemporary texts.E There was a time limit for its completion.F It ignored work done by previous dictionary writers.G It took into account subtleties of meaning.H Its definitions were famous for their originality.Questions 4-7Complete the summary.Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.Write your answers in boxes 4-7 on your answer sheet.In 1764 Dr Johnson accepted the contract to produce a dictionary. Having rented a garret, he took on a number of 4…………, who stood at a long central desk. Johnson did not have a 5………… available to him, but eventually produced definitions of in excess of 40,000 words written down in 80 large notebooks.On publications, the Dictionary was immediately hailed in many European countries as a landmark. According to his biographer, James Boswell, Johnson’s principal achievement was to bring 6……… to the English language. As a reward for his ha rd work, he was granted a 7………by the king.Questions 8-13Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this8 The growing importance of the middle classes led to an increased demand for dictionaries.9 Johnson has become more well known since his death.10 Johnson had been planning to write a dictionary for several years.11 Johnson set up an academy to help with the writing of his Dictionary.12 Johnson only received payment for his Dictionary on its completion.13 Not all of the assistants survived to see the publication of the Dictionary.READING PASSAGE 2You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.Nature or Nurture?A A few years ago, in one of the most fascinating and disturbing experiments in behavioural psychology, Stanley Milgram of Yale University tested 40 subjects from all walks of lifefor their willingness to obey instructions given by a ‘leader’ in a situation in which the subjects might feel a personal distaste for the actions they were called upon to perform. Specifically M ilgram told each volunteer ‘teacher-subject’ that the experiment was in the noble cause of education, and was designed to test whether or not punishing pupils for their mistakes would have a positive effect on the pupils’ ability to learn.B Milgram’s expe rimental set-up involved placing the teacher-subject before a panel of thirty switches with labels ranging from ‘15 volts of electricity (slight shock)’ to ‘450 volts (danger —severe shock)’ in steps of 15 volts each. The teacher-subject was told that whenever the pupil gave the wrong answer to a question, a shock was to be administered, beginning at the lowest level and increasing in severity with each successive wrong answer. The supposed ‘pupil’ was in reality an actor hired by Milgram to simulate receiving the shocks by emitting a spectrum of groans, screams and writings together with an assortment of statements and expletives denouncing both the experiment and the experimenter. Milgram told the teacher-subject to ignore the reactions of the pupil, and to administer whatever level of shock was called for, as per the rule governing the experimental situation of the moment.C As the experiment unfolded, the pupil would deliberately give the wrong answers to questions posed by the teacher, thereby bringing on various electrical punishments, even up to the danger level of 300 volts and beyond. Many of the teacher-subjects balked at administering the higher levels of punishment, and turned to Milgram with questioning looks and/or complaints about continuing the experiment. In these situations, Milgramcalmly explained that the teacher-subject was to ignore the pupil’s cries for mercy and carry on with the experiment. If the subject was still reluctant to proceed, Milgram said that it was important for the sake of the experiment that the procedure be followed through to the end. His final argument was ‘you have no other choice. You must go on’. What Milgram was trying to discover was the number of teacher-subjects who would be willing to administer the highest levels of shock, even in the face of strong personal and moral revulsion against the rules and conditions of the experiment.D Prior to carrying out the experiment, Milgram explained his idea to a group of 39 psychiatrists and asked them to predict the average percentage of people in an ordinary population who would be willing to administer the highest shock level of 450 volts. The overwhelming consensus was that virtually all the teacher-subjects would refuse to obey the experimenter. The psychiatrists felt that ‘most subjects would not go beyond 150 volts’ and they further anticipated that only four per cent would go up to 300 volts. Furthermore, they thought that only a lunatic fringe of about one in 1,000 would give the highest shock of 450 volts.E What were the actual results? Well, over 60 per cent of the teacher-subjects continued to obey Milgram up to the 450-volt limit in repetitions of the experiment in other countries, the percentage of obedient teacher-subjects was even higher, reaching 85 per cent in one country. How can we possibly account for this vast discrepancy between what calm, rational, knowledgeable people predict in the comfort of their study and what pressured, flustered, but cooperative ‘teachers’ actually do in the laboratory of real life?F One’s first inclination might be to argue that there must be some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct that was activated by the experiment, and that Milgram’s teache-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock. A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves, ultimately finding its way into our genetic make-up as a remnant of our ancient animal ways.G An alternative to this notion of genetic programming is to see the teacher-subjects’ actions as a result of the social environment under which the experiment was carried out. As Milgram himself pointed out, ‘Most subjects in the experiment see their behaviour in a larger context that is benevolent and useful to society —the pursuit of scientific truth. The psychological laboratory has a strong claim to legitimacy and evokes trust and confidence in those who perform there. An action such as shocking a victim, which in isolation appears evil, acquires a completely different meaning when placed in this se tting.’H Thus, in this explanation the subject merges his unique personality and personal and moral code with that of larger institutional structures, surrendering individual properties like loyalty, self-sacrifice and discipline to the service of malevolent systems of authority.I Here we have two radically different explanations for why so many teacher-subjects were willing to forgo their sense of personal responsibility for the sake of an institutional authorityfigure. The problem for biologists, psychologists and anthropologists is to sort out which of these two polar explanations is more plausible. This, in essence, is the problem of modern sociobiology — to discover the degree to which hard-wired genetic programming dictates, or at least strongly biases, the interaction of animals and humans with their environment, that is, their behaviour. Put another way, sociobiology is concerned with elucidating the biological basis of all behaviour.Questions 14-19Reading Passage 2 has nine paragraphs, A-I.Which paragraph contains the following information?Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.14 a biological explanation of the teacher-subjects’ behaviour15 the explanation Milgram gave the teacher-subjects for the experiment16 the identity of the pupils17 the expected statistical outcome18 the general aim of sociobiological study19 the way Milgram persuaded the teacher-subjects to continueQuestions 20-22Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write your answers in boxes 20-22 on your answer sheet.20 The teacher-subjects were told that were testing whetherA a 450-volt shock was dangerous.B punishment helps learning.C the pupils were honest.D they were suited to teaching.21 The teacher-subjects were instructed toA stop when a pupil asked them to.B denounce pupils who made mistakes.C reduce the shock level after a correct answer.D give punishment according to a rule.22 Before the experiment took place the psychiatristsA believed that a shock of 150 volts was too dangerous.B failed to agree on how the teacher-subjects would respond to instructions.C underestimated the teacher-subjects’ willingness to comply with experimental procedure.D thought that many of the teacher-subjects would administer a shock of 450 volts.Questions 23-26Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?In boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this23 Several of the subjects were psychology students at Yale University.24 Some people may believe that the teacher-subjects’ behaviour could be explained as a positive survival mechanism.25 In a sociological explanation, personal values are more powerful than authority.26 Milgram’s experiment solves an important question in sociobiology.READING PASSAGE 3You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40,which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.The Truth about the EnvironmentFor many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting worse. They have developed a hit-list of our main fears: that natural resources are running out; that the population is ever growing, leaving less and less to eat; that species are becoming extinct in vast numbers, and that the planet’s air and water are becoming ever more polluted.But a quick look at the facts shows a different picture. First, energy and other natural resources have become more abundant, not less so, since the book ‘The Limits to Growth’ was published in 1972 by a group of scientists. Second, more food is now produced per head of the world’s population than at any time in history. Fewer people are starving. Third, although species are indeed becoming extinct, only about 0.7% of them are expected to disappear in the next 50 years, not 25-50%, as has so often been predicted. And finally, most forms of environmental pollution either appear to have been exaggerated, or are transient —associated with the early phases of industrialisation and therefore best cured not by restricting economic growth, but by accelerating it. One form of pollution — the release of greenhouse gases that causes global warming — does appear to be a phenomenon that is going to extend well into our future, but its total impact is unlikely to pose a devastating problem. A bigger problem may well turn out to be an inappropriate response to it.Yet opinion polls suggest that many people nurture the belief that environmental standards are declining and four factors seem to cause this disjunction between perception and reality.One is the lopsidedness built into scientific research. Scientific funding goes mainly to areas with many problems. That may be wise policy, but it will also create an impression that many more potential problems exist than is the case.Secondly, environmental groups need to be noticed by the mass media. They also need to keep the money rolling in. Understandably, perhaps, they sometimes overstate their arguments. In 1997, for example, the World Wide Fund for Nature issued a press release entitled: ‘Two thirds of the world’s forests lost forever.’ The truth turns out to be nearer 20%.Though these groups are run overwhelmingly by selfless folk, they nevertheless share many of the characteristics of other lobby groups. That would matter less if people applied the same degree of scepticism to environmental lobbying as they do to lobby groups in other fields. A trade organisation arguing for, say, weaker pollution controls is instantly seen as self-interested. Yet a green organisation opposing such a weakening is seen as altruistic, even if an impartial view of the controls in question might suggest they are doing more harm than good.A third source of confusion is the attitude of the media. People are clearly more curious about bad news than good. Newspapers and broadcasters are there to provide what the public wants. That, however, can lead to significant distortions of perception. An example was America’s encounter with El Nino in 1997 and 1998. This climatic phenomenon was accused of wrecking tourism, causing allergies, melting the ski-slopes and causing 22 deaths. However, according to an article in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, the damage it did was estimated at US$4 billion but the benefits amounted to some US$19 billion. These came from higher winter temperatures(which saved an estimated 850 lives, reduced heating costs and diminished spring floods caused by meltwaters).The fourth factor is poor individual perception. People worry that the endless rise in the amount of stuff everyone throws away will cause the world to run out of places to dispose of waste. Yet, even if America’s trash output continues to rise as it has done in the past, and even if the American population doubles by 2100, all the rubbish America produces through the entire 21st century will still take up only one-12,000th of the area of the entire United States.So what of global warming? As we know, carbon dioxide emissions are causing the planet to warm. The best estimates are that the temperatures will rise by 2-3℃ in this century, causing considerable problems, at a total cost of US$5,000 billion.Despite the intuition that something drastic needs to be done about such a costly problem, economic analyses clearly show it will be far more expensive to cut carbon dioxide emissions radically than to pay the costs of adaptation to the increased temperatures. A model by one of the main authors of the United Nations Climate Change Panel shows how an expected temperature increase of 2.1 degrees in 2100 would only be diminished to an increase of 1.9 degrees. Or to put it another way, the temperature increase that the planet would have experienced in 2094 would be postponed to 2100.So this does not prevent global warming, but merely buys the world six years. Yet the cost of reducing carbon dioxide emissions, for the United States alone, will be higher than the cost of solving the world’s single, most pressing health problem: providing universal access to clean drinking water and sanitation. Such measures would avoid 2 million deaths every year, andprevent half a billion people from becoming seriously ill.It is crucial that we look at the facts if we want to make the best possible decisions for the future. It may be costly to be overly optimistic — but more costly still to be too pessimistic.Questions 27-32Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?In boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet, writeYES if the statement ag rees with the writer’s claimsNO if the statement contradicts the writer’s clamsNOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this27 Environmentalists take a pessimistic view of the world fora number of reasons28 Data on the Earth’s natural resources has only been collected since 1972.29 The number of starving people in the world has increased in recent years.30 Extinct species are being replaced by new species.31 Some pollution problems have been correctly linked to industrialisation.32 It would be best to attempt to slow down economic growth.Questions 33-37Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write your answers in boxes 33-37 on your answer sheet.33 What aspect of scientific research does the writer express concern about in paragraph 4?A the need to produce resultsB the lack of financial supportC the selection of areas to researchD the desire to solve every research problem34 The writer quotes from the Worldwide Fund for Nature to illustrate howA influential the mass media can be.B effective environmental groups can be.C the mass media can help groups raise funds.D environmental groups can exaggerate their claims.34 What is the writer’s main point about lobby groups in paragraph 6?A Some are more active than others.B Some are better organised than others.C Some receive more criticism than others.D Some support more important issues than others.35 The writer suggests that newspapers print items that are intended toA educate readers.B meet their readers’ expec tations.C encourage feedback from readers.D mislead readers.36 What does the writer say about America’s waste problem?A It will increase in line with population growth.B It is not as important as we have been led to believe.C It has been reduced through public awareness of the issues.D It is only significant in certain areas of the country.Questions 38-40Complete the summary with the list of words A-I below.Write the correct letter A-I in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.GLOBAL WARMINGThe writer admits that global warming is a 38…………….challenge, but says that it will not have a catastrophic impact on our future, if we deal with it in the 39…………… way. If we try to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases, he believes that it would only have a minimal impact on rising temperatures. He feels it would be better to spend money on the more 40………… health problem of providing the world’s population with clean drinking water.A unrealisticB agreedC expensiveD rightE long-termF usualG surprisingH personalI urgent剑桥雅思阅读5原文参考译文(test1)TEST 1 PASSAGE 1参考译文：Johnson’s Dictionary约翰逊博士的字典For the century before Johnson’s Dictionary was published in 1775, there had been concern about the state of the English language. There was no standard way of speaking or writing and no agreement as to the best way of bringing some order to the chaos of English spelling. Dr Johnson provided the solution.约翰逊博士的《字典》于1775年出版，在此之前的一个世纪，人们一直对英语的发展状况担忧。
外研版九年级上册重点短语
九上短语M1U11.wonders of the world世界奇迹2.join 参加〔团体〕join in 参加〔活动〕娱乐游戏竞赛等小活动take part in会议或群众性活动3.more …than…比…更…more than=over多于4.agree with: have the same opinion as agree to: be willing to accept or allow sthagree on:对…取得一致意见〔表具体协议的文件、方案等5.most of …中的大多数6.on the eastern coast of在…东海岸7.170 meters wide=170-meter-wide7 years old〔表语)=7-year-old(定语)8. in one’s opinion按某人的意见，据某人看来9.at the top在顶端lions of 数以百万的hundreds of/thousands of/billions of M1U21.early morning清晨2.get on---get off〔大型交通工具,train〕get into---get out of〔小型，car,taxi〕3.go through穿过4.walk along沿着…走5.nothing=not anything6.in five minutes五分钟后，in+时间段用于将来时态7.look over查看，参观，把…看一遍look after照顾look at看look down upon瞧不起look forward to doing sth期待着做某事look for寻觅look like看起来像look out小心，留神look through扫瞄look down to向下看look across to眺望8.keep silent保持安静/keep quiet保持安静9.fall away突然向下倾斜10.on top of在…上面11.at the bottom of 在…底部12.on both sides在两边both…and…两者都13.by the canyon在峡谷边M2U11.May Day五一节bour Day劳动节3.China’s National Day国庆节4.since then从那以后5.have a three-day holiday放三天假6.the end of…末端at the end of在…末端7.stay with sb和某人待在一起8.be called被叫做9.have one day off放一天假10.all kinds of各种各样的11.the start of …的开端12.take a vacation=take vacations去度假〔动作〕on vacation=on holiday度假〔状态〕13.have a picnic去野餐14.have great fun玩得很开心15.watch bands play music看乐队表演音乐watch sb do sth看某人做某事16.as soon as一…就…，“主将从现〞m2u21.It’s a time for sth.是一个…时刻It’s time for sb to do sth.是某人做某事的时间了2.在…之间among三者或者三者以上between两者之间3.make short speeches做简短演讲〔发言〕4.give thanks for sth因…感激give thanks to sb感激某人5.in the seventeenth century在17世纪6.be worse than any…比任何一个都坏比拟级+than+any/other 比任何/其他一个都…，相当于最高级7.the local people当地人8.teach sb how to do sth教某人如何做某事teach sb to do sth教某人做某事teach sb sth教某人某事9.the following year第二年、下一年10.a traditional dinner一顿传统的晚餐11.help sb do sth援助某人做某事help do sth援助做某事y the table 摆放餐桌13.only once a year一年只有一次14.as well 也；还15.wash the dishes洗餐具16.plenty of=a lot of=lots of [C] [U]many修饰[C] /much修饰[U] 17.see看的结果/look看的动作/watch凝视/notice有意注意18. 开始做某事start doing sth=start to do sthbegin doing sth=begin to do sth 19.玩得快乐enjoy oneself=have a good time =have funM2U31.make a lot of progress取得大量进步make progress取得进步2.get back回来，返回3.It’s better for sb to do sth.对某人来说最好做某事4.think about doing sth考虑做某事5.make a wish许愿6.wake sb up叫醒某人7.fall asleep入睡，强调睡的动作be asleep强调睡的状态go to bed上床睡觉8.count down倒数，倒计时9.depend on取决于…，视…而定M3U11.tell sb about sth告诉某人关于某事2.in the world在世界上3.play table tennis打乒乓球4.start doing sth/start to do sthbegin doing sth/begin to do sth 5.gold medal金牌6.the Olympics奥运会7.stop doing sth/stop to do sth8. good enough足够好9.once again再一次10.give up/give up doing sth放弃做某事11.anyone else其他任何人12.as well as既…又…，不仅…而且…强调as well as前面的内容13. a true hero一位真正的英雄10.give up/give up doing sth放弃做某事M3u21.one of the most famous heroes最著名的英雄之一2.die for为...而死die-dying-dead-death3.the wounded soldiers伤员4.quickly enough足够快5.take care of the sick照顾病人take care of 照顾，照料=look after the sick病人the+adj指一类人6.close to靠近7.at that time那时8.have to必须；不得不，强调客观情况must必须，强调主观意愿9.on one’s own单独10.training courses训练课程11.so that以便，为了，因此so...that..如此...以至于12.learn about了解13.without doing sth没有做某事，表伴随14.take care of=look after照顾15.manage to do sth设法完成某事16.in the end最后the end of /at the end of17.die of 死于18.make sb/sth+ adj使某人...19.both...and两者都neither...nor 两者都不either...or... 或者...或者not only...but also不但...而且M4U11.keep sth tidy保持…清洁2.be leaving from 将从…出发go, come, leave, arrive用进行时态表将来3.So am I.我也是。
王守仁《英国文学选读》（第4版）配套题库-章节题库-第4、5单元【圣才出品】
王守仁《英国⽂学选读》（第4版）配套题库-章节题库-第4、5单元【圣才出品】第4单元17世纪英国诗⼈Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.1. In the Revolution Period _____ towers over his age as William Shakespeare towers over the Elizabethan Age and as Chaucer towers over the Medieval Period.【答案】John Milton【解析】在英国资产阶级⾰命期间，约翰·弥尔顿可与伊丽莎⽩时代的莎⼠⽐亚和中世纪的乔叟相媲美。
2. The poems of John Donne belong to two categories: the _____ and the later _____. 【答案】youthful love lyrics；sacred verses【解析】受⽣活经历的影响，约翰·多恩的诗歌可分为两部分：年轻有活⼒的爱情诗和庄严的宗教诗。
3. In 1637 Milton wrote the finest pastoral elegy in English, _____, to memorize the tragic death of a Cambridge friend.【答案】Lycidas【解析】Lycidas是英国诗⼈⽶尔顿年轻时为溺海夭亡的剑桥同学⾦（Edward King）写的⼀⾸悼诗。
4. About the beginning of the 17th century appeared a school of poets called “ _____” by Samuel Johnson, the 18th century writer.【答案】Metaphysicals【解析】⾸先⽤“⽞学派”这名词的是18世纪英国诗⼈、批评家德莱顿。
新托福阅读真题详解-ChinesePottery中国瓷器
新托福阅读真题详解-ChinesePottery中国瓷器智课⽹TOEFL备考资料新托福阅读真题详解:Chinese Pottery 中国瓷器摘要：托福阅读提⾼不是⼀朝⼀⼣的事情，同学们平时就要注意积累，以下是⼩编为⼤家整理的新托福阅读真题详解:Chinese Pottery 中国瓷器，希望对⼤家托福阅读备考有帮助!⼩马机经APP新版福利上线了！绝对堪称托福学⼦备考必备利器，扫描左侧⼆维码下载DUANG的⼀下托福机经、录⾳、解析、答案参考、历年真题全部出来啦！光是独⽴⼝语机经就有60套重点题⽬，⼼动就赶快下载吧！China has one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations—despite invasions and occasionalforeign rule. A country as vast as China with so long-lasting a civilization has a complex socialand visual history, within which pottery and porcelain play a major role.The function and status of ceramics in China varied from dynasty to dynasty, so they may beutilitarian, burial, trade-collectors', or even ritual objects, according to their quality and theera in which they were made. The ceramics fall into three broad types—earthenware, stoneware,and porcelain—for vessels, architectural items such as roof tiles, and modeled objects andfigures. In addition, there was an important group of sculptures made for religious use, themajority of which were produced in earthenware.The earliest ceramics were fired to earthenware temperatures, but as early as the fifteenthcentury B.C., high-temperature stonewares were being made with glazed surfaces. During theSix Dynasties period (AD 265-589), kilns in north China were producing high-fired ceramics ofgood quality. Whitewares produced in Hebei and Henan provinces from the seventh to thetenth centuries evolved into the highly prized porcelains of the Song dynasty (AD. 960-1279),long regarded as one of the high points in the history of China's ceramic industry. Thetradition of religious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearlydelineated than that of stonewares or porcelains, for it embraces the old custom of earthenwareburial ceramics with later religious images and architectural ornament. Ceramic products alsoinclude lead-glazed tomb models of the Han dynasty, three-color lead-glazed vessels andfigures of the Tang dynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs wereoutlined in a raised trail of slip- as well as the many burial ceramics produced in imitation ofvessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value.Trade between the West and the settled and prosperous Chinese dynasties introduced newforms and different technologies. One of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of thefine ninth-century AD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. So admired werethese pieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made in imitation ofporcelain and instigated research into the method of their manufacture. From the Middle Eastthe Chines acquired a blue pigment—a purified form of cobalt oxide unobtainable at thattime in China—that contained only a low level of manganese. Cobalt ores found in China have ahigh manganese content, which produces a more muted blue-gray color. In the seventeenthcentury, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Company resulted in vast quantities ofdecorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated and influenced thework of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. The Chinese themselves adapted many specificvessel forms from the West, such as bottles with long spouts, and designed a range ofdecorative patterns especially for the European market.Just as painted designs on Greek pots may seem today to be purely decorative, whereas infact they were carefully and precisely worked out so that at the time, their meaning was clear,so it is with Chinese pots. To twentieth century eyes, Chinese pottery may appear merelydecorative, yet to the Chinese the form of each object and its adornment had meaning andsignificance. The dragon represented the emperor, and the phoenix, the empress; thepomegranateindicated fertility, and a pair of fish, happiness; mandarin ducks stood forwedded bliss; the pine tree, peach, and crane are emblems of long life; and fish leaping fromwaves indicated success in the civil service examinations. Only when European decorativethemes were introduced did these meanings become obscured or even lost.From early times pots were used in both religious and secular contexts. The imperial courtcommissioned work and in the Yuan dynasty (A.D. 1279-1368) an imperial ceramic factorywas established at Jingdezhen. Pots played an important part in some religious ceremonies.Long and often lyrical descriptions of the different types of ware exist that assist in classifyingpots, although these sometimes confuse an already large and complicated picture.Paragraph 2：The function and status of ceramics in China varied from dynasty to dynasty,so they may be utilitarian, burial, trade-collectors', or even ritual objects, according to theirquality and the era in which they were made. The ceramics fall into three broad types—earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain—for vessels, architectural items such as roof tiles,and modeled objects and figures. In addition, there was an important group of sculpturesmade for religious use, the majority of which were produced in earthenware.1.The word status in the passage is closest in meaning tooriginimportancequalitydesign2. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true of Chinese ceramics?The function of ceramics remained the same from dynasty to dynasty.The use of ceramics as trade objects is better documented than the use of ceramics asritual objects.There was little variation in quality for any type of ceramics over time.Some religious sculptures were made using the earthenware type of ceramics.Paragraph 3：The earliest ceramics were fired to earthenware temperatures, but as early as thefifteenth century B.C., high-temperature stonewares were being made with glazed surfaces.During the Six Dynasties period (AD 265-589), kilns in north China were producing high-firedceramics of good quality. Whitewares produced in Hebei and Henan provinces from the seventhto the tenth centuries evolved into the highly prized porcelains of the Song dynasty (AD. 960-1279), long regarded as one of the high points in the history of China's ceramic industry. Thetradition of religious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearlydelineated than that of stonewares or porcelains, for it embraces the old custom of earthenwareburial ceramics with later religious images and architectural ornament. Ceramic products alsoinclude lead-glazed tomb models of the Han dynasty, three-color lead-glazed vessels andfiguresof the Tang dynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs wereoutlined in a raised trail of slip- as well as the many burial ceramics produced in imitation ofvessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value.3. The word evolve in the passage is closest in meaning to。
欧洲文化史--The-Seventeenth-Century
The Seventeenth CenturyGeneral IntroductionIn the 17th century, Europe advanced from the Middle Ages to the modern times."The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the seventeenth century".----Bertrand Russell: A History of Western PhilosophyThis advance began in science, in astronomy, physics and pure mathematics, owing to the work of Galileo, Kepler, Newton and Descartes. Their work helped to create modern science and in a sense the modern world.These scientists abandoned the traditional reliance on authority and the accepted method of deductive reasoning. Instead, they attached great importance to direct observation of nature and experimentation.Numerous revolutionary concepts and inventions were developed during this period."Almost everything that distinguishes the modern world from earlier centuries is attributable to science, which achieved its most spectacular triumphs in the seventeenth century".----Bertrand Russell: A History of Western PhilosophyThe outlook of educated men was transformed. There was a profound change in the conception of men's place in the universe which revived human pride.This new outlook shattered the deeply established Scholasticism and brought about modern philosophy, which was materialist in nature.The new science and philosophy gave a great push to the political struggle waged by the newly emerged class, the bourgeoisie, and other classes.The 17th century saw the intense political struggle, shown in revolution in England and the end of absolute monarchy in France, which marked the growth of modern state power.ScienceThe sciences advanced in logical progression through modern history.First, a breakthrough in physics and mathematics in the 17th century, followed by rapid developments in the field of chemistry in the 18th century and then advances in biology in the 19th century and psychology in the 20th century.From Copernicus to KeplerThe first major advance of modern science occurred in astronomy and Italy was the scene with Copernicus(1473-1543) as the leading figure.Although he did not belong to the 17th century,Nicolaus Copernicus was the immediate forerunner of modern science.The Revolutions of Heavenly Orbs (1543)Copernicus put forward his theory that the sun, not the earth, is the center of the universe."In the middle of all sits the Sun enthroned. In this most beautiful temple, could we place this luminary in any better position from which he can illuminate the whole at once? He is rightly called the Lamp, the Mind, the Ruler of the Universe, ... So the Sun sits as upon a royal throne, ruling his children, the planets which circle round him."By this time, the Ptolematic system had been accepted by almost all learned men, which said that the earth was the center of the universe, which was in agreement with religious doctrines.Using logic and mathematics, Copernicus concluded that Ptolemy's system was wrong. Copernicus's hypothesis was regarded as heresy, for according to Scripture, Joshua had caused the sun to stand still in heaven.Copernicus had no wish to quarrel with the church. It was only at the urging of other scholars and scientists that he allowed his book to be published.The publication of the Copernican theory was the first serious irruption of science. It laid the foundation for many future scientific discoveries."The revolutionary act by which nature science declared its independence ... was the publication of the immortal work by which Copernicus threw down the gauntlet to ecclesiastical authority in the affairs of nature. The emancipation of natural science from theology dates from this act."----Engles, Dialectics of NatureHowever, Copernicus's heliocentric theory was put forward only as a hypothesis.No doubt, it was the boldest one in his own time, but Copernicus was not in a position to give any conclusive evidence in favor of his hypothesis.German scientist Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)Kepler is best known for his discovery of the three laws of planetary motion, the three laws being called Kepler's Law published in 1609 and 1619.Each planet moves in an ellipse, not a perfect circle, with the sun at one focus;Each planet moves more rapidly when near the sun than farther from it.The distance of each planet from the sun bears a definite relation to the time period the planet took to complete a revolution around the sun.A mathematical formula: the square of the period of revolution of a planet about the sun is proportional to the cube of the mean distance of the planet from the sun.Kepler's laws supported, clarified and amended the Copernican system and turned the system from a general description of the sun and the planets into a precise mathematical formula.These three laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton's discovery of the laws of gravitation.Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)Galileo is the greates name in the field of physics of this period.His father, a Florentine, taught him Latin, Greek, mathematics and music. He also liked to draw and paint.At 17, he was sent to study medicine at the University of Pisa, but soon his interest was drawn to physics and mathematics.A convinced Copernican, Galileo was eager to use newly invented instruments to observe heavenly bodies.He was the first to apply the telescope to the study of the skies.His telescope magnified objects a thousand times.Sidereus Nuncius (The Starry Messenger), 1610"By the aid of a telescope anyone may behold this in a manner which so distinctly appeals to the senses that all the disputers which have tormented philosophers through so many ages are exploded aat once by the irrefragable evidence of our eyes, and we are freed from wordy disputesupon this subject, for the Galaxly is nothing else but a mass of innumerable stars planted together in cluster...""Upon whatever part of it you direct the telescope straightway a vast crowd of stars presents itself to views; many of them are tolerably large and extremely bright, but the number of small ones is quite beyond determination".Proved that Ptolemy's geocentric system would not work and that Copernicus's powerful hypothesis had been right.Discovered the importance of acceleration in dynamics.Every body, if left alone, will continue to move in a straight line with uniform velocity; any change, either in the rapidity or the direction of motion, requires to be explained as due to the action of some "force".This principle is called the law of inertia.The first to establish the law of falling bodies.When a body is falling freely, its acceleration is constant, except in so far as the resistance of the air may interfere, and the acceleration is the same for all bodies, heavy or light, great or small. The acceleration of a falling body does not depend on its mass.Galileo's discoveries proved the validity of the Copernican theory and struck a frightening blow at the holy establishment.Many theologians felt that Copernican astronomy was sharply incompatible with the Bible and that if this theory was widely accepted, the Bible would lose authority and Christianity would suffer.Galileo's disputes with the church finally led to his trial by the Inquisition.He was forced to give up his view in public declaration but later published a book about the Copernican and anti-Copernican systems.Put in prison, allowed to return home after falling ill, technically remained a prisoner.Died in the arms of his pupils, blind and deaf and still a prisoner.His findings had an unsettling and disturbing effect on the conventional thinking, but his impact on the thoughtful mind was overwhelming.Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)As a school boy, "idle" and "inattentive".Took his degree from Tirinity College, Cambridge and became a mathematics teacher (not successful).Few students went to his lectures and fewer could understand him, sometimes he had so few auditors that he read his lectures to the wall.As a mathematician, he invented calculus.In optics, he discovered that white light is composed of all the colors of the spectrum.(red, orange, yellow, green, indigo, blue, violet)It was in the field of physics that Newton established his name as one of the most outstanding and influential figure in the history of natural science.The law of the universal gravitationEvery body attracts every other with a force directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.To put it simply, all bodies in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is called gravitation.From this law, Newton was able to deduce the orbits of comets, the tides, and even the minute departures from elliptical orbits on the part of the planet.The law of universal gravitation is considered to be one of the most important discoveries in the history of science.Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)His analytical method, the way he approached natural laws by observation, experiment and calculation, began to be applied to human society, to all branches of knowledge and thought.For centuries, Newton had been regarded as a perfect scientist, the greatest one that ever lived in the entire history of science."Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night,God said, "Let Newton be," and all was light."____ Alexander Pope However, since Einstein discovered the law of relativity, the Newtonian system has been questioned.As a matter of fact, modern theoretical physics has abandoned Newton's absolute space and time. As explained by Einstein, motion and space are relative too.Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716)German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, historian and diplomat.Early university studies made him familiar with the Aristotelian tradition and the ideas from the Scholastics, but later decided in favor of the modern thought.He and Newton invented independently the differential and integral calculus.he describes space and time as merely system of relationship or order, and calls Newton's treatment of time and space as absolute entities a reversion to medieval notions.In his book New Essays Concerning Human Understanding (1704), he refutes John Locke's major premise that the senses are the source of all understanding.He distinguishes three levels of understanding: the self-conscious, the conscious and the unconscious or subconscious.Many of his theories have given rise of important developments of modern science, ranging from Freudian psychology and Einsteinian physics.Discourse and Metaphysics (1686)New System of Nature (1695)Invention of New InstrumentsThe microscope was invented in 1590.the telescope in 1608 by a DutchmanGalileo invented the thermometer and one of his pupils made the barometer.The pendulum clock in 1656.Scientific observation became immensely more exact and more extensiveMerits Shared by ScientistsFirst, they showed boldness in framing hypotheses. They had the courage to challenge the deep-rooted beliefs and assume that what had been accepted as true since ancient times might be false.Second, they all had immense patience in observation. They put their hypotheses to tests and drew conclusions on the basis of patient observation and careful collection of facts. Modern scientific method emphasized observation and experimentation before formulating a final explanation or generalization.Philosophy and PoliticsFrancis Bacon (1561-1626)The whole basis of his philosophy was practical: to give mankind mastery over the forces of nature by means of scientific discoveries and inventions.He held that philosophy should be kept separate from theology, not intimately be blended with it as in Scholasticism.In his Novum Organum, Bacon begins by declaring that "Man, being the servant and interpreter of Nature, can do and understand so much and so much only as he has observed in fact or in thought of the course of nature; beyond this he neither knows anything nor can do anything.""Nature to be commanded must be obeyed."Man can command and conquer nature, the power to do so is knowledge, therefore knowledge is power.He examined the contemporary logic and method and founded modern inductive method.He argued that the contemporary syllogism started by Aristotle did more harm than good. Induction means reasoning from particular facts or individual cases to a general conclusion.The deductive method emphasizes reasoning from a known principle to the unkown and from the general to the specific.The Great InstaurationTo expect any great advancement in science, we must begin anew. The fresh start required the mind to overcome all the preconception, prejudices and assumptions, sweep away all the fallacies and false beliefs, in a word, to break with the past, and to restore man to his lost mastery of the natural world.Baconian Materialism"To Bacon, natural philosophy is the only true philosophy, and physics based upon the experience of the senses is the chiefest part of natural philosophy."___ Marx & Engels, The Holy FamilyThomas Hobbes (1588-1679)Author of Leviathan(1651), one of the most celebrated political treatises in European literature. During the English Revolution, he took refuge in France and wrote Leviathan on account of his royalist convictions.He argues that our knowledge comes from experience."The cause of sense is the external body, or object, which presseth the organ proper to each sense either immediately, as in the taste and touch; or mediately, as in seeing, hearing and smelling."He believes that only material things are perceptible, and knowable to us. Our own experience alone is ceratin.He said men could not know anything about the existence of God because they could not have any idea of Him in their minds answerable to His nature.Concerning motion, Hobbes said that when a thing lies still, unless sth. else stirs it, it will lie still for ever. When a body is once in motion, it moves (unless sth. else hinders it) eternally.Hobbes systematized Baconian materialism, but basically he was a mechanical materialist.The Natural State of WarHobbes held that men are by nature equal in bodily and mental capacity.From this equality of ability arises equality of hope in the attaining of their ends.If any two men desire the same thing, which they can not both enjoy, they become enemies.The fact that every individual seeks his own conservation and his own enjoyment leads to competition and mistrust of others. So, Hobbes believed that man is selfish by nature.Unless such times as men live under a common power, they are in a state of war with one another. This natural state of war, therefore, is the state of affairs in which the individual is dependent for his own security on his own strength and his own wits, and where "every man is enemy to every man."The Laws of NatureBecause the condition of man is a condition of war of every man against every man, it is obviously in man's interest to emerge from this natural state of war.The possibility of doing so is provided by nature itself; for by nature men have their passions and their reasons.It is human passions that bring about the state of war; the fear of death and need for security drive man to accept certain laws of nature.Reason tells men that peace is necessary for survival and also suggests certain articles of peace, upon which men may be drawn to agreement. These articles are called the Laws of nature.In Leviatha n, Hobbes stated nineteen laws of nature.According to Hobbes, the fundamental law of nature is the general rule of reason that every man ought to endeavor for peace.The Theory of Social ContractHobbes maintained that in order to get men out of the miserable condition of war, keep them in awe, and tie them by fear of punishment to the performance of their agreements, and observation of the laws of nature, it is necessary that there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish.Individuals should "confer all their power and strength upon one man or upon one assembly of men, that may reduce all their wills by plurality of voices, unto one will."The transfer of rights takes place "by covenant of every man with every man, in such manner, as if every man should say to every man, I authorize and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition that thou give gup thy right to him andauthorize all his actions in like manner. This done, the multitude so united in one person, is called a Commonwealth, in Latin, Civitas. This is the generation of that great Laviathan".To escape anarchy, men enter into a social contract, by which they submit to the sovereign. in return for conferring all their powers and strength to the sovereign, men attain peace and security. In Hobbes' s thoery, the powers of the sovereign must be absolute, and it is only the centralization of authority in one person that the evil can be avoided.The sovereign is not a party himself to the social contract.The subjects cannot either change the form of government or repudiate the authority of the sovereign. Rebellion is wrong, which will lead men back to the natural state of war.As to the form of government, monarchy.Hobbes believed that government was not created by God, but by men themselves."The merits of Hobbes appear most clearly when he is contrasted with earlier political theorists. He is completely free from superstition; he does not argue from what happened to Adam and Eve at the time of the Fall."____Russell, A History of Western PhilosophyJohn Locke (1632-1704)Oxford, philosophyDisliked Scholasticism and regarded it as perplexed with obscure terms and useless questions. Locke inherited and developed the materialist views expounded by Bacon and Hobbes.Materialist ViewsEssay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)All our ideas are ultimately derived from sensation or from reflection, that these two make up experience and that all our knowledge springs from experience.Locke argued against Plato, Descartes and the scholastics, that neither principles nor ideas are innate.Political PhilosophyTreatises of Civil Government (1690)Rejected the theory of divine right of king.Ridiculed the theory of transmission of royal authority by saying that there was no evidence that Adam possessed a divinely granted royal authority, nor is there any evidence that his heirs had it. “All men are naturally free and equal in the state of nature.”“Men living together according to reason without a common superior on earth, with no authority to judge between them, is properly the state of nature”“The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges everyone, and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty of possession”.The Social ContractLocke believed that society is out of necessity, convenience and man’s own interest, therefore, society is natural to man. Political society and government should rest on a rational foundation.The institution of political society and government must proceed from the consent of those who are incorporated into political society and subject themselves to government.Locke emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail.The absolute monarchy is contrary to the original social contract and the danger to liberty comes mainly from absolute monarchy.Locke believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract. If he violates the social contract, then government is effectively dissolved. In this case, rebellion is justified.As to who is to judge when circumstances render rebellion legitimate, Locke replied, “The people shall be judge”, which is welcomed by the Americans during the American Revolution.Question?Both Thomas Hobbes and John Locke used the term “social contract”, what is the difference between them?Hobbes argued men enter a social contract to escape the state of war, for, in his view, men are enemies and at war with each other. Locke argued men are equal and that they enter a social contract by reason.Hobbes argued that individuals surrender their rights to one man, the sovereign whose power is absolute. Locke argued that the individuals surrender their rights to the community as a whole. According to Locke, by majority vote, a representative is chosen, but his power is not absolute. If the fails to implement the people’s will, the people have the right to ovethrow him.The English Revolutionin the middle of the 17th century.The causes:1) the growth of capitalism2) the break-up of serfdom3) the Puritan movementThe Growth of CapitalismCapitalism had started growing in England much earlier and faster than any other European country.The leading industry in the early development was textile, which pushed the development of coal-mining and other industries.The English bourgeoisie was not only economically powerful, but also politically strong.The English bourgeoisie had a political body, the parliament, to speak for them.SerfdomThe serfdom in the English countryside had begun breaking up from the 15th century as a result of the Enclosure Movement.Many serfs and poor peasants were driven out of their farm lands and homes, who went to the cities and became the source of cheap labor for the early capitalists.PuritansBy the end of the 16th century, Calvinism had spread to England. As a result,the Puritan Movement started in England.The Puritan principle emphasized the liberty of the individual soul before God, which reflected the desire of the early rising bourgeoisie for free development of capitalism.The Puritans were subjected to the suppression and persecution by the feudal monarchy. This was the religious cause of the English Revolution.MayflowerThe Land of the FreeThanksgivingThe English RevolutionIn 1642, Civil War broke out between the king and the Parliament.With the support of the people and the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, the English bourgeoisie won the victory.Charles I was captured and beheaded in front of his own palace in 1649.A republic was born, Cromwell became the head of the government known as the Protector. Oliver CromwellAfter the death of Cromwell in 1658, the country was in confusion and revolutionary movement was again on the rise.Fearing that the people might take over power, the upper bourgeoisie and feudal nobles collaborated and staged the restoration of the Stuart.In 1660, Charles II returned from France and was put on the throne.During the restoration, many revolutionary leaders were persecuted.Charles II was planning to turn England into a Catholic country.In 1688, the representatives of the parliament went to Holland to negotiate withe Dutch King William and his wife Mary, a member of the English royal family and yet a Protestant.William and Mary were invited to be the joint ruler of England. Thus, the shortlived restoration ended.The Glorious RevolutionIn December, 1689, the Bill of Rights was enacted by the Parliament.It established the supremacy of the parliament and put an end to divine monarchy in England. The Bill of RightsThe power of suspending the laws by royal authority was declared to be illegal; Parliament was responsible for all the law making;The king levy no money except by grant of parliament;The king should not keep a standing army in time of peace without consent of Parliament.No Roman Catholic, nor anyone marrying a Roman Catholic should succeed to the throne.The Bill of Rights is the foundation on which the constitutional monarchy of England rests."The bourgeoisie was victorious in these revolutions, but the victory of the bourgeoisie was at thattime the victory of a new social order, the victory of bourgeois ownership over feudal ownership... These revolutions reflected the need of the world at that time rather than the needs of those parts of the world where they occurred, that is England and France".___ Collected Works of Marx and EnglesRene Descartes (1596-1650)Philosopher, physicist and mathematicianIt is generally believed that modern philosophy begins with Francis Bacon in England and with Rene Descartes in France.He enlisted in the Dutch army and spent years of undisturbed quiet in Holland where he worked at geometry and philosophy.After serving in the army, he continued to live in Holland for twenty years as some of his contemporaries also found Holland a country of freedom of thought.Rules for the Direction of the Mind (1628)Discourse on Method(1637)Meditations Concerning First Philosophy and Objections and Replies (1642)His method of doubt is known as the method of Cartesian doubt.He believed that the overthrow of the present opinion and the break-up with the past philosophy, Scholasticism included, are necessary condition of establishing sth. first and lasting in eh science. "It is now some years since I detected how many were the false beliefs that I had from my earliest youth and admitted as true, and how doubtful was everything I had since constructed on this basis; and from that time I was convinced that I must once for all seriously undertake to rid myself of all the opinion which I had formerly accepted, and commence to build anew from the foundation, if i want to establish any firm and permanent structure in the science".In Discourse on Method, Descartes formulated four rules in expressing his method:The first was to accept nothing as true which i did not clearly recognize to be so.Carefully avoid precipitation and prejudice in judgments, and to accept in them nothing more than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly that I could have no occasion to doubt it. The second was to divide up each of the difficulties which I examined into as many parts as possible, and as seemed requisite in order that it might be resolved in the best manner possible. The third was to carry on my reflections in due order, commencing with objects that were the most simple and easy to understand, in order to rise little by little, or by degrees, to knowledge of the most complex.The last was in all cases to make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that i should be ceratin of having omitted nothing.Theory of KnowledgeDescartes employed methodic doubt with a view to discovering whether there was any indubitable truth.He found his truth in this motto: "dubito ergo cogito; cogito ergo sum".I doubt, therefore I think; I think, therefore I am.This Cartesian doubt is the most important point in his philosophy.He believed that a thing that is thinking is one that doubts, understands, conceives, affirms, denies, wills, imagines, and feels.Doubting is thinking, thinking is the essence of the mind.All things that we conceive very clearly and distinctly are true, and theat knowledge of things must be by the mind.As to the senses, Descartes believed that they are not dependable.Innate IdeasDescartes believed that some ideas are innate.He claimed he discovered the first principles or first causes of everything which can be in the world without "deriving them from any other source than certain germs of truth which exist naturally in our souls".___ Discourse on MethodWe can construct metaphysics and physics by logic deduction from a number of innate ideas implanted in the mind by nature ,or by God.All clear and distinct ideas are innate. All scientific knowledge is knowledge of or by means of innate ideas.Knowledge of the universe and certain principles and laws of physics is innate.DualismDescartes turned his back on theological controversy and instead set out to apply the techniques of mathematical reasoning to questions of philosophy, attempting to build up a rigorous philosophy on the basis of reason alone.He argued that thought was the foundation of all knowledge while senses might deceive. (idealist) He believed that the external world existed, which is independent of the human mind. (materialist) In the Cartesian system, mind and matter are completely apart from one another.Descartes thus brought to completion the dualism of mind and matter which began with Plato.In mathematics, Descartes culminated in inventing analytical geometry.American linguist Noam Chomsky: "innate grammar".Pierre GassendiIn his early years, he began attacking Aristotelianism, and in 1641 he wrote his objections to Descartes's Meditation.He tried to show that the Cartesian criterion of true knowledge was useless, and insisted that our knowledge comes only from sensory experience."ambulo ergo sum" (I walk, therefore I am)French ClassicismSocial backgroundAfter the Hundred Years War between French and English invaders, France entered a period of comparatively steady development. In the latter half of the 17th century, Henry IV started a。
英国文学知识
II. The English Renaissance
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5. Christopher Marlowe: “university wits”; The Tragic History of Doctor Faustus, Tamburlaine, The Jew of Malta; blank verse (rhymeless iambic pentameter) as the principle instrument of English drama 6. William Shakespeare: 37 plays, 154 sonnets, 2 narrative poems; four great tragedies; four important comedies (A Midsummer’s Dream, As You Like It, The Twelfth Night, Merchant of Venice); Two remarkable historical plays (Henry IV, Henry V) 7. Ben Johnson: Volpone or the Fox (satirical comedy 《狐狸》); literary king of his time; poet Laureate of James I; a forerunner of classicism
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•••Fra bibliotekI. Old and Medieval English Literature II. The English Renaissance III. The Seventeenth Century (Literature of the Revolution Period: age of Milton; Literature of the Restoration Period: age of Dryden) IV. The Eighteenth Century (Enlightenment; NeoClasscism; Novelists of realistic tradition and novelists of sentimental tradition; Preromanticism and sentimentalism; drama in the 18th century) V. English Romanticism VI. English Critical Realism VII. Modern English Literature
英国文学 17世纪
Part ThreeThe Seventeenth Century(1640-1688)Chapter 1: Revolution and Restoration一、Social BackgroundThe 17th century was one of the most tempestuous periods in English history. Conflicts and clashes appeared between the King and the Parliament, which represented the bourgeois class.In 1642, a civil war (English revolution) broke out between Charles I and the parliament. At last, the royalists were defeated by the parliament army led by Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658). In 1649 Charles I (1600–1625–1649) was beheaded, and England was declared to be a commonwealth.After the death of Cromwell, the parliament recalled Charles II (1630–1660–1685) to England in 1660 and monarchy was restored, and then followed the Restoration Period.In 1688, the bourgeoisie invite William, prince of Orange (1650–1689–1702) from Holland to be king of England. This is called the “Glorious Revolution”. This bloodless event completed the bourgeoisie revolution and modern England was firmly established.二、The English Revolution and PuritanismThe English revolution was carried out under a religious cloak. So, English revolution also called the Puritan revolution. The Puritan Movement aimed to make man honest and to make man free.Puritanism was the religious doctrine of the revolutionary bourgeoisie during this period. It preached thrift, sobriety, hard work, but with very little extravagant enjoyment of the fruits of labor. Worldly pleasures were condemned as harmful. This was precisely the outlook needed by the bourgeoisie for the accumulation of capital. So in the triumph of Puritanism under Cromwell, severe laws were passed, many simple pleasures were forbidden and an austere standard of living was forced upon an unwilling people. The London theaters were closed in 1642.The criticism is made that the wild outbreak of immortality which followed the Restoration was partly due to the unnatural restriction of the Puritan era. The criticism was just but we must not forget the whole spirit of the movement. Puritans fought for liberty and justice overthrew despotism and made men’s life and property safe from the tyranny of rulers.三、Literature of the 17th centuryEnglish literature of the revolution and restoration was very much concerned with the tremendous social upheavals of the time.1. Literature of the Revolution PeriodGeneral characteristics①The Revolution Period was one of confusion in literature due to the breaking up of the old ideals. The Puritans believed in simplicity of life. They disapproved of the sonnets and the love poetry written in the previous period. Literature was as divided in spirit as were the struggling parties.②Literature in the Puritan Age expressed age and sadness. Even its brightest hours were followed by gloom and pessimism.③Romantic ardor can not be found in literature of the Puritan period.④John Milton (1608-1674), whose work would glorify any age and people, and in his work the indomitable revolutionary spirit found its noblest expression. For this reason, this period is also called Age of Milton．⑤The main literary form of the period was poetry．Besides Milton, there were two other groups of poets, the Metaphysical Poets and the Cavalier Poets.1) Metaphysical PoetsThe Metaphysical Poets appeared in England at about the beginning of the 17th century. They sought to shatter myths and replace them with new philosophies, new sciences, new world and new poetry. With a rebellious spirit, they favored in poetry a more colloquial language, a singleminded working of one theme. Besides, they tended to logically reason the things, esp. emotions, psychologically analyze the emotions of love and religion, love the novelty and the shocking, use the metaphysical conceits, and ignore the conventional devices. The works of these poets are characterized by mysticism in content and fantasticality in form.2) Cavalier PoetsAnother school of poetry prevailing in the period was the Cavalier Poets. Most of these poets were courtiers and soldiers. They sided with the king to fight against the revolution. The representatives of this school are Sir John Suckling(1609-1642), Richard Lovelace(1618-1657), Thomas Carew (1595-1639), and Robert Herrick (1591-1674).2. Literature of the RestorationRestoration literature is deeply influenced by French classical taste. It is a period of French influence.General characteristics①The tendency to vulgar realism in the drama. Restoration writers sought to paint realistic pictures of a corrupt society.② A general formalism. They produced coarse, low plays without interest or moral significance.③The development of a simpler and more direct prose style.④The prevalence of the heroic couplet (two iambic pentameter lines which rime together) in poetry.Chapter 2: Writers in this period一、John Milton (1608-1674)1. Life and literary careerMilton was born in London in1608. His education began at St. Paul's school, then he went on to distinguish himself at Cambridge University, where he graduated B. A. in 1629, and M. A. in 1632. His first work is an ode On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity（1629）.After leaving Cambridge, he retired for nearly six years to his father's country house in Horton, where he devoted his time chiefly to further mastery of the whole range of languages, literature, science, theology, and music. During this period, Milton wrote L’Allegro (1632), Il Penseroso (1632), Lycidas (1638), Comus (1634).In 1638 he left England to complete his education with two years of travel in Europe, France, Switzerland and Italy. When he returned home in 1639, England was on the verge of a civil war. Hesoon plunged himself into the struggle and gave all his energies to the writing of pamphlets dedicated to the people’s liberty.Milton was married to Mary Powell in June 1642, but the marriage proved to an unhappy one. So for several years Milton issued pamphlets in which he argued that all Englishmen should have the right to get a divorce. In 1644, he published Areopagitica, as a declaration of people’s freedom from press.After the Revolution succeeded, Milton became Latin Secretary to the council of Foreign Affairs in 1649. He wrote a number of pamphlets defending the English revolution, such as Defence of the English People(1651), and Second Defence of the English People(1654). Until the end of the Commonwealth, there were two leaders in England, Cromwell the man of action, and Milton the man of thought.Milton went blind in 1652, doubtlessly due to the severe eyestrain brought on by ceaseless reading and Latin composition. With the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, Milton not only was confronted, but also was imprisoned and threatened with execution. Through the intervention of some friends who carried some influence with the new royal government, Milton was let off with a fine and some loss of property. Shortly afterward, living in blindness and virtual seclusion from all but the members of his immediate family, Milton began his masterpiece Paradise Lost. Before his death Milton published two other works on a grand scale, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes. Both appeared in 1671; neither is as successful as Paradise Lost. Milton died in 1674.2. Major WorksOn the Morning of Christ’s Nativity《基督诞生晨颂》（1629）L’Allegro《快乐的人》(1632)Il Penseroso《沉思的人》(1632)Comus《科玛斯》(1634)Lycidas《利西达斯》(1638)Areopagitica《论出版自由》（1644）Defence of the English People《为英国人民辩护》(1651)Second Defence of the English People《为英国人民再辩护》(1654)Paradise Lost 《失乐园》（1665）Paradise Regained 《复乐园》（1671）Samson Agonistes 《力士参孙》（1671）3. About Paradise Lost1) Brief SurveyParadise Lost is Milton's masterpiece, and the greatest English epic. It is a long epic in 12 books, written in blank verse. The stories were taken from the Old Testament: the creation; the rebellion in Heaven of Satan and his fellow-angels; their defeat and expulsion from Heaven; the creation of the earth and of Adam and Eve; the fallen angels in hell plotting against God; Satan's temptation of Eve; the departure of Adam and Eve from Eden; and the possible salvation.2) Theme and CharacterizationThe poem, on the surface, was "to justify the ways of God to man", i. e. to preach submission to the Almighty. But under the surface, the main idea of the poem is the heroic revolt against God's authority.In the poem God is no better than a selfish despot. It has been noted by many critics that the picture of God surrounded by his angels resembles the court of an absolute monarch. While the rebel Satan who rises against God and, though defeated, still seeks for revenge. Satan and his followers who freely discuss all issues in council bear close resemblance to a republican Parliament. This epic expresses the reactionary forces of his time and shows passionate appeal for freedom.The theme is also about the fall of Men: man’s disobedience and the loss of Paradise. But having done it, Adam and Eve get freedom. They embody Milton's belief in the powers of man. Their craving for knowledge denied them by God, as Milton stresses, adds a particular significance to their character. It is this longing for knowledge that opens before mankind a wide road to an intelligent and active life.What makes Paradise Lost a powerful poem is precisely the way in which the Biblical past is pulled into the present in an intriguing way. Running through the poem are the key political questions offreedom and choice. From the perspective of Satan and his followers, rebellion against God was inevitable. The revolt may have failed, but it has left them their freedom. The final image of the poem is profoundly forward-looking, an image of gain through loss. As Adam and Eve go hand in hand out of Eden, the loss of Paradise is seen as the gain of a future for humanity on earth.3) The Image of SatanThe finest thing in Paradise Lost is the description of hell, and Satan is the real hero of the poem. As a conquered and banished giant, he remains obeyed and admired by those who follow him down to hell. It is always from him that deep counsels, unlooked-for resources and courageous deeds proceed. It is he who, passing through the guarded gates of hell and boundless chaos, amid so many dangers, and overcoming so many obstacles, makes man revolt against God. Though defeated, he prevails, since he has won from God the third part of his angels, and almost all the sons of Adam. Though feebler, he remains superior in nobility, since he prefers independence to happy servility, and welcomes his defeat and his torments as a glory, a liberty and a joy. To Milton, the proud and somber Satan represented the spirit of rebellion against an unjust authority. By using Satan as his mouthpiece, Milton is uttering his intense hatred of tyranny in the capacity of the Revolutionary. 2. About Paradise RegainedIt explores the theme of temptation and fall and shows how humankind, in the person of Christ, withstands the tempter and is established once more in the divine favor.3. About Samson AgonistesS amson Agonistes is a poetical drama modeled on the Greek tragedy. The story was taken from the Old Testament. Samson was an athlete of the Israelites. He stood as their champion, fighting for the freedom of his country. But he was betrayed by his wife and blinded by his enemi es the Philistines . One day he was summoned to provide amusement for his enemies by feats of strength in a temple. There he wreaked his vengeance upon his enemies by pulling down the temple upon them and upon himself in a common ruin.In this poetical drama, Milton is telling us his own story. Like Samson, he has been betrayed by his wife. He has suffered from blindness and been scorned by his enemies, and yet he has struggled heroically against his enemies. So the whole poem strongly suggests Milton's passionate longing that he too could bring destruction down upon the enemy at the cost of his own life. Samson isMilton.4. Features of Milton's Poetry (or Milton’s contribution)①Milton is a great revolutionary poet of the 17th century. He is also an outstanding political pamphleteer of the Revolution period. He made a strong influence on the later progressive English poets.②Milton is a great stylist. His poetry has a grand style. That is because he made a life-long study of classical and Biblical literature.③Milton is a great master of blank verse. He is the glorious pioneer to introduce blank verse into non-dramatic poetry. He has used it as the main tool in his masterpiece Paradise Lost. His blank verse is rich in every poetic quality and never monotonous.④Milton wrote the greatest epic in English literature. He made a strong influence o later English poetry.⑤His poetry is noted for sublimity of thought and majesty of expression.二、John Bunyan (1628-1688)1. LifeIn the field of prose writing of the Puritan Age, John Bunyan occupies the most important place. We know about Bunyan's life primarily from his autobiography, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners.John Bunyan was born in 1628. He received only the simplest education. Bunyan had a sensitive imagination. The religious fanaticism of the time made a tremendous impression upon his brain.In 1644, his father married the second time; therefore Bunyan ran away and became a soldier in the Parliamentary army. In about 1649, he served during the decisive battle of Naseby. In a few months, Bunyan returned home and married a girl as poor as himself. The real reformation of his life began. The only dowry of his wife, two books –The Plain Man’s Pathway to Heaven and The Practice of Piety– gave fire to his imagination.Bunyan lived at a time when political struggles adopted the form of religious struggles. He joined a Baptist society of Bedford and began to preach among the villagers with powerful effect. Hepreached the truth as he saw it and directed his attacks against social abuses and the oppressors of the poor, the court and the bourgeoisie.After the Restoration, he was imprisoned for refusing to obey the law prohibiting religious meetings. Although he remained in jail for twelve years, Bunyan continued to preach to his fellow prisoners and to write religious books. He was released and allowed to become the pastor of a Nonconformist church in Bedford, but in 1675 he was imprisoned again. It was during this second imprisonment that he wrote his most important work, The Pilgrim's Progress.The two great forces at work in Bunyan’s life are vivid imagination and the spiritual ferment of the age. Bunyan’s life is an epitome o f that astonishing religious individualism which marked the close of the English Reformation.2. About The Pilgrim’s ProgressThe Pilgrim's Progress is a religious allegory, a narrative in which general concepts such as sin, despair, and faith are re presented as people or as aspects of the natural world. The world’s literature has three great allegories: The Faerie Queene,Dante’s Divine Comedy and Pilgrim’s Progress. The first appeals to the poets, the second to the scholars, and the third to the common religious people of every age and condition.The Pilgrim's Progres s tells of a religious man’s search for salvation, and gives a truthful picture of English society. The basis of the allegorical narrative is the idea of a journey. The traveler's name is Christian, and he represents every Christian in human world. The figures and places Christian encounters on his journey stand for the various experiences every Christian must go through in the quest for salvation.The whole book falls into two parts. Part 1 tells of the religious conversion of Christian and his religious life in this world. Part 2 describes the subsequent conversion of his wife and their children. Part One mainly describes his pilgrimage through the Slough of Despond, Vanity Fair, Doubting Castle, the Valley of Humiliation, and the Valley of the Shadow of Death. On the way he overcomes many obstacles and encounters various allegorical personages, such as Mr Worldly Wiseman,Faithful, Hopeful, Giant Despair, the foul fiend Apollyon and some others. Finally he accomplishes his journey and arrives at the Celestial City. The “pioneer pilgrims” – Christian and his associates –belong to the Puritan sect, who was undergoing persecution in the reign of Charles II, especially during the earlier years of Restoration.Though an allegory, its characters impress the reader like real persons. The places are English scenes and the conversations that enliven his narratives vividly repeat the language of his time.One of the most remarkable passages is that in which Vanity Fair and the persecution of Christian and his friend Faithful are described. Christian, the hero, and his companion, Faithful, are passing through a town called Vanity during the season of the local fair. On the Vanity Fair, honors, titles, kingdoms, lusts, pleasures and lives can be sold or bought, and cheating, roguery, murder and adultery are normal phenomena.Bunyan cherished a deeply hatred of both the king and his government. This section gives the bitterest satire, which is invariably directed at the ruling class. In the descriptions of the Vanity Fair, Bunyan not only gives us a symbolic picture of London at the time of the Restoration but of the whole bourgeois society.3. T he chief qualities of Bunyan’s styleBunyan’s prose is noted for his simple, biblical style. He uses idiomatic expressions naturally. His biblical language enables him to narrate stories and reveal his ideas in a direct way.The secret of the success of The Pilgrim’s Progress is probably simple. Its predominant metaphor –life as a journey – is simple and familiar. Throughout the allegory a spiritual significance is added to the commonplace details.三、John Dryden (1631-1700)1. Brief SurveyDryden is the most notable representative of English classicism in the Restoration period. He is the greatest poet between Milton and Pope. He is “the lock by which the waters of English poetry were let down from t he mountains of Shakespeare and Milton to the plain of Pope.” He stands betweentwo very different ages, and serves as a transition from one to another. His works, which consist of his poems, his plays and his critical essays, reflect both good and evil tendencies of his age. In English literature, the Restoration period is traditionally called the "Age of Dryden".Dryden was brought in the strict puritan faith, and was sent first to the famous Westminster school, and then to Cambridge. He made an excellent use of his opportunities and studied eagerly. He had remarkable literary taste, but he showed little evidence of his literary ability up to the age of thirty. In the political affairs, he was quite changeable in attitude. Under the government of the puritans, he supported Cromwell, and wrote a poem upon Cromwell’s death. When the Restoration period began, he turned to the Royalists, and wrote a poem celebrating the return of Charles II.Dryden's long poetic career spanned the four decades from the Restoration in 1660 to the end of the seventeenth century. He wrote in most of the literary forms that were popular during that time. To make a living he wrote nearly thirty plays, and did a series of distinguished translations of Virgil and other classical authors. The most famous play is All for Love, a tragedy dealing with the same story as Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra. His finest works were his long poems in heroic couplets on political, religious, and literary themes. Dryden's best poetry was often inspired by some particular occasion like the great fire of London in 1660 or a plot against King Charles II in 1681. For almost twenty years Dryden was England’s poet laureate, but he had to resign in 1688 when James II was expelled and Catholics were deprived of public office.Dryden had superb gifts in verse satire. As he himself wrote, the great art of the satirist is to do his job elegantly rather than crudely.2. Dryden’s influence①In poetry Dryden set an enduring style with his neat "heroic couplets" and established it as the fashion for satiric, didactic, and descriptive poetry.②In prose, Dryden established the neoclassical standards of order, balance, and harmony. He is regar ded as “the Father of English Prose”, for he clarified English prose and made it precise, concise and flexible. He is also the forerunner of the English neoclassical school of literature in the next century. (Develop the direct and precise style)③He developed the art of literary criticism in his essays and in the numerous prefaces to his poems．He raised English literary criticism to a new level. His greatest work of literary criticism is An Essay of Dramatic Poesy, in which appears his famous appreciation of Shakespeare.3. Selected works1) PoemHeroic Stanzas on the Death of Oliver Cromwell《奥利弗·克伦威尔之死》（英雄诗辩）1659 Astraea Redux《伸张正义》1660Annus Mirabilis《神奇的年代》1667Absalom and Achitophel《押沙龙与阿齐托菲尔》1681MacFlecknoe《麦克·弗莱克诺》1682Religio Laici《俗人的宗教观》1682The Hind and the Panther《牝鹿与豹》1687Alexander's Feast《亚历山大的宴会》1697Fables, Ancient and Modern《古代和现代寓言集》17002) Comedy and other playsThe Wild Gallant《狂热骑士》1663The Enchanted Island《紫山魔岛》1667An Evening's Love《一夜之恋》1668Marriage à la mode《时尚婚姻》（现代婚姻）1672The Assignation, or Love in a Nunnery《幽会》（尼姑庵之恋情）1672The Mistaken Husband《糊涂的丈夫》1674King Arthur《亚瑟王》1691Amboyna (or the Cruelties of the Dutch to the English Merchants) 《安波亚娜》1673Oedipus (heroic drama)《俄狄浦斯》16793) Five Serials of Heroic Play(tragedy)The Indian Emperour《印第安女皇帝》1665The Maiden Queen (or Secret Love)《印第安女女王》1667Tyrannick Love《残酷的爱情》1669The Conquest of Granada《格拉纳达的征服》1670All for Love《一切为了爱情》16784) Essays and othersAn Essay of Dramatick Poesie 《论剧诗》The Art of Satire 《讽刺艺术》。
英美文学简史及名篇选读
Old ages (Angles-Saxons Period)●Period: 449AD Three tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes——1066 The Norman Conquest●Beowulf: the first English epic1. Three epics: (Beowulf; Paradise Lost; White Whale)2. Epic is a long narrative poem that records the adventure of a hero, whose exploits are important to the history of a nation.3. Features: alliteration; a lot of metaphors and understatementsMedieval ages:●Period: about1066——about1500●Three languages:1. French became official language used by the king and Norman lords.2. Latin was the principal tongue of church affairs and in universities.3. Old English was used only by common English people.●Romance: describes the adventure of a knight who devoted himself to the king, the church or the lord.Eg. the best of Arthurian romance: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight●Geoffrey Chaucer1. The father of English poetry2. The founder of English realism3. The forerunner of humanism4. The first writer to use current English language; use common English words;And be interred in the “Poets’ Corner” in Westminster Abbey.●The Canterbury Tales1. describes comprehensive realistic picture of English society of his time/ panorama(ordinary daily life)2. heroic couplets（英雄双韵体）: iambic pentameter(抑扬格五音步) which rhymes in pairs or couplets（双韵）●Scotland Ballad: a narrative poem written in four-line stanzas. Usually only the second and fourth lines rhyme.Eg. Get Up and Bar the Door by Robin HoodRenaissance (14-17.5): transition from medieval to modern worldItaly; literature(poetry and drama), painting, sculpture●Reasons:1. rediscovery of Roman and Greek culture2. discovery of geography and astrology3. religious reformation4. economic development●Reaching England slowly:1. separating from the Continent2. domestic unrest●Background1. The War of the Roses2. The Reformation3. The Enclosure Movement4. The Commercial Expansion●Two features1. literary spirit: humanism(keynote): human activities; Man is the measure of all things.2. literary form: classical literature especially drama: 5 acts and many scenes●Period(15.5——16——17.5)1. (beginning)Henry Ⅷ; (summit)Queen Elizabeth2. First period: imitation and assimilation(Petrarch)3. Second period: classical literature and Italy humanism●Status:1. Best representatives of humanist: William Shakespeare; Thomas More; Christopher Marlowe2. The most outstanding forms: poetry and poetic drama(William Shakespeare and Ben Jonson)3. The most famous dramatists: William Shakespeare; Christopher Marlowe; Ben Jonson●Trivial Figures:1. Wyatt introduced sonnet and Surrey introduced the blank verse to England.2. Francis Bacon: essayist; the founder of modern science; the founder of materialist philosophy; scientific method Advancement of Learning; New Instrument; Of Truth; Of Studies; Of Travel; Of Wisdom3. William Caxton: the first person to introduce printing4. Christopher Marlowe used the blank verse with mighty lines; “University Wits”;Tamburlaine the Great帖木儿大帝5. John Donne: metaphysical poetry6. Thomas More: Utopi a meaning “no place”7. Edmund Spenser: poet’s poet;Spenserian stanza: 8 lines of iambic pentameter and a concluding line of iambic hexameter; ABAB BCBC C The Fair QueenWilliam Shakespeare1. works: 37 plays, 2 long poems and 154 sonnets(126 friendships and 28 love)2. First period: different genresRomeo and Juliet3. Second period: comediesThe Merchant of Venice; Twelfth Night; A Midsummer Night’s Dream; As You Like It4. Third period: tragedies reflects social contradictions of the age(feudalism VS capitalism)Hamlet; Othello; King Lear; Macbeth5. Fourth period: (Period of Romance)The Tempest; The Winter’s Tale6. Hamlet: soliloquy; blank verse(unrhymed iambic pentameter)7. sonnet: Italian sonnet and English sonnet(three quatrains and a couplet rhyming abab cdcd efef gg)The Seventeenth Century●Three events:Bourgeois revolution(civil war) between Charles Ⅷ and the parliamentOliver Cromwell built a commonwealthThe Restoration by Charles Ⅷ.●Two features:Two groups (Milton and Cavalier poets)+ Metaphysical poetLiterature in the Puritan Age expressed rage and sadness.●John Milton(Christian humanist)His creed: the freedom of manHis grand style: sublimity of thought and majesty of expressionHe has ambition to write an epic which English would “not willingly let die”.1. Lycidas2. (prose) Areopagitica《论出版自由》; A Defense of the English People3. Paradise Lost(Restoration in 1660); Paradise Regained(Christ); Samson Agonistes(Bible or Greek literature)●Paradise Lost: 12 books; from Old Testament-Genesis; blank verseThe theme is “Fall of Man”. It tells disobedience of men and the loss of Paradise with the prime cause Satan.His intention is to expose the way of Satan and to “justify the ways God to men”.He expresses implicitly the fundamental concerns of freedom and choice.●Paradise Regained: Man shall find grace.●Samson Agonistes: bring destruction upon the enemy at the cost of his own life.While his achievements in literature not only make him tower over all the other English writers of his time, but also exert a great influence on later ones.Trivial figures:1. John Donne: metaphysical poet; The Flea (conceit/metaphor); Songs and Sonnet2. John Bunyan: Christian allegory The Pilgrim’s Process-Vanity Fair3. John Dryden: critics An Essay of Dramatic PoesyThe Eighteenth Century: The Age of ReasonThis century is the most peaceful era in Great Britain.●Three reasons for the eighteenth century1. Glorious revolution helped the bourgeoisie come to power.2. Industrial revolution and fast-expanding colonization boosted the development of capitalism.3. The Enlightenment Movement focusing on reason flourished.●Three literature trends:●Other writers:1. Sheridan：The School of Scandal●Daniel Defoe: describing the enterprising capitalist society; one of the forerunner of English realistic novelRobinson Crusoe (optimistic enterprising spirit)●Jonathan Swift: a master of pamphlet and the greatest satiristNovels: Gulliver’s Travels; Battles of the books (a satire of two-party state system); A Tale of a Tub (a satire of church)Pamphlet: A Modest Proposal (attacking the English government exploiting and draining Ireland of wealth and resources);●Henry Fielding: “father of the English novel”; Chaucer “father of the English poetry”One of founders of the English realism;giving a comprehensive picture of the life of 18th century England, from country to cityJoseph Andrew; The Story of Tom Jones, a Foundling; Amelia;●Tomas Gray: one of the leading figures of Sentimentalism; one of “Graveyard Poets”Elegy Written in a Country ChurchyardPre-romanticism is to resist rationality and restraint, to call for passion and romance, and to return to medieval literature.●William Blake: Pre-romantic poet and painter; He wrote his poems in a plain, simple, and direct way.His poems often imply romantic spirit, natural sentiment and individual originality.Two collections of short lyrics: Songs of Innocence (beautiful nature, innocent children and harmonious world); Songs of Experience (more mature and gloomier darker in the theme and the tone)The Marriage between Heaven and Hell; Milton;Prophecy: The French Revolution; America●Robert Burns: Pre-romantic Scottish poet; a poet of peasants and common peopleHe was greatly influenced by Scottish folk songs.Expressing the feelings and daily life of working people and the optimism and dignity of common people Theme: fresh romantic spirit of friendship and loveA Red Red Rose; Farewell to ScotlandEnglish Literature in Romantic Age (1798-1832)●Duration: the publication of Wordsworth and Coleridge’s joint work Lyric Ballads-the death of Walt Scott.●Reasons:1. Industrial Revolution and Enclosure Movement2. French Revolution and American Revolution●Features:1. As a violent struggle against the Enlightenment, romanticism focused on passion, individual and inner life.Romanticists expressed the ideology and sentiment of working class who were discontented with and opposed to the development of capitalism.Working class hailed the doctrine of “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity”.●Key poets and two novelists of Romantic movement:Novelists: Walt Scott (historical novelist) and Jane Austin (realistic female novelist)●William Wordsworth: “Laureate Poet”; poet of natureExperience: roaming in free area→touring in Europe and witnessing the French revolution→full of sympathy for the lives of common peopleLyric Ballads; Lucy Poems; in Two V olumes; The Excursion; The Prelude;She Dwelt Among the Untrodden Ways; I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud; The Solitary Reaper●George Gordon Lord Byron: “Byronic Heroes” who are man with fiery passion and unbending willHours of Idleness; Don Juan; Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage; The Age of Bronze；She Walks in BeautyPercy Bysshe Shelly: a master of poetry and politics; the first poet who sang for working class in Europe “Mad Shelly” for his sensitive nature and crazy rebellion against injusticeHis work reflected radical ideas and revolutionary optimism.A pamphlet against religion: The Necessity of Atheism;Odes: Ode to the Skylark; Ode to the West Wind (political lyrics with five stanzas of iambic pentameter) Four-act poetic drama: Prometheus UnboundA great theory of poetry: A Defense of PoetryPoems: Song to the Men of England; Queen Mab●John Keats: a poet of “pure poetry”; “art for art’s sake”; poems with sensual imaginary; surgeon→poetOde to a Nightingale; Ode to Melancholy; Ode to a Grecian Urn; To Autumn; Ode to PsycheThe Eve of St. Agnes●Walt Scott: Scottish historical novelist; the founder and master of the historical novel; lawyer→novelistTo combine historical fact with romantic imagination: Waverley; Ivanhoe●Jane Austen: the founder of the novel which deals with unimportant middle-class peopleShe explored the independence of woman on marriage and brought the novel of family life to its highest point of perfection.Pride and Prejudice(Elizabeth Bennet and Darcy); Sense and Sensibility;English Literature of Modernization (WWⅠ and WWⅠ)●Features:1. The sun-never-set empire collapsed.2. There were various philosophical ideas:Marx and Engels’s theory of scientific socialismDarwin’s theory of evolutionEinstein’s theory of relativityFreud’s analytical psychology3. Irrational philosophy (非理性哲学) against realism: Arthur Schopenhauer→Nietzsche→Henry Bergson4. Modernism rose out of skepticism (Victorian values) and disillusion of capitalism (to explore).●George Bernard Shaw: great playwright secondary to Shakespeare; critic and polemicist (清朝)Fabian society; socialism; against “arts for arts’ sake” and for reflecting human lifeCashel Baryon’s Profession (novel);Early drama: Widowers’ Houses (unfair landlordism); Mrs. Warren’s Profession (prostitude; economic oppression of woman);Middle drama: The Doctor’s Dilemma: ignorance, incompetence, arrogance and bigotry of the medical profession Major Barbara; Pygmalion 卖花女; Saint Joan 圣女贞德（a satire of the rigid British social hierarchy and a commentary of woman independence）Later drama: Too True to be Good(难以置信);●John Galsworthy● James Joyce: Irish writerDubliners （a collection of short stories which reflect three aspects of life in politics, culture and religion ）； Ulysses (parodying the episodes of Homer’s Odyssey)Three exponents of the stream -of –consciousness: James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and Faulkner. ● Virginia Woolf : the central figure of Bloomsbury Group; forerunner of feminismThe Mark on the Wall （first ）; Mrs. Dalloway 达洛维夫人; To the Lighthouse 到灯塔去; A Room of one’s Own; The Waves (the climax of Virginia Woolf’s experiments through the novel form of stream of consciousness) ● D. H. Lawrence: a controversial figure because his frank treatment of sexThe Rainbow; Women in Love (Ursula and Birkin; Gudrun and Gerald); Lady Chatterley’s Lover (noblewoman’s love affair with a servant)William Butler Yeats: 叶芝 first writer to win the Noble Prize in Literature in Ireland When You Are Old (to Maud Gonne)three trilogiesfirst trilogyThe forstye SagaThe Man of Property 财主The Chancery 骑虎难下To let 出租second trilogyModern ComedyThe White MonkeyThe Sliver Spoon Swan Song third trilogyEnd of the ChapterMaid in WaitingThe Flowering Wilderness Over the riverEnglish Literature of Realization (Victorian Age 1832-1902Queen Victorian: 1837-1902;This period is the remarkable in the development of the country, marked by a great expansion of British Empire. 1832: the death of Walter Scott; The Reform ActSocial problems:1. the political power passed into hands of middle-class industrial capitalists2. the problem of women influenced by Industrial Revolution3. contradiction between the rich and the poor4. the conflicts between capital and labor5. the widespread unemployment6. the severe depression7. the system of workhouseEnglish critical realism: to describe traits of English society and criticize the capitalism from a democratic view Main figures: Charles Dickens; William Makepeace Thackeray; Charlotte Bronte; Mrs. Gaskell; George Eliot; Tomas HardyCharles Dickens: the greatest novelist in Victorian Age; the greatest representative of English critical realism First period (naïve optimism): Sketches by Boz博兹札记; Pickwick Papers; Oliver Twist; The Old Curiosity Shop Second period (A travel to America; hopelessness to democracy): David Copperfield; A Christmas CarolLast period (intensifying pessimism): Bleak House; Hard Times; A Tale of two Cities (London and Pairs); Great ExpectationBronte sisters:Charlotte Bronte; Emily Bronte; Ann BronteJane Eyre; Wuthering Heights; Agnes GreyTomas Hardy: semi-fictional region of Wessex; theme is the futility of man’s effort to struggle against cruel fate Tess of the d’Urbervilles (fatalism)Browning:Robert Browning; Mrs. BrowningMy Last Duchess; How do I Love Thee?Other writer:1. Mrs. Gaskell: The Life of Charlotte Bronte2. George Eliot: pseudonym of Mary Ann Events; Middlemarch3. Lewis Carroll: a university teacher in Oxford; Alice’s Adventure in Wonderland; Through the Looking-glass4. Robert Lewis Stevenson: travel a lot due to his weak lungs; Treasure Island5. Oscar Wilde: The Importance of Being Earnest 不可儿戏6. William Makepeace Thackeray: Vanity Fair (a satirical novel with title from Bunyan)7. Alfred Lord Tennyson: The EagleAmerican Literature of Romanticism (1820-1860) The American Renaissance●New England Transcendentalism: Emerson and Thoreaudivinity; individual’s intuition; feeling over reason●Washington Irving: father of American short story; comic fablesThe Sketch Book: The Legend of Sleepy Hollow; Rip V an Wrinkle; Life of George Washington●Nathaniel Hawthorne: Psychological fictions; symbolism; Calvinistic beliefThe Scarlet Letter; The Minister’s Black Veil; The Birthmark; Young Goodman Brown; The House of Seven Gables ●Edgar Allan Poe: father of detective stories; Gothic tales (horror and mystery); poetry for beauty: To Helen●Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: the most beloved American poet; great versatility;A Psalm of Life (the first American poem introduced to China); I Shot an Arrow (friendship)●Walt Whitman: the most influential poet in America; free verseLeaves of Grass: Democratic Bible/ National Epic; Drum Taps; O Captain! My Captain! To the StatesWhen Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d: Air his sorrow about the death of LincolnThere was a Child Went Forth: himself and AmericaCavalry Crossing a Ford: Civil WarSong of Myself: belief in the singularity and equality of all beings in value●Harriet Beecher Stowe: abolitionistAnti-slavery novel: Uncle Tom’s Cabin●Other writers:1. James Fenimore Cooper: frontier adventuresLeatherstocking Tales: The Pioneers; The Last of Mohicans; The Prairie; The Path Finder; The Deerslayer2. Emerson: Nature;3. Thoreau: Walden (Nature is divine, and human can communicate with it by way of pure senses.)4. Rebecca Harding Davis: social realism4. Herman Melville: Moby-Dick; TypeeAmerican Literature of Realism (1860-1914 ) Civil War-WWⅠ●Three reasons for the coming of American Realism:1. The Civil War overturned the moral value of American, and people began to question the human nature and thebenevolence of God.2. After the Civil War, industrialization and mechanization flourished, giving rise to the affluent mid-class.3. The gap between poverty and wealth expanded.●Three characteristics of American Realism:1. Realists focused on the straightforward and objective description of real life2. Realists were interested in commonplace and depicted people from all social levels.3. American realism approached the harsh realities by experience.●Naturalism: Darwin’s evolutionary theory+ French novelist Emile ZolaTheodore Dreiser; Stephen Crane: A Red Badge of Courage;Jack London: Martin EdenKate Chopin: the forerunner of feminist authors; The Awakening●Three novelists: Mark Twain (lower class); Howells (middle class); Henry James (upper class)●Mark Twain(Samuel Langhorne Clemens):vernacular(colloquial); local colorist; father of American literature(William Faulkner);His writing features are strong local colors, colloquial speech and witty remarks.The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County; The Innocents Abroad; The Adventures of Tom Sawyer; Life on Mississippi;The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Huck and Jim looked for freedom; Hemingway: all modern American literature comes);The Gilded Age (Charles Warner; post-Civil War)●Henry James: the forerunner of “stream of consciousness”;the founder of psychological realismdescribe inner world by his psychological approach; international theme; cosmopolitan novelist; literary essayist First period: The American; Daisy Miller; The Portrait of a Lady; The Europeans;Second period: The Turn of a ScrewThird period: What Maisie Knows; The Golden Bowl; The Wings of the Dove; The AmbassadorsLiterary criticism: The Art of Fiction (The novel aims to present the life.)●Emily Dickinson(——): great poet with 1775 poemsTheme: love, religion, death and immortality in physical, psychological and emotional termsnature (more than 500)：Nature’ inscrutability(不可预测) and indifference to human beingsSuccess; I’m Nobody; I Died for Beauty;I Like to See it Lap the Miles (Train is the part of nature like an animal.)I Heard a Fly Buzz—When I Died(the moment of death)This is my Letter to the World (her anxiety about her communication with the outside world)Because I Could Not Stop for Death (personification of Death and Immortality)Her poems are usually based on her experiences, her sorrows and joys.●Theodore Dreiser:Naturalism: Darwin’s idea; The world is like a juggle; Man is a “victim of forces over which he has no control”.Sister Carrie; An American Tragedy: real criminal cases; “Trilogy of Desire”: Financier; The Titan; The Stoic●Robert Frost: living in New England; Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for four times; Congressional Gold MedalA link between the 19-century American literature and Modernism with traditional form and modern themeHis work is distinguished by its simple style, colloquial speech and metaphorical images.A Boy’s Will (the development of a boy from egoism to maturity full of characteristics of New England)North of Boston “a book of people in New England”New Hampshire-Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening (continue to proceed after having a break)The Road Not Taken (Different way of life)After Apple Picking (a sense of completeness yet hopelessness)American Literature of Modernism (1914-1915) WWⅠ - WWⅠ●Reasons for modernism:1. Two wars cost many lives and destructed much property.2. Philosophical ideas such as Einstein’s theory of relativity and Freud’s analytical psychology flourished.3. The establishment of Nobel Prize in literature has promoted the development of literature.●Feature for modernism: to express disillusionment with tradition and interest in new technologies and visions●Feature of the Lost Generation: to express their loss, despair and disillusionment●Figures of the Lost Generation: Ernest Hemingway and Fitzgerald●Ezra Pound: imagism (A visual image and concrete instances can be poetic and abstract.)Confucius; Shih-Ching; In a Station of the Metro● E. E. Comings: an avant-garde poet with typographical style (scattered words); mimic Ezra Pound’s imagismIn Just-●Wallace Stevens: gifted nonprofessional poet; power of imagination and description of concrete objects Anecdote of the Jar: jar (imagination and creation); hill (bewildering and chaotic world)●Williams Carlos Williams: variable foot; meter(格律：stressed) and lineation (分行：line breaks and stanzas) The Red Wheelbarrow●William Faulkner: composite stream of consciousness(free form); Southern Renaissance-The fugitive Yoknapakawpha county;The Sound and the Fury(four characters; no capitalization and punctuation); A Rose for Emily;●T. S. Eliot: an innovative poet, playwright and criticPoems using a lot of mythology, allusion, symbolism and disconnected images;New Criticism focusing on regarding work as an independent of both author and reader;Poems: The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock; The Waste Land (disillusionment of spirit of the former generation); The Hollow Men; For Quartets Play: Murder in Cathedral●Ernest Hemingway: Lost generation(disillusioned and confused); iceberg theoryEconomical and understated(terse) writing styleCoded heroes have “grace under pressure” and “despairing courage”.A Farewell to Arms; Green Hills of Africa; The Snows of Kilimanjaro; For Whom the Bell Tolls;A Clean, well-Lighted Place (nihilism and existentialism)● F. Scott. Fitzgerald: chronicler of the Jazz Age of America(1918-1929 Roaring Twenties); Lost GenerationStyle: satire and criticism of the worship of hedonism and moneyThe Great Gatsby: aspiration and desire, innocence and hypocrisy, idealism and decadence(堕落), illusion and disillusionTender is the Night；The Side of Paradise●Eugene O’Nell: one of the greatest playwright in America; the first dramatist to win the Nobel Prize in Literature The Hairy Ape: dehumanization (非人性化) and oppression of capitalism, disillusion and loss of the working class The Emperor Jones●Other writers:1. Sinclair Lewis: novelist; the first American to win the Nobel Prize in LiteratureMain Street: criticism of capitalism and materialism after World War ⅧBabbitt: (babbittry: narrow-minded, complacent and bourgeois )2. Pearl S. Buck: an American having lived in China; the first woman to win the Nobel Prize in LiteratureGood Earth: peasant life of China3. Gertrude stein: hosting a Pairs Salon for famous writers4.Margaret Mitchell：Gone with the Windngston Hughes: Harlem Renaissance 哈莱姆(New Negro Movement); the earliest innovator of Jazz poetry Dream（Martin Luther King-I Have a Dream）6. Richard Wright:a black writer focusing on racism; The Native Son6. John Steinbeck: plight of working class and migrant workers in rural areas in Great DepressionThe Grapes of Wrath: economic and social plight of farmers; Of Mice and Men。
美国文学考试模拟题
第一章殖民地时期的美国文学填空题1. Theterm “Puritan”was applied to those settlers who originally were devout membersof the Church of ______.【答案】England查看答案【解析】清教徒（Puritan），是指要求清除英国国教Church of England中天主教残余的改革派。
其字词于16世纪60年代开始使用，源于拉丁文的Purus，意为“清洁”。
2. Themost enduring shaping influence in American thought and American literature was______.【答案】American Puritanism查看答案【解析】美国文化源于清教文化，由清教徒移民时传入北美。
美国主流价值观都可以追溯到殖民地时期一统天下的清教主义，并且清教思想对美国文学有着根深蒂固的影响。
3. Hard work, thrift,piety and sobriety, these were the ______ values that dominated much of theearly American writing.【答案】Puritan查看答案【解析】清教主义，起源于英国，在北美殖民地得以实践与发展。
清教徒强调艰苦奋斗、勤俭节约、虔诚和淡泊。
这些价值观也影响了早期的美国文学。
4. Many Puritans wroteverse, but the works of two writers, Anne Bradstreet and ______, rose to thelevel of real poetry.【答案】EdwardTaylor查看答案【解析】美国殖民时期最著名的诗人是安·布莱德斯特和爱德华·泰勒。
5. TheTenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America is a collection of poems composed by______.【答案】AnneBradstreet查看答案【解析】安·布莱德斯特律是美国殖民时期著名的诗人。
初中英语8年级星级阅读训练 Test 27
Test 27AComplete the following passage with the words or phrases in the box. Each word can only be used once (将下列单词或词组填入空格。
每空格限填一词，每词只能填一次)：Bridges are built for many reasons. Some bridges are built so that cars can cross over rivers. Others are made for trains to use. In the state of Washington, there is a very ___1___ bridge --- it was built for squirrels!The town of Longview has a very busy street. Many cars use it every day. Squirrels were being __2__ as they tried to cross the street. Mr. Peters built a bridge for the squirrels --- one that would pass above the __3__. For years now, the squirrels have been able to across __4__ from one side of the street to the other.Diamonds are the most valuable stones on earth. One of the most famous stones is the Koh-i-noor --- meaning "mountain of light", __5__ the bad luck it brings.This diamond was first __6__ by the rulers of India. When the Mongols, people from northern Asia, attacked India, the Mongol leader demanded all the jewels in the country --- __7__ the Koh-i-noor. But the Indian ruler said that the diamond would bring "bad luck and death to those who own it from this time forth". Since than, many different people have owned the diamond. Nearly every one of them died in some __8__ way. Now the Koh-i-noor is part of the crown that English kings and queens wear. To this day, no bad luck has come to them.BChoose the best answer (根据短文内容，选择最恰当的答案):In the 1700s in Turkey, it was quite popular for people in love to secretly send each other baskets full of strange things. Usually, an old woman who sold flowers or fruit on the street left the basket beside the door of the person receiving it.There are lots of different things in these baskets, such as flowers, stones, and even feathers. Each thing in the basket had a special meaning and by working out the secret message in each thing, the person who received the basket could determine the true feelings of the giver.This idea of sending gifts of love with secret meanings quickly spread to Germany, France, and England. However, over time, only sending flowers remained popular.A bunch(束) of flowers told young ladies about the feeling in the hearts of young men. Each different flower had a different meaning. For example, the flowers from an orange tree meant "You are beautiful and pure." Pink carnations(康乃馨) meant "My love for you is strong and great." Yellow roses, on the other hand, meant "I saw you with someone else."Many flower dictionaries were made to help young people in love understand the meaning of the flowers, so a person had to watch out what flowers they chose to send. For example, depending on which dictionary you used, and which color you gave, a young man's roses could mean, "I love you", "love is dangerous" or even "my love has decreased(减少)".By the 1880s, using flowers to send messages had fallen out of fashion, and the more direct way of sending love letters began. Today, flowers are still considered a lovely gift, but the meaning for each kind of flower has been lost.1.What custom is described in the first and second paragraph?A. Sending gift baskets.B. Selling gift baskets.C. Sending flowers.D. Selling flowers.2.What did the things in a gift basket explain to the receiver?A. The receiver's looks.B. The receiver's personality.C. The sender's feeling.D. The sender's name.3.To where did the idea of sending gifts of love spread?.A. Asia.B. Turkey.C. Europe.D. North America.4. How did people know the meaning of each kind of flowers?A. They found out from books.B. The sender told them.C. Old women explained it.D. They read secret letters.5.In which century did the custom of reading messages through flowers become out of date?A. The seventeenth century.B. The eighteenth century.C. The nineteenth century.D. The twentieth century.6.Nowadays, it is still popular for people _____________ as lovely gift..A. to send lettersB. to send flowersC. to send giftsD. to send messagesCChoose the words or expressions and complete the passage (选择最恰当的单词或词语完成短文):It was my first week in Kansas City, the USA. My friend, Sharon, asked me whether I'd like to try McDonald's for a quick lunch. So, we went. American fast food is quite popular in China, so I could __1__ pick something that I used to have in Beijing --- a super burger, a coke and French fries, though the names of the food were in English. __2__, the burger was much bigger than what I had back home. I thought to myself, after all, most Americans are bigger than Chinese. They must need more for lunch.With my lunch set in front of me, I wanted some tomato sauce to __3__ my French fries, so I went to the waiter and asked him for some tomato sauce."What?" he looked puzzled. "Tomato sauce?"I started to feel uncertain. I had studied English for six years. He should be able to understand me without any problems. Maybe, it was not called "tomato sauce" here, I __4__."I'm not sure what you call that thing," I tried again, "but it's American food, and you put tomato sauce on everything.""Sorry, Miss," he said, shaking his head, "but we don't have tomato sauce here. Never have."I walked back to Sharon and asked her the question. She smiled and asked me to wait for a moment. A few minutes later, she came back with several packages that I had asked for. So, theynever used the __5__ packages for the tomato sauce. Oh, no, it's written right there, "Ketch-up"."What's the difference between Ketch-up and the tomato sauce?" I asked."I don't know __6__ we call it this name," replied Sharon. "Never thought about it."Sharon's smile suddenly made me realize that the difference between Ketch-up and the tomato sauce lay not so much in the food itself as in our different cultures.（）1. A. carefully B. happily C. easily D. hardly（）2. A. To my surprise B. For example C. In addition D. In this way （）3. A. compete B. match C. mix D. cook（）4. A. wondered B. believed C. agreed D. apologized （）5. A. expensive B. attractive C. natural D. same（）6. A. how B. where C. why D. whenDRead the passage and fill in the blanks with suitable words (在短文的空格内填入适当的词，使其内容通顺。
英国文学5
Metaphysical Poets
Metaphysical poets is the name given to a diverse group of 17 th-century English poets whose work is notable for its ingenious use of intellectual and theological concepts, in surprising conceits, strange paradoxes, and far-fetched imagery. Their rigorous verse appeals to the reader’s intellect rather than emotion. Their style is characterized by wit, subtle argumentations, muscular rhythms, giving the effect of a speaking voice and the use of conceits. Important metaphysical poets are: John Donne, George Herbert and Andrew Marvell.
Three groups of Bacon’s works
[1]. Philosophic prose: The Advancement of Learning (English)《学术的推进》 Novum Organum ( The New Instrument) (Latin)《新工具》 [2]. Literary works: Essays《随笔》 [3] Professional works: Maxims of Law《法律原理 法律原理》
(完整word版)世纪和年代的读法
(完整word版)世纪和年代的读法1。
世纪
1）用“定冠词+序数词+century”表示
例：在十七世纪
写作:in the 17th century
读作：in the seventeenth century
2）用“定冠词+百位进数+s"表示
例：在十七世纪
写作：in the 1600s
读作：in the sixteen hundreds
注意:这种情况下,实际表达的世纪数是阿拉伯数字本身加一。
2。
年代
用“定冠词+(世纪百位进数+十位年代数）+s”表示
例：在二十世纪三十年代
写作：in the 1930s /in the 1930’s
读作：in the thirties of the twentieth century或in the nineteen thirties
表示某年代的早期、中期和晚期，可以在定冠词后添加early, mid-和late，例如:
在二十世纪二十年代早期in the early 1920s
在二十世纪五十年代中期in the mid—1950s。
The Seventeenth Century
• John Bunyan occupies the most important place in the field of prose writing of the puritan age .his most famous work is The Pilgrim’s Progress .Bunya n is know for his simple and lively prose style .
The 17th century
In England the seventeenth century was a time of political and religous turmoil punctuated with violence that suprised and shocked England‘s neighbors on the Continent. Two powers ------ Parliament and Throne
Literature of the Revolution Period
The main literary form of the period was poetry. Among the poets Milton was the greatest . Besides him ,there was two other groups of poets ,the metaphysical and the cavalier poets .
• Paradise lost is Milton’s masterpiece and the greatest English epic . The poem was written in 12books . In the poem god is no better than a selfish despot ,who is cruel and unjust in punishing Satan ,the rebel .Adam and Eve embody Milton’s belief in the powers of man . Satan is the real hero of the poem .
(完整word版)美国文学史及选读试卷(A卷)包含评分标准及答案
美国文学史及选读考试试题（卷）A卷院系：考试形式：闭卷专业试时间：100 分钟姓名：学号考试科目：美国文学史及选读考I. Blanks: ( 10points, 1 point for each blank)Directions: In this part of the test, there are 9 items and 10 blanks. Fill in the best answer on the Answer Sheet according to the knowledge you have learned.1. The first American literature was neither ___ nor really ___ .2. Of the immigrants who came to America in the first three quarters ofthe seventeenth century, the overwhelming majority was _______ .3. The English immigrants who settled on America 'n s orthern seacoast werecalled _______ , so named after those who wished to “purify ” theChurch of England.4. Washington Irving, the Father of American literature, developed the as agenre in American literature.5. Franklin 's best writing is found in his masterpiece ____ .6. The most outstanding poet in America of the 18 th century was ____ .th7. In the early 19 century, “Rip Van Winkle ”had established _______ 'sreputation at home and abroad, and designated the beginning ofAmerican Romanticism.8. __ has sometimes been considered the father of the modern shortstory.9. In 1850, Nathaniel Hawthorne brought out his masterpiece ___ , thestory of a triangular love affair in colonial America.II. Multiple choice:(20 points, 1 point for each)Directions: In this part of the test, there are twenty items. Choose the best answer and write the corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet.1. The Colonial Period of American literature stretched roughly from the settlementof America in the early 17th century through the end of century.A. the 18thB. the 19ththC. the 20thD. 21th2. New-England 's Plantation was published in 1630 by ______A. Francis HigginsonB. William BradfordC. John SmithD. Michael Wigglesworth3. Of all the books written by Michael Wigglesworth the beat known isA. The Flesh and the SpiritB. The True TravelsC. The Day of DoomD. Christopher Columbus4. Benjamin Franklin was the epitome of the ___ .A. American EnlightenmentB. Sugar ActC. Chartist movementD. Romanticist5. In the first section of Autobiography the writer addressed to ________A. his sonB. his friendsC. his wifeD. himself6. During 1807-1808, Washington Irving wrote for his brother 's newspaper calledA. New York TimesB. Washington PostC. SalmagundiD. Daily News7. History of New York was published in 1807 under the name of _______A. Washington IrvingB. Diedrich KnickerbokerC. James Fenimore CooperD. John Whittier8. Rip Van Winkle was written by ______A. James Fenimore CooperB. Benjamin FranklinC. Washington IrvingD. Walt Whitman9. The Spy was written by James Fenimore Cooper in 1821. It is a novel aboutA. American Civil WarB. American RevolutionC. American West ExpansionD. The First World War10. Natty Bumppo is the hero in Cooper 's ______A. The PrecautionB. The SpyC. The Gleanings in EuropeD. Leatherstocking Tales11. ______ was regarded as a poet of the American RevolutionA. Philip FreneauB. Walt WhitmanC. Robert FrostD. Cal Sandburg12. The Raven was written in 1844 by _____A. Philip FreneauB. Edgar Allan PoeC. Henry Wadsworth LongfellowD. Emily Dickinson13. The Minister 's Black Veil was written by ______A. Edgar Allan PoeB. Nathaniel HawthorneC. Henry David ThoreauD. Ralph Waldo Emerson14. Anne Bradstreet was a Puritan poet. Her poems made such a stir in England that she became known as the _____ who appeared in America.A. Ninth MuseB. Tenth MuseC. Best MuseD. First Muse15. The ship ____ carried about one hundred Pilgrims and took 66 days tobeat its way across the Atlantic. In December of 1620, it put the Pilgrims ashore at Plymouth, Massachusetts.A. SunflowerB. ArmadaC. MayflowerD. Titanic16. A new ___ had appeared in England in the last years of the 18 th century.It spread to continental Europe and then came to America early in the 19th century.A. RealismB. Critical realismC. RomanticismD. Naturalism17. Washington Irving got his idea for his most famous story, Rip Van Winkle ,from a _______A. Greek legendB. German legendC. French legendD. English legend18. Rip Van Winkle is found in Irving 's longer work, _______A. The Sketch BookB. History of New YorkC. Tales of a TravelerD. The Precaution19. _____ was often regarded as America 's first man of letters, devotingmuch of his career to literature.A. Benjamin FranklinB. Philip FreneauC. Washington IrvingD. James Fenimore Cooper20. All the following novels are in Cooper 's Leatherstocking Tales exceptA. The PioneersB. The PrairieC. The DeerslayerD. The SpyIII. Identification (20 points, 1 point for each)Directions: In this part of the test, there are twenty titles. Judge the authors of these works and fill them on the Answer Sheet.1. Gleanings in Europe2. Oliver Goldsmith3. The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America4. “The Day of Doom ”5. A History of New York6. The Last of the Mohicans7. The House of the Night8. A Forest Hymn9. “The Raven”10. “The Cask of Amontillado ”11. Mosses from an Old Manse12. “Israfel ”13. “The Flesh and the Spirit ”14. Life of George Washington15. The Pathfinder16. “the Wild Honey Suckle ”17. The Flood of Years18. “The Poetic Principle ”19. The Blithedale Romance20. “The Indian Burying Ground ”IV. Terms (20 points, 4 points for each)Directions: In this part of the test, there are f0ur terms. Please give the definition for these terms. Scores will be given for the related contents. Four individual contents will be enough for four points.1. Poor Richard 's Almanac2. Leatherstocking Tales3. Puritanism4. Benjamin FranklinV. Appreciation (10 points, 5 points for each)Directions: In this part of the test, there are two excerpts. Each of the excerpts is followed by three questions. Read the excerpts and answer the questions on the Answer Sheet.Part AFrom morning suns and evening dewsAt first thy little being came:If nothing once, you nothing lose,For when you die you are the same;The space between, is but an hour,The frail duration of a flower.1. Who is the poet of the poem and what is the title of the poem? (2 points)2. Tell the metrical structure and rhyme scheme of the poem. (1 point)3. What does the “little being ”refer to? What meaning is suggested by the phrase “but an hour”? (2 points)Part BThe opinions of this junto were completely controlled by Nicholas Vedder, a patriarch of the village, and landlord of the inn, at the door of which he took his seat from morning till night, just moving sufficiently to avoid the sun and keep in the shade of a large tree; so that the neighbors could tell the hour by his movements as accurately as by a sundial. It is true he was rarely heard to speak, but smoked his pipe incessantly. His adherents, however (for every great man has his adherents), perfectly understood him, and knew how to gather his opinions. When anything that was read or related displeased him, he was observed tosmoke his pipe vehemently, and to send forth short, frequent and angry puffs; but when pleased, he would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly, and emit it in light and placid clouds; and sometimes, taking the pipe from his mouth, and letting the fragrant vapor curl about his nose, would gravely nod his head in token of perfect approbation.From even this stronghold the unlucky Rip was at length routed by his termagant wife, who would suddenly break in upon the tranquility of the assemblage and call the members all to naught; nor was that august personage, Nicholas Vedder himself, sacred from the daring tongue of this terrible virago, who charged him outright with encouraging her husband in habits of idleness.1. Who was the writer of this story? What is the title of this story? (2 points)2. Who was Nicholas Vedder? (1 point)3. How did he express his opinions on public matters? (2 points)VI. Comment. (20 points, 10 points for each)Directions: In this part of the test, you are given five topics. Choose TWO of them and give a comment on the Answer Sheet. Scores will be given according to the content, grammar and the completeness of the related knowledge.1. What are the features of literature in Colonial America?2. Comment on Benjamin Franklin 's Autobiography .3. Comment on Nathaniel Hawthorne 's writing techniques.4. What philosophical meaning is implied in Philip Freneau's “The Wild HoneySuckle ”?5. What are the artistic achievements of Edgar Allan Poe?美国文学史及选读考试试题（卷）评分标准及标准答案A卷院系：专业：考试科目：美国文学史及选读考试形式：闭卷考试时间：100 分钟I. Blanks: （10%）（每题1分，共10分，答错不给分）1. American literature2. English3. Puritans4. short story5. Autobiography6. Philip Freneau7. Washington Irving8. Edgar Allan Poe9. The Scarlet LetterII. Multiple Choice: （ 20%）（每题1分，共20分，答错不给分）1. A2. B3. C4. A5. A6. C7. B8. C9. B 10. D11. A 12. B 13. B 14. B 15. C16.C 17. B 18. A 19. C 20. DIII. Identification (20%) (每题1 分，共20分，答错不给分)1. James Fenimore Cooper2. Washington Irving3. Anne Bradstreet4. Michael Wigglesworth5. Washington Irving6. James Fenimore Cooper7. Philip Freneau8. William Cullen Bryant9. Edgar Allan Poe10. Edgar Allan Poe11. Nathaniel Hawthorne12. Edgar Allan Poe13. Anne Bradstreet14. Washington Irving15. James Fenimore Cooper16. Philip Freneau17. William Cullen Bryant18. Edgar Allan Poe19. Nathaniel Hawthorne20. Philip FreneauIV. Terms （20%）（每题4分，共20 分）1. Poor Richard 's Almanackey words: Benjamin Franklin, sayings, hard work, thrift, Puritan, quotes, printed himself, etc.2. Leatherstocking TalesKey words: Cooper, five novels, Natty Bumppo, frontier, frontiersman, life from youth to old age, The Pioneer, The Last of the Mohicans, The Prairie, The Pathfinder, The Deerslayer, etc.3. Puritanismkey words: Calvin, purify, hard work, thrift, predestination, salvation, sin, God, from England to America, immigration, etc.4. Benjamin Franklinkey words: statesman, scientist and writer, Autobiography, Poor Richard 's Almanac, puritan, hard work and thrift, successful, contributions, printer, etc.V. Appreciation （10%）（每题5 分，共10 分）Part Aa） Philip Freneau 's（1 分）The Wild Honey Suckle （1分）b） It is written in iambic tetrameter, the rhyme scheme is ababcc. （1 分）c）“Little being ” refers to the wild honey suckle. （1 分）“Butanhour ” means the lifespan of a flower is very short. （ 1 分）Part B1. Washington Irving 's（1 分）Rip Van Wingkle （1分）2. Nicholas Vedder is the owner of the inn/ a patriarch of the village/ and landlord of the inn, （ 1 分）3. He expressed his opinion by the way of smoking. / When anything that was read or related displeased him, he was observed to smoke his pipe vehemently, and to send forth short, frequent and angry puffs; but when pleased, he would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly, and emit it in light and placid clouds; and sometimes, taking the pipe from his mouth, and letting the fragrant vapor curl about his nose, would gravely nod his head in token of perfect approbation. （ 2 分）VI. Comment. （20%）（每题10 分，此题共20 分）答案：（略）。
山东自考英语二 unit3 the history of books
Text Analysis
4. be illustrated with 用…说明 illustrate v. 举例说明，（为书）作插图；图解 illustration n. 说明，插图，图解 书籍的插图有时是木刻的。在雕刻标志木头时， 图画的白色部分是凹陷的。
When the surface was inked and stamped onto paper, the dark part of the picture was reproduced. The first attempts, of course, were rather crude, but eventually the block printers were making meticulous and artistic illustrations. Florence, in Italy and Lyons, in France, became famous for their illustrated books. 5. become famous for sth. 因· · · 而变得出名 be famous for sth. 因· · · 而有名
印书者开始把书印得小些，以便携带起来更容易。 此外，而且他们开始把书印得更精致了，在每一 章之前增添插图和装饰性字母。
Gradually the letters of the type were made smaller, finer and more delicate. The letters began to look less like manuscript letters, and eventually, the form of the letters was simplified to the point where they were well-adapted to the metal of the type.
美国文学考试模拟题
第一章殖民地时期的美国文学填空题1. Theterm “Puritan”was applied to those settlers who originally were devout membersof the Church of ______.【答案】England查看答案【解析】清教徒（Puritan），是指要求清除英国国教Church of England中天主教残余的改革派。
其字词于16世纪60年代开始使用，源于拉丁文的Purus，意为“清洁”。
2. Themost enduring shaping influence in American thought and American literature was______.【答案】American Puritanism查看答案【解析】美国文化源于清教文化，由清教徒移民时传入北美。
美国主流价值观都可以追溯到殖民地时期一统天下的清教主义，并且清教思想对美国文学有着根深蒂固的影响。
3. Hard work, thrift,piety and sobriety, these were the ______ values that dominated much of theearly American writing.【答案】Puritan查看答案【解析】清教主义，起源于英国，在北美殖民地得以实践与发展。
清教徒强调艰苦奋斗、勤俭节约、虔诚和淡泊。
这些价值观也影响了早期的美国文学。
4. Many Puritans wroteverse, but the works of two writers, Anne Bradstreet and ______, rose to thelevel of real poetry.【答案】EdwardTaylor查看答案【解析】美国殖民时期最著名的诗人是安·布莱德斯特和爱德华·泰勒。
5. TheTenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America is a collection of poems composed by______.【答案】AnneBradstreet查看答案【解析】安·布莱德斯特律是美国殖民时期著名的诗人。
西方文化填空
Greek Culture1. Two of the elements in European culture are considered to be more enduring and they are the (Greco-Roman) and the (Judeo-Christian) elements.2. In a more remote period of Greek history, probably around (1200 B.C.), a war was fought between Greece and Troy.3. In the second half of the 4th century B.C., all Greece was brought under the rule of (Alexander), King of Macedon.4. Athens was a democracy, where only the adult (male) citizens had the rights.5. The Greeks loved sports. Once every four years, they had a big festival on (Olympus Mount) which included contests of sports.6. Ancient Greeks considered (Homer) to be the author of their epics: the Iliad and the Odyssey.7. In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman (James Joyce)’s modernist masterpiece Ulysses.8. Sappho was a (woman)poet noted for her love poems of passionate intensity.9. The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud’s term (“the Oedipus complex”) was derived from Sophocles’ play.10. Euclid is even now well-known for his Elements, a textbook of (geometry), perhaps the most successful textbook ever written, because it was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.11. To illustrate the principle of the (lever), Archimedes is said to have told the King: “Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.”12. We know Socrates chiefly through what Plato recorded of him in his famous (Dialogues).13. Plato’s philosophy is called Idealism because in his system of philosophy only such (“ideas”) as beauty, truth and goodness are regarded as completely real while the physical world is regarded as only relatively real.14. Aristotle thought that(“form”)and matter together made up concrete individual realities.15. the most important of the temples the ancient Greeks left us is the (Parthenon), which has always been a great tourist attraction for people all over the world.16. Venus de Milo is the most famous of all the sculptures of Venus, discovered in the island of Milo in 1820. Its (broken) arms have long been the focus of discussion in artistic circles.17. Lacoon was a priest of (Troy) who warned the Trojans against Greek attack. He was made to suffer a slow death and killed by the serpents with his sons because of this.18. The Greeks set an example by the bold effort they made to understand the world by the use of (human reason).Roman Culture1. The Romans and the Greeks’( religions ) were alike enough for most of their deities to be readily identified—Greek Zeus with Roman Jupiter, Greek Aphrodite with Roman Venus, and so on—and their myths to be fused.2. The Romans and the Greeks’ languages worked in similar ways, and were ultimately related, both being numbers of the (Indo-European)language family which stretches from Bangladesh to Iceland.3. After (395), the Roman Empire was permanently divided into East (the Byzantine Empire) and the West.4. The Colosseum is an enormous amphitheatre built in the center of (Rome) in imperial times. A masterpiece of engineering, it held more than 5000 spectators.5. She-wolf is a statue which illustrates the legend of the creation of (Rome).Bible and Christianity1. Among all the religions by which people seek to worship, (Christianity) is by far the most influential in the West.2. It was the (Jewish) tradition which gave birth to Christianity.3. The Bible is a collection of religious writings comprising two parts: (the Old Testament) and (the New Testament).4. The Old Testament is about (God and the laws of God).5. The New Testament is (the doctrine of Jesus Christ).6. The oldest and most important of the 39 books of the Old Testament are the first (five) books, called Pentateuch.7. Exodus is a religious (history) of the Hebrews during their flight from Egypt, the period when t hey began to receive God’s Law.8. When the world was formed, says the Bible, God created man and woman—(Adam) and (Eve).9. According to the Bible, Adam and Eve lived in perfect happiness in the Garden of (Eden) but were finally driven from it and went forth into the world.10. Around 1300 B.C. Moses, the famous Hebrew leader, went to see the pharaoh of Egypt, telling him that Yahweh wanted the pharaoh to end Hebrew slavery and let the Hebrews leave Egypt. With this began the (Exodus), which lasted forty years.11. At the age of 30, Jesus received the (baptism) at the hands of John Baptist.12. Jesus was betrayed by (Juda).13. Jesus was (rushed to trial and crucified) as a revolutionary preacher and dangerous reformer.14. (Constantine) issued the Edict of Milan in 313, granting religious freedom to all and making Christianity legal.15. Towards the end of the fourth century, four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity. The fouraccounts were believed to have been written by (Matthew), (Mark), (Luke) and (John).16. the most ancient extant (Latin) version of the whole Bible is the Vulgate edition by St. Jerome.17. the most important and influential of English Bible is the “Authorized” or (King Ja mes’) version, first published in 1611.The Middle Ages1. In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called (the Middle Ages).2. During the Medieval Times there was no central government to keep order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was (the Christian church).3. Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of (land holding) in exchange for military service.4. As a knight during the Medieval Times, one was pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as (code of chivalry), from which the Western idea of good manners developed.5. Under Feudalism, people of Western Europe were mainly divided into three classes: (clergy), (lords) and (peasants).6. Although the Crusades did not achieve their goal to regain the Holy land, they brought (the East) into closer contact with (the West).7. Dante Alighieri’s masterpiece, (The Divine Comedy), is one of the landmarks of world literature.Renaissance1. Renaissance as a period in Western civilization refers to the period between the (14th) and mid (17th) century.2. “Renaissance” means revival of interest in ancient (Greek) and (Roman) culture.3. Renaissance started in (Florence) and(Venice)with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture. From Italy the movement went to embrace the rest of Europe.4. Where the impact of Renaissance with Italy was most strongly felt in (fine arts), in France it was (literature) and in England it was (philosophy and drama).5. At the heart of the Renaissance philosophy is the assertion of (the greatness of man).6. Themes of the Renaissance paintings changed from purely celestial realm focusing on the stories of the Bible, of God, Jesus and Mary to an appreciation of all aspects of (nature and man).Reformation1. The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a (socio-political) movement.2. The Reformation was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the (Bible).3. Martin Luther was the (German) leader of the Protestant Reformation. His doctrine marked the first break in the unity of the Catholic Church.4. With 38 plays, 154 (sonnets) and 2 long poems, William Shakespeare has established his giant position in world literature.5. Christopher Columbus discovered the New World in (1492).The Seventeenth Century1. In the seventeenth century, the new science and philosophy in Europe gave a great push to the political struggle waged by the newly emerged class, the (bourgeoisie), and other classes. The century saw the intense political struggle, shown in revolution in England and absolute monarchy in France.2. Copernicus’s chief work The Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs was published in 1543. In this mathematical description of the heavens, Copernicus put forward his theory that the (sun), not the earth, is the center of the universe.3. Galileo held that every body, if left alone, will continue to move in a straight line with uniform velocity; any change either in the rapidity or the direction of motion, requires to be explained as due to the action of some “force”. This principle is called (the law of inertia).4. Of all the achievements in physics, Newton’s discovery of the law of the (universal gravitation) is the most important, which states that every body attracts every other with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.5. Baroque art is characterized by (dramatic intensity)and sentimental appeal with a lot of emphasis on light and color.6. As a sculptor and architect, (Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini) was the prominent figure of Italian Baroque.7. The name of (Rococo) has been interpreted as being made up of two French words, rocaille, meaning rock and coquille, meaning shell.Enlightenment1. The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement originating in (France). It attracted widespread support among the ruling and intellectual classes of Europe and North America in the second half of the 18th century.2. The Enlightenment is sometimes called (“the Age of Reason“) because it characterizes the efforts by certain European writers to use critical reason to free minds from prejudice, unexamined authority and oppression by Church or State.3. The American War of Independence of 1776 ended British colonial rule over the 18th century. The spirit of this revolution is crystallized in a powerful statement written in (The Declaration of Independence).4. The seizure of the Bastille marked the end of the French monarchy, and the first French Republic was born in 1792. Guiding this revolution was a document called (Declaration of the Rights of Man).5. (The Industrial Revolution), beginning with the invention of the steamengine, rapidly changed the face of the world, and ushered in a completely new age.6. In the book “The Spirit of the Laws”, Montesquieu touched on the theory of (the separation of powers) by examining the British form of government. He believed that the legislative, executive and judicial powers must be confided to different individuals or bodies, acting independently.7. Rousseau believed that a (social contract)was established when each individual gave his rights to a general will—as an equal participant in the political life. Then he was as free after his contract as he has been in the state of nature. He sacrificed his natural freedom for a civil freedom.Romanticism1. Romanticism emphasized (individual) values and aspirations above those of society.2. Romantic literature works, diversified in character and daring in spirit, all depicted man’s eager search for individual freedom, pure sentiments, a nd (ideal beauty).3. The French Revolution in the 18th century established bourgeois democracy with its slogans of (liberty), (equality) and (universal brotherhood).4. The ending of P. B. Shelley’s (Ode to the West Wind)“If winter comes, can spring be f ar behind” has given courage to many revolutionaries faced with reverses, even death.5. To readers in general in France and the world over,(Victor Hugo) is important as the author of Notre Dame de Paris and Les Miserables.6. The Opera House in Paris was a typical example of the revival of the (Baroque) style.Realism1. The chief difference between Romanticism and Realism is that the romantics emphasized feeling and imagination while the realists wanted a truthful representation in their works of (contemporary life and manners).2. Balzac has been called (“the French Dickens “) as Dickens has been called “the English Balzac.3. Within one page Dickens can make the reader burst with laughter and soon wet the book with honest tears. But whatever he wrote he has some basis on (his own experience).4. The term “impressionism” first appeared in 1874 in a newspaper review of an exhibition held in the studio by a group of young painters. It was taken directly from the title of Monet’s (Impression: Sunrise).Modernism1. Modernism has been called (“the tradition of the new “). It was characterized by a conscious rejection of established rules, traditions and conventions. It provided fresh ways of looking at man’s position and function in the universe.2. Modernism has become the synonym of revolution in form. The term “modernist” is usually reserved for more (experimental) and (innovative)modern works, those that view experience in new ways and adopt new forms.3. The Fauves expressed their emotional reaction to the subject in the (boldest colour) and strongest patterns of lines.4. Expressionist art is marked by the expression of reality by means of distortion to communicate one’s inner vision. The artists of this school used bright colors to bring out their (pessimistic) views of life.5. (Cubism)is type of abstract painting which aims to penetrate beyond surface appearances and single vision and depict persons and objects from varying angles simultaneously and three dimensionally.6. Dadaists created works that were anti-war, anti-modern life and indeed (anti-art). They thought that the world had become insane and art too serious.7. The surrealists felt that the job of the artist was to show an (unconscious) world.8. (Einstein) discovered the special theory of relativity in 1905 and the general principles of relativity in 1915.9. Ulysses is considered to be Joyce’s most mature work and the single best fiction ever written since the beginning of the 20th century. The book’s title alludes to Homer’s epic “(Odyssey)“.10. All the literary developments since 1945 such as “Angry Young Men” in England, “Beat Generation” in the USA, “Nouveau Roman” in France, seem to share the belief that the world is absurd and life meaningless. All of them may be lapelled as (counter-cultural) developments.11. (“Theatre of the Absurd“) is a term referring to the works of some European, particularly French, playwrights of the 1950s and 1960s. These playwrights attempted to convey the idea that human existence is purposeless, meaningless, and that is this world man feels constantly bewildered, troubled and threatened.12. Black Humor is a kind of desperate humor. It is the laughter at tragic things. Joseph Heller, American writer, is the author of the best-selling novel (“Catch-22“), which has been considered the major work of Black Humor.。
2021年雅思阅读模拟题精选及答案(卷七)
2021年雅思阅读模拟题精选及答案（卷七）雅思阅读文本：In seventeenth-century colonial North America, all day-to-day cooking was done in the fireplace. Generally large, fireplaces were planned for cooking as well as for warmth. Those in the Northeast were usually four or five feet high, and in the South, they were often high enough for a person to walk into. A heavy timber called the mantel tree was used as a lintel to support the stonework above the fireplace opening. This timber might be scorched occasionally, but it was far enough in front of the rising column of heat to be safe from catching fire.Two ledges were built across from each other on the inside of the chimney. On these rested the ends of a "lug pole" from which pots were suspended when cooking. Wood from a freshly cut tree was used for the lug pole, so it would resist heat, but it had to be replaced frequently because it dried out and charred, and was thus weakened. Sometimes the pole broke and the dinner fell into the fire. When iron became easier to obtain, it was used instead of wood for lug poles, and later fireplaces had pivoting metal rods to hang pots from.Beside the fireplace and built as part of it was the oven. It was made like a small, secondary fireplace with a flue leading into the main chimney to draw out smoke. Sometimes the door of the oven faced the room, but most ovens were built with the opening facing into thefireplace. On baking days (usually once or twice a week) a roaring fire of "oven wood," consisting of brown maple sticks, was maintained in the oven until its walls were extremely hot. The embers were later removed, bread dough was put into the oven, and the oven was sealed shut until the bread was fully baked.Not all baking was done in a big oven, however. Also used was an iron "bake kettle," which looked like a stewpot on legs and which had an iron lid. This is said to have worked well when it was placed in the fireplace, surrounded by glowing wood embers, with more embers piled on its lid.雅思阅读题目：1. Which of the following aspects of domestic life in colonial North America does the passagemainly discuss?(A) methods of baking bread(B) fireplace cooking(C) the use of iron kettles in a typical kitchen(D) the types of wood used in preparing meals2. The author mentions the fireplaces built in the South to illustrate(A) how the materials used were similar to the materials used in northeastern fireplaces(B) that they served diverse functions(C) that they were usually larger than northeastern fireplaces(D) how they were safer than northeastern fireplaces3. The word "scorched" in line 6 is closest in meaning to(A) burned(B) cut(C) enlarged(D) bent4. The word "it" in line 6 refers to(A) the stonework(B) the fireplace opening(C) the mantel tree(D) the rising column of heat5.According to the passage , how was food usually cooked in a pot in the seventeenth century?(A) By placing the pot directly into the fire(B) By putting the pot in the oven(C) By filling the pot with hot water(D) By hanging the pot on a pole over the fire6. The word "obtain" in line 12 is closest in meaning to(A) maintain(B) reinforce(C) manufacture(D) acquire7. Which of the following is mentioned in paragraph 2 as a disadvantage of using a wooden lugpole?(A) It was made of wood not readily available.(B) It was difficult to move or rotate.(C) It occasionally broke.(D) It became too hot to touch.8. It can be inferred from paragraph 3 that, compared to other firewood, "oven wood" produced(A) less smoke(B) more heat(C) fewer embers(D) lower flames9.According to paragraph 3, all of the following were true of a colonial oven EXCEPT:(A) It was used to heat the kitchen every day.(B) It was built as part of the main fireplace.(C) The smoke it generated went out through the main chimney.(D) It was heated with maple sticks.10.According to the passage , which of the following was an advantage of a "bake kettle"?(A) It did not take up a lot of space in the fireplace.(B) It did not need to be tightly closed.(C) It could be used in addition to or instead of the oven.(D) It could be used to cook several foods at one time.雅思阅读答案：BCACD DCBAA雅思阅读文本：The sculptural legacy that the new United States inherited from its colonial predecessors was far from a rich one, and in fact, in 1776 sculpture as an art form was still in the hands of artisans and craftspeople. Stone carvers engraved their motifs of skulls and crossbones and other religious icons of death into the gray slabs that we still see standing today in old burial grounds. Some skilled craftspeople made intricately carved wooden ornamentations for furniture or architectural decorations, while others caved wooden shop signs and ships' figureheads. Although they often achieved expression and formal excellence in their generally primitive style, they remained artisans skilled in the craft of carving and constituted a group distinct from what we normally think of as "sculptors" in today's use of the word.On the rare occasion when a fine piece of sculpture was desired, Americans turned to foreign sculptors, as in the 1770's when the cities of New York and Charleston, South Carolina, commissioned the EnglishmanJoseph Wilton to make marble statues of William Pitt. Wilton also made a lead equestrian image of King George III that was created in New York in 1770 and torn down by zealous patriots six years later.A few marble memorials with carved busts, urns, or other decorations were produced in England and brought to the colonies to be set in the walls of churches —as in King's Chapel in Boston. But sculpture as a high art, practiced by artists who knew both the artistic theory of their Renaissance-Baroque-Rococo predecessors and the various technical procedures of modeling, casting, and carving rich three-dimensional forms, was not known among Americans in 1776. Indeed, for many years thereafter, the United States had two groups from which to choose —either the local craftspeople or the imported talent of European sculptors.The eighteenth century was not one in which powered sculptural conceptions were developed.Add to this the timidity with which unschooled artisans —originally trained as stonemasons, carpenters, or cabinetmakers —attacked the medium from which they sculpture made in the United States in the late eighteenth century.雅思阅读题目：1. What is the main idea of the passage ?(A) There was great demand for the work of eighteenth-centuryartisans.(B) Skilled sculptors did not exist in the United States in the 1770's.(C) Many foreign sculptors worked in the United States after 1776.(D)American sculptors were hampered by a lack of tools and materials.2. The word "motifs" in line 3 is closest in meaning to(A) tools(B) prints(C) signatures(D) designs3. The work of which of the following could be seen in burial grounds?(A) European sculptors(B) Carpenters(C) Stone carves(D) Cabinetmakers4. The word "others" in line 6 refers to(A) craftspeople(B) decorations(C) ornamentations(D) shop signs5. The word "distinct" in line 9 is closest in meaning to(A) separate(B) assembled(C) notable(D) inferior6. The word "rare" in line 11 is closest in meaning to(A) festive(B) infrequent(C) delightful(D) unexpected7. Why does the author mention Joseph Wilton in line 13?(A) He was an English sculptor who did work in the United States.(B) He was well known for his wood carvings(C) He produced sculpture for churches.(D) He settled in the United States in 1776.8. What can be inferred about the importation of marble memorials from England?(A) Such sculpture was less expensive to produce locally than to import(B) Such sculpture was not available in the United States.(C) Such sculpture was as prestigious as those made locally.(D) The materials found abroad were superior.9. How did the work of American carvers in 1776 differ from that ofcontemporary sculptors?(A) It was less time-consuming(B) It was more dangerous.(C) It was more expensive.(D) It was less refined.雅思阅读答案：BDCAABABD雅思阅读文本：Throughout the nineteenth century and into the twentieth, citizens of the United States maintained a bias against big cities. Most lived on farms and in small towns and believed cities to be centers of corruption, crime, poverty, and moral degradation. Their distrust was caused, in part,by a national ideology that proclaimed farming the greatest occupation and rural living superior to urban living. This attitude prevailed even as the number of urban dwellers increased and cities became an essential feature of the national landscape. Gradually, economic reality overcame ideology. Thousands abandoned the precarious life on the farm for more secure and better paying jobs in the city. But when these people migrated from the countryside, they carried their fears and suspicious with them. These new urbanities, already convinced that cities were overwhelmed with great problems, eagerly embraced the progressive reforms that promised to bring order out ofthe chaos of the city.One of many reforms came in the area of public utilities. Water and sewerage systems were usually operated by municipal governments, but the gas and electric networks were privately owned. Reformers feared that the privately owned utility companies would charge exorbitant rates for these essential services and deliver them only to people who could afford them. Some city and state governments responded by regulating the utility companies, but a number of cities began to supply these services themselves. Proponents of these reforms argued that public ownership and regulation would insure widespread access to these utilities and guarantee a fair price.While some reforms focused on government and public behavior, others looked at the cities as a whole. Civic leaders, convinced that physical environment influenced human behavior, argued that cities should develop master plans to guide their future growth and development. City planning was nothing new, but the rapid industrialization and urban growth of the late nineteenth century took place without any consideration for order. Urban renewal in the twentieth century followed several courses. Some cities introduced plans to completely rebuild the city core. Most other cities contented themselves with zoning plans for regulating future growth. Certain parts of town were restricted to residential use, while others were set aside forindustrial or commercial development.雅思阅读题目：1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A)A comparison of urban and rural life in the early twentieth century(B) The role of government in twentieth century urban renewal(C) Efforts to improve urban life in the early twentieth century(D) Methods of controlling urban growth in the twentieth century2. The word "bias" in line 2 is closest in meaning to(A) diagonal(B) slope(C) distortion(D) prejudice3. The first paragraph suggests that most people who lived in rural areas(A) were suspicious of their neighbors(B) were very proud of their lifestyle(C) believed city government had too much power(D) wanted to move to the cities4. In the early twentieth century, many rural dwellers migrated to the city in order to(A) participate in the urban reform movement(B) seek financial security(C) comply with a government ordinance(D) avoid crime and corruption5. The word "embraced" in line 11 is closest in meaning to(A) suggested(B) overestimated(C) demanded(D) welcomed6. What concern did reformers have about privately owned utility companies?(A) They feared the services would not be made available to all city dwellers.(B) They believed private ownership would slow economic growth(C) They did not trust the companies to obey the government regulations.(D) They wanted to ensure that the services would be provided to rural areas.7. The word "exorbitant" in line 16 is closest in meaning to(A) additional(B) expensive(C) various(D) modified8.All of the following were the direct result of public utility reforms EXCEPT(A) local governments determined the rates charged by private utility companies(B) some utility companies were owned and operated by local governments(C) the availability of services was regulated by local government(D) private utility companies were required to pay a fee to local governments9. The word "Proponents" in line 18 is closest in meaning to(A) Experts(B) Pioneers(C) Reviewers(D) Supporters10. Why does the author mention "industrialization" (line 24)?(A) To explain how fast urban growth led to poorly designed cities(B) To emphasize the economic importance of urban areas(C) To suggest that labor disputes had become an urban problem(D) To illustrate the need for construction of new factories雅思阅读答案：CDBBDABDDA雅思阅读文本：Although only 1 person in 20 in the Colonial period lived in a city, the cities had a disproportionate influence on the development of North America. They were at the cutting edge ofsocial change. It was in the cities that the elements that can be associated with modern capitalism first appeared —the use of money and commercial paper in place of barter, open competition in place of social deference and hierarchy, with an attendant rise in social disorder, and the appearance of factories using coat or water power in place of independent craftspeople working with hand tools. "The cities predicted the future," wrote historian Gary. B. Nash, "even though they were but overgrown villages compared to the great urban centers of Europe, the Middle East and China."Except for Boston, whose population stabilized at about 16,000 in 1760, cities grew by exponential leaps through the eighteenth century. In the fifteen years prior to the outbreak of the War for independence in 1775, more than 200,000 immigrants arrived on North American shores.This meant that a population the size of Boston was arriving every year, and most of it flowed into the port cities in the Northeast. Philadelphia's population nearly doubted in those years, reaching about 30,000 in 1774, New York grew at almost the same rate, reaching about 25,000 by 1775.The quality of the hinterland dictated the pace of growth of thecities. The land surrounding Boston had always been poor farm country, and by the mid-eighteenth century it was virtually stripped of its timber. The available farmland was occupied, there was little in the region beyond the city to attract immigrants. New York and Philadelphia, by contrast, served a rich and fertile hinterland laced with navigable watercourses. Scots, Irish, and Germans landed in these cities and followed the rivers inland. The regions around the cities of New York and Philadelphia became the breadbaskets of North America, sending grain not only to other colonies but also to England and southern Europe, where crippling droughts in the late 1760's created a whole new market.雅思阅读题目：1. Which of the following aspects of North America in the eighteenth century does the passagemainly discuss?(A) The effects of war on the growth of cities(B) The growth and influence of cities(C) The decline of farming in areas surrounding cities(D) The causes of immigration to cities2. Why does the author say that "the cities had a disproportionate influence on the development ofNorthAmerica" (lines 1-2)?(A) The influence of the cities was mostly negative(B) The populations of the cities were small, but their influence was great.(C) The cities were growing at a great rate.(D) Most people pretended to live in cities3. The phrase "in place of " in lines 4-5 is closest in meaning to(A) connected to(B) in addition to(C) because of(D) instead of4. The word "attendant" in line 6 is closest in meaning to(A) avoidable(B) accompanying(C) unwelcome(D) unexpected5. Which of the following is mentioned as an element of modern capitalism?(A) Open competition(B) Social deference(C) Social hierarchy(D) Independent craftspeople6. It can be inferred that in comparison with North American cities, cities in Europe, the MiddleEast, and China had(A) large populations(B) little independence(C) frequent social disorder(D) few power sources7. The phrase "exponential leaps" in line 12 is closest in meaning to(A) long wars(B) new laws(C) rapid increases(D) exciting changes8. The word "it" in line 15 refers to(A) population(B) size(C) Boston(D)Year9. How many immigrants arrived in NorthAmerica between 1760 and 1775?(A)About 16,000(B)About 25,000(C)About 30,000(D) More than 200,00010. The word "dictated" in line 18 is closest in meaning to(A) spoiled(B) reduced(C) determined(D) divided11. The word "virtually" in line 20 is closest in meaning to(A) usually(B) hardly(C) very quickly(D) almost completely12. The region surrounding New York and Philadelphia is contrasted with the region surroundingBoston in terms of(A) quality of farmland(B) origin of immigrants(C) opportunities for fishing(D) type of grain grown13. Why does the author describe the regions around the cities of New York and Philadelphia as"breadbaskets"?(A) They produced grain especially for making bread.(B) They stored large quantities of grain during periods of drought(C) They supplied grain to other parts of North America and othercountries.(D) They consumed more grain than all the other regions of NorthAmerica.雅思阅读答案：BBDBAACADC DAC。
历届高考英语长难句100句精选简析
历届高考英语长难句100句精选简析1.First put forward by the French mathematician Pierre de Format in the seventeenth century, the theorem had baffled and beaten the finest mathematical minds, including a French woman scientist who made a major advance in working out the problem, and who had to dress like a man in order to be able to study at the Ecolab polytechnique.（NMET2003.C篇）这个定理，先是由十七世纪法国数学家皮尔法特提出，曾使一批杰出的数学大师为难，包括一位法国女科学家，她在解决这个难题方面取得了重大的进展，她曾女扮男装为了能够在伊科尔理工学院学习。
简析：夹杂过去分词短语，现在分词短语，动名词及两个定语从句。
2. It is difficult to measure the quantity of paper used as a result of use of Internet-connected computers, although just about anyone who works in an office can tell you that when e-mail is introduced, the printers start working overtime. That is, the growing demand for paper in recent years is largely due to the increased use of the Internet.（NMET2003.E篇）由于因特网的使用，计算所使用的纸张的数量是很难的，然而几乎任何在办公室工作的人能告诉你，当引进电子邮件后，打印机就开始超时工作。
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⑷. ☆ Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica （Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy）《自然哲学的数学解读》 had provided the foundation for astronomy , physics and mechanics. ⑸. Newton’s analytical method, 分析方法论 the way he approached natural laws by observation, experiment and calculation , began to be applied to human society, to all braches of knowledge and thought. ⑹. Historical Position:－－ Alexander Pope Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid in night, God said, “Let Newton be,” and all was light.
※ The first time to look at men’s position in the universe －－in the 17th century. 人类重新看待自己在宇宙中的地位 The second time to look at men’s position in the universe －－in Modernism. 3) The new science and philosophy gave a great push to the political struggle waged by ①the newly emerged class, the bourgeoisie, and ② other chasses. Conclusion: The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the 17th century.
⑷.Galileo discovered the importance of acceleration in dynamics, and this principle is called the law of inertia, 惯性定律 which is of great significance. ⑸.Galileo was also the first to establish the law of falling bodies. ⑹. Galileo’s discovery proved the validity of the Copernicus theory and struck a frightening blow at the holy establishment.
6. Two Merits Shared by the Great Scientists of the 17th Century * 一句话·04年： Do you think there is something in common among the 17th century Scientists ? Or What are the two merits shared by the Scientists in the 17th century? （3点） ↘： ⒈ First, they showed boldness in framing hypotheses. 大胆假说 ⒉ Second， they all had immense patience in observation. 耐心 Conclusion： ： The combination of the two merits brought about fundamental changes in man’s scientific and philosophical thinking.
D. Sir 爵士 Issac Newton （1642~1727）6点 ⑴. As a mathematician, he invented calculus. ⑵. In optics, he discovered that white light is composed of all the colors of the spectrum. ⑶. The law of the universal gravitation 万有引力定律 名词解释↘： To put it simply, the sun, the moon, the earth , the planet, and all the other bodies in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is called gravitation.
定律
⑶. Kepler’s laws supported , clarified and amended the Copernican system. 支持论证弥补 ⑷. （选）These three laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton’s discovery of the laws of gravitation.
A. Copernicus 【波兰人】☆ 4点 ⑴. The first major advance of modern science occurred in astronomy and Italy was the scene with Copernicus as the leading figure. ⑵. Nicolaus Copernicus （1473~1543）was the immediate forerunner 先驱 of modern science. －－ Historical position ⑶. His chief work The Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs was published in 1543. 《论天体运行规律》 ⑷. He founded the Helio – centric theory. 奠定了日心说
B. Kepler 【德国人】（1571~1630）4点 ⑴. The first important astronomer after Copernicus奠定 to adopt the heliocentric theory was the German scientist Johannes Kepler使用. ⑵. Kepler is best known for his discovery of the three laws of planetary motion, the three laws being called Kepler’s Laws. 开普勒三大行星
Ⅱ. Science
简介： (选) in logical progression ⒈ In the 17th century －－ physics and mathematics. ⒉ In the 18th century －－ chemistry. ⒊ In the 19th century －－ biology. ⒋ In the 20th century －－ psychology . 论述： 论述：What is the scientific development in the 17th century? Or How did science develop in the 17th century? ↘: A.B.C.D.E. （即书上1~4点，5被删）
C. Galileo Galilei 【意大利人】（1564~1642） 共6点↘： ⑴. He was the first to invent and apply the telescope to the study of the skies天体. He even made a telescope for himself and used it to observe the stars 恒星with immense patience. ⑵.Sidereus Nuncius （The Starry Messenger） 天空的使者↘《星使记》 ⑶.Galileo proved that Ptolemy’s geocentric system simply would not work and that Copernicus’s powerful hypothesis had been right.
⒊ He describes space and time as merely a system of relationship order. ⒋ He and Newton invented independently the differential and integral calculus. ⒌ Many of his theories have given rise to important developments of modern science, ranging from Freudian psychology to Einsteinian physics. ↘His major works: Hypothesis Physical Nova （New Physical Hypothesis）（1671） Discourse on Metaphysics （1686）论形而上学 New System of Nature （1695）论大自然体系 New Essays Concerning Human Understanding （1704）论人类的理解力
E. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz 【德国人】 （1646~1716） 5点 ⒈ He opposed the Cartesian account of matter. 笛卡尔的物质观 ⒉ He distinguishes three levels of understanding: The self – conscious The conscious The unconscious or subconscious ↘（一句话） What did Leibniz distinguish human’s understanding?