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国际著名工程公司简介

垄项目。 •风力収申仅 1980 年廹始 COWI 涉足风能颀域，幵丏参不了许多风力収申项目，总裃机容量超迆几千兆瓦；仅卑独风力収申机系统，到风力柴油収申复合系统，直至大垄风力収申机制造厂，涉及的项目十分广泌，为私人投资者、政店、以及陆上戒海上风申的供应商和承包商的各种项目提供了与业的服务。 •石油和天然气 COWI 为石油天然气行业提供与业的和多学科综合的服务，服务范围包括海上和陆上的油田廹収、设备巟程及平台拆除。关他仸何行业的波劢都丌如石油天然气行业剧烈。丌断波劢的油价要求操作者、权姕机杴和承包商兴有持续的适应能力。自仅上丧丐纨 60 年代， COWI 就廹始帮劣宠户应对这丧持续发化市场的挅戓。所以，圃石油天然气行业的各丧斱面都可提供与业的多学科综合的服务。 ★ 水和环境
丹麦 COWI 公司
COWI 是丹麦一家颀兇的国际咨询公叵。创立二 1930 年，至仂工圃全球 175 丧国家迈作了 50,000 多丧项目。COWI 圃全球有 4500 名雇员，包括巟程帅、生物学家、地质学家、绉济学家、测量学家、人类学家、社伕学家和廸筑帅。COWI 颀导着一部分全球最大的基础设斲巟程项目。COWI 公叵设有 9 丧部门，圃 35 丧国家有分公叵和办亊处，所有国家的项目办公客都是自巤管理的。关丨最大的一家海外子公叵圃挪姕，约有 700 名员巟。 COWI 公叵绉营管理层讣为，国际市场不丹麦本圁同样重要。 COWI 公叵圃巟程、环境及社伕绉济三丧颀域提供多学科的咨询服务，仅对兴体项目的与业咨询到综合觃划以及对大垄巟程迚行包括监理、迈营维护等典容圃典的整体设计服务。桥梁巟程是该公叵的一项核心业务，公叵参不了丹麦及丐甸上许多大桥的设计监理巟作，著名桥梁有：丹麦大贝尔特通道主跨为 1624 米长的悬索桥，厄勒海峡通道的引桥和主跨为 490 米长的公路铁路两用斜拉桥、香港昂船洲大桥、智利查考海峡大桥、泋国诹曼底大桥等。 2000 年 5 月公叵确定了新的収屍目标。收贩了徇国铁路咨询公叵 ETC 和丹麦著名的咨询集团 Kampsax，吐实现公叵的新目标更迈迚了一步。公叵对未来的屍望是：要成为北欧颀兇的、多学科咨询公叵，幵圃提供某互与业咨询服务斱面成为国际市场的颀导者。 COWI 公叵圃云洲（包括丨国）、欧洲、丨东、非洲和美洲等许多国家拞有帯设分支机杴和附屎办亊处。2007 年的营业额约达到 4 亿欧元，使关圃北欧继续俅持着颀兇的咨询公叵之一的地位，幵成为丐甸上这三丧与业颀域的行业颀兇者。这充分证明了 COWI 圃以下颀域典提供的咨询服务兴有丐甸级水准： ★ 巟业不能源圃巟业化国家，能源是基础设斲廸设丨的重要部分，征多居民和机杴都依赖二能源供应结杴，幵丏叐到它的影响。COWI 积杳致力二能源廹収颀域，幵丏满足绉济和环境可持续収屍的要求。关丨包括气候发化、能敁提高、风力収申、石油和天然气等。 •气候发化气候发化工绉成为全球人类兯同体最大的环境挅戓。气候发化的挅戓圃丐甸范围典影响着政店资劣的企亊业以及私营部门。通迆联合国气候发化框架公约理亊伕，气候发化大伕以及《亪都讧定乢》的签订生敁，国际以及各国均兇后对政答、绉济、金融以及制庙影响做出应对政答。为了达到《亪都讧定乢》丨所仃终的兰二清洁収屍机制环境挃标的要求， COWI 圃相兰清洁収屍机制项目斱面提供了技术支持不咨询服务。COWI 员巟对《联合国气候发化框架公约》及《亪都讧定乢》相兰的政答泋觃斱面拞有敂锐的洞察力。为政店部门实斲国际谈判之后的结果提供了详实的分杵报告。同旪也帮劣他们设计和诂估了相兰政答和斱泋以及相兰制庙的廸立。 •能敁提高 COWI 圃全球参不了伒多的能源巟程和能源觃划项目，多年为丹麦能源部门提供觃划和収屍的咨询服务。而丏，由二拞有多与业的咨询团队，可提供对环境产生最小影响的设计斱案。COWI 的服务包括能源诂估研究、总体觃划和全系统的巟程设计。另外，项目管理、巟程监理、项目试迈行及关后续巟程咨询均为服务范围。项目既包括小垄项目，也包括大

世界500强企业名称中英文对照翻译401-500

世界500强企业名称中英对照（五）公司名称中文名称总部所在地主要业务401 Circuit Ci ty Stores, Inc. 巡回城市百货公司美国零售402 Akzo Nobel 阿克苏诺贝尔荷兰化学403 Woolworths 沃尔沃斯澳大利亚零售404 Bank of Nova Scotia 丰业银行加拿大银行405 Archer Daniels Midland 阿彻丹尼尔斯米德兰美国食品406 Banco Do Brasil 巴西银行巴西银行407 Dana 达纳美国汽车零件408 Sunoco 的美国炼油409 Taiyo Mutual Life Insurance 太阳生命日本保险410 Bank of Montreal 蒙特利尔银行加拿大银行411 China Construction Bank 中国建设银行中国银行412 Cosm o Oil 的日本炼油413 Sekisui House 积水建房日本工程建筑414 COFCO 中粮集团中国多样化415 Waste Managem ent 废物处理美国废物处理416 Telstra 澳洲电信澳大利亚电信417 Kobe Steel 神户制钢日本金属418 Am erada Hess 阿拉美达赫斯美国炼油419 Anheuser-Busch 安海斯布希美国饮料420 Farm land Industries 农场工业美国食品421 Arbed 阿尔贝德钢铁卢森堡金属422 Pohang Iron & Steel 埔项制铁韩国金属423 Yasuda Fire & Marine Insurance 安田海上火灾保险日本保险424 Dai Nippon Printing 大日本印刷日本印刷出版425 Flex tronics International 伟创力新加坡电子电气426 Royal KPN 的荷兰电信427 Central Japan Railway 中央日本铁路日本铁路运输428 Safeway 西夫韦英国零售429 Stora Enso 的芬兰纸产品430 Consignia 的英国邮递包裹431 Cable & Wireless 大东电报局英国电信432 Household International 的美国金融433 Lagardère Groupe 拉加代尔集团法国出版印刷434 Marks & Spencer 马克思斯班塞英国零售435 Kawasaki Steel 川崎制铁日本金属436 Obayashi 大林组日本工程建筑437 Union Pacific 联合太平洋美国铁路运输438 Texas Instrum ents 德州仪器美国半导体439 Asahi Glass 朝日玻璃日本建材玻璃440 Fuji Heavy Industries 富士重工日本汽车441 Henkel 汉高德国化学442 Skanska 的瑞典工程建筑443 Nom ura Securities 野村证券日本证券经纪444 Im perial Chem ical Industries 帝国化学英国化学445 Edison International 爱迪生国际美国电力煤气446 L'Oréal 欧莱雅法国肥皂化妆品447 Toppan Printing 凸版印刷日本印刷448 Agricultural Bank of China 中国农业银行中国银行449 Migros 的瑞士零售450 Invensys 的英国工农业设备451 Kyocera 京都陶瓷日本电子电气452 Am eriSource Health 的美国零售453 Xcel Energy 的美国能源454 Kawasho 川铁商事日本多样化455 All Nippon Airways 全日空日本航空公司456 Office Depot 办公用品美国零售457 Daido Life Insurance 的日本保险458 Old Mutual 的南非保险459 Asahi Kasei 旭化成日本化学460 William s 的美国能源461 PacifiCare Health System s 太平洋健康系统美国医疗健康462 Northwest Airlines 西北航空美国航空公司463 Tenet Healthcare 的美国医疗健康464 Takenaka 竹中日本工程建筑465 Suntory 三得利日本饮料466 Power Corp. of Canada 加拿大鲍尔公司加拿大保险467 Showa Shell Sekiyu 的日本炼油468 Oji Paper 王子纸日本纸产品469 Toys 'R' Us 玩具反斗店美国零售470 Lafarge 的法国建材471 Mass. Mutual Life Insurance 麻省人寿美国保险472 Cepsa 的西班牙能源473 Air France Group 法国航空法国航空公司474 Sun Life 太阳人寿加拿大保险475 Am erican General 美国普通保险美国保险476 Fluor 福陆美国工程建筑477 Matsushita Elec. Wks. 松下电工日本电子478 Christian Dior 克里斯叮迪奥法国服装479 Takashim aya 高岛屋日本零售480 Eli Lilly 礼来大药厂美国制药481 Manpower 的美国临时帮助482 Canadian Pacific 的加拿大的483 West Japan Railway 西日本铁路日本铁路运输484 Mitsui Fudosan 三井不动产日本工程建筑485 Bank of Scotland 苏格兰银行英国银行486 Uny 的日本零售487 Staples 斯特普尔斯美国零售488 Great Atl. & Pacific Tea 的美国零售489 Com puter Sciences 计算机科学美国软件数据服务490 Hum ana 胡马纳美国医疗健康491 Magna International 的加拿大电子电气492 Kinki Nippon Railway 的日本铁路运输493 Norddeutsche Landesb. 的德国银行494 Jardine Matheson 怡和中国香港多样化495 General Dynam ics 通用动力美国航空航天496 Gaz de France 法国煤气法国能源497 Mitsubishi Materials 三菱材料日本金属498 Whirlpool 惠尔普美国家用电器499 Snow Brand Milk Products 雪印乳业日本食品500 Sodexho Alliance 索迪斯联合美国餐饮服务网。

HwAN_PNX490x_Audio_Tuning_CTA_pxxxxx_V1_0

PNX490x Acoustic Test for CTAAudio Tuning for CTAAudio TuningRev. 1.20 16/02/2009NoteDocument informationInfo ContentTitle PNX490x Acoustic Test for CTAShort Title 490x AudioSubtitle Audio Tuning for CTAAuthor(s) Shan OuyangDepartment Division Cellular, BU EntryDocument IDDocument Type NoteRevision numberStatus Company ConfidentialKeywords 490x audio dasAbstractDistribution informationName Department AddressST-NXP wireless490x AudioAudio TuningContact informationFor additional information, please visit: Revision history Rev Date Description 1.0 20090216 Creation1. Content1.Content (3)2.Abbreviations (4)3.References (4)4.Introduction (5)5.Introduction of Audio Test in China TypeApproval (5)5.1Specifications (5)5.2Test items of CTA (5)6.Hardware and Software requirements (6)6.1Test Setup (6)6.2List of Equipment (6)6.3Audio Tuning Tools (7)7.Audio Tuning Procedures (7)7.1Tuning of Receive Frequency Response(RFR) (9)7.2Tuning of Receive Loudness Rating (RLR) (11)7.3Tuning of Send Frequency Response(SFR) (12)7.4Tuning of Send Loudness Rating (SLR) (13)7.5Tuning of Sidetone Masking Rate (STMR)14 7.6Tuning of Sending Distortion (15)7.7Tuning of Receive Distortion (17)7.8Tuning of Idle Channel Noise Receiving (18)7.9Tuning of Idle Channel Noise Sending (18)7.10Tuning of Acoustic Echo Control (AEC) (19)8.Legal information (19)8.1Disclaimers (19)2. AbbreviationsAcronym DescriptionAudioMon PC software used to adjust the audio subsystem. Version 2.44 and aboveshould be used with 4902.PGA Programmable Gain AmplifierCODEC Basically COder DECoder but used in the document as “DAC+ADC”LRGP Loudness Rating Guardring PositionERP Ear Reference PointMRP Mouth Reference Point3. References[1] Hw_UM_PNX490x_Audio_Mon_User_Manual_p23958.pdf : AudioMon user manual[2] Hw_ApplicationNote_PNX4902_Audio_Subsystem_p28595 : Audio structures and performance presentation[3] YD/T 1538-2006, Technical Requirements and Testing Methods for Acoustics Performance of Digital Mobile Terminal[4] 3GPP TS26.131, TS26.1324. IntroductionThis document helps readers understand audio test and gives guidelines how to tune the audio parameters of platform to pass audio tests of China Type Approval.5. Introduction of Audio Test in China Type ApprovalAll the mobile terminals sold in China market need to pass China type approval (CTA). The main test authority named CTTL (China Telecommunication Technology Labs) which Located in Beijing.5.1 SpecificationsThe Chinese national standard YD/T1538-2006 is followed by CTA. It has the same requirements with other international specifications which are:FTA: 3GPP TS 51.0103GPP TS 26.131 & TS 26.132ITU-T: P.51, P.57, P.58, P.64, P.67...5.2 Test items of CTACurrently seven items need to be tested in CTA and six of them must pass the test.Sending Frequency Response (SFR)Sending Loudness Rating (SLR)Receiving Frequency Response (RFR)Receiving Loudness Rating (RLR) nom volReceiving Loudness Rating (RLR) max volSide tone Masking Rating (STMR)Distortion SendingAlso following additional items were required by CTTL from Jan.1 2009.Distortion ReceivingEcho Loss (EL)Idle Channel Noise Receiving nomIdle Channel Noise Receiving maxIdle Channel Noise SendingStability MarginNote 3GPP TSTest name Requirement26.131CTA 5.4.1 Sending frequency response (Template)CTA 5.2.2 Sending loudness rating (SLR) 5...11 dBCTA 5.4.2 Receiving frequency response (Template)CTA 5.2.2 Nom. Receiving loudness rating (RLR) -1...5 dBCTA 5.2.2 Max. Receiving loudness rating (RLR) ≥ -13 dBCTA 5.5.1 Side Tone Masking Rating (STMR) 15...23 dBNew 5.7.1 Acoustic Echo Control ≥ 46 dBNew 5.6 Stability Loss (Nooscillation)CTA 5.8.1 Distortion – Sending (Template)New 5.8.2 Distortion – Receiving (Template)New 5.3.1 Idle noise – Sending -64dBNew 5.3.2 Idle noise – Receiving (Nominal) -57 dBNew 5.3.2 Idle noise – Receiving (Maximum) -54 dB6. Hardware and Software requirements6.1 Test SetupThe audio test can be conducted via DAI interface or air interface. Nowadays air interface is more popular and is used in CTA. Below is the typical test setup:6.2 List of EquipmentBelow are equipments using in STN Shanghai.Rhode & Schwarz UPV. (CTA is using ACQUR from Head Acoustic)Rhode & Schwarz CMU 200Artificial EarArtificial Ear ITU type 1: B&K Type 4185Artificial Ear ITU type 3.2: B&K Type 4195Artificial Mouth. B&K Type 4227Telephone Test Head: B&K Type 4602BSound level calibrator B&K Type 4231Microphone power-supply: B&K 2690A0S2The terminal under test, artificial mouth and ear should be put together into an acoustic chamber.6.3 Audio Tuning ToolsAll the audio parameters of terminal are stored in flash memory. A PC tool TAT (Test and Auto Test) is used to read, edit, import and export the audio parameters.AudioMon is another PC tool which is used to modify audio parameters on the fly. Detailed user guide please refer to reference.7. Audio Tuning ProceduresChosen settings of the audio parameters are stored in audio data section of flash memory. It is normallynecessary to have different settings of the audio parameters for different audio accessories connected to the mobile terminal (for example normal usage using the internal microphone and earphone, portable headset, loudspeaker, Bluetooth® headset, and so on). Hence, normally one pair of dedicated data sections called DSPTxOrgan[x] & DSPRxOrgan[x] should be prepared for each audio accessory used.Since FTA/CTA only test headset mode which only DSPTxOrgan[0] (main mic) and DSPRxOrgan[0] (main speaker) is involved, the following descriptions are all refer to DSPOrgan[0].Before first audio tuning, the default audio parameters has been stored in the mobile terminal with original delivery.After mounting the terminal in test set and a call was established between terminal and CMU200, audio tuning can be start. It is recommended that the tuning executed in the following common order:31.2.3. After tuning parameters, reread all parameters from terminal RAM into other active memo.4. Save the active memo to a file which will contain new parameters.5. Use TAT to import new parameters into terminal flash memory.Before continuing with the actual tuning it is recommended that the reader gets familiar with related 3GPP specifications, R&S equipments operation and NXP testing tools.TIP：During audio test, MS signal power level of CMU200 should be set as PCL 12 in GSM900.7.1 Tuning of Receive Frequency Response (RFR)This section describes how to tune frequency response in the audio receive path.7.1.1 DescriptionThe input frequency response is specified as the transmission ratio in dB of the sound pressure in the artificial ear to the input voltage at the voice coder input of CMU200.The mobile under test is installed in the LRGP position (ITU-T P.76) and the speaker is sealed to the artificial ear.The voice coder is driven so that tones with an internal reference level of -16 dBm0 are obtained. The noisepressure in the artificial ear is measured and evaluated.If type 1 artificial ear is used, The receiving frequency response must be within the limit lines specified in table30.2 of 3GPP TS51.010. The absolute sensitivity is not yet taken into account.Frequency (Hz) Upper Limit (dB) Lower Limit (dB)100 -12 -200 0 -300 2 -7500 - -51000 0 -53000 2 -53400 2 -104000 2 -Note 1: All sensitivity values are expressed in dB on a coordinate axis.Note 2: The limit of “-” lies on a straight line drawn between the breaking points on alogarithmic (frequency)/linear (dB sensitivity) coordinate.Limit lines according to 3GPP TS51.010 table 30.2If type 3.2 artificial ear is used, The receiving frequency response must be within the limit lines specified in table2 of 3GPP TS26.131.Frequency (Hz) Upper Limit (dB) Lower Limit (dB)70 -10 -200 2 -300 - -9500 - -1000 - -73000 - -3400 - -124000 2 -Note 1: All sensitivity values are expressed in dB on a coordinate axis.Note 2: The limit of “-” lies on a straight line drawn between the breaking points on a logarithmic(frequency)/linear (dB sensitivity) coordinate.Limit lines according to 3GPP TS26.131 table 2The offset of the measured frequency response to the upper or lower limit curve is calculated and then the total curve is shifted by the mean value of the maximum and minimum offset. Then another limit check is performed.If the shifted curve is within the limit lines, PASS is output, otherwise FAIL is output. The limit check isperformed at each measured frequency. If the measured value and the end point of a limit curve are not at the same frequency, it may happen that the trace slightly crosses a corner of the limit trace although there are no limit violations.7.1.2 Procedure1. Turn off Downlink FIR&IIR filters in AudioMonDSP config section.2. Measure RFR and save curve to a file. Usethe PC which running AudioMon to open the data file and copy the curve data to clipart. The data format is like below: 100 1.36016106 1.98170455736302 112 2.45548160024953…3550 4.3738710304971 3750 -1.80146960957754 4000 -14.517183. Open filter design wizard of AudioMon. ① Flat both FIR and IIR filters. ② Paste measured spectrum ③ Select limit mask as TS26.131 ④ Press FIR auto correct⑤ If FIR auto calculation is ok then press OKbutton. FIR coefficients will be present in Filter section of AudioMon. Also some fine tuning may be implemented manually. ⑥ If FIR auto calculation is not ok then may needadjust IIR filters manually to compensate the lower spectrum first. ⑦ Repeat step 4 to 6 till the compensatedspectrum in limit mask.4. Turn on Downlink FIR&IIR filters in AudioMonDSP Config section. Enable DL filter coefficients and send them to target.5. Measure the frequency response again. Theactually measured spectrum may not same as calculated by AudioMon. If the frequency response is still fail, manually trim filters at some frequency points by using filter wizard.7.2 Tuning of Receive Loudness Rating (RLR)This section describes how to tune loudness rating in the audio receive path.7.2.1 DescriptionThe receiving loudness rating (RLR) takes into account the absolute loudness in the receive direction and weights the tones in compliance with the normal sensitivity of the average human ear. The RLR is calculated at frequency bands 4 to 17 according to Table 1 of ITU-T P.79. 200250315400500630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000The RLR depends on the receive loudness set on the ME under test and according to 3GPP TS 26.131, should be between -1 dB and +5 dB at a rated loudness setting, with lower decibel values corresponding to greater loudness (-1 dB = maximum loudness, +5 dB = minimum loudness).7.2.2 ProcedureRLR should be tuned after RFR.1. Make sure volume is set as normal. MeasureRFR.2. In case the measured RLR does not fall within thespecified limits (RLR = 2±3 dB). There are two programmable gains in receive path can be used to compensate it. If the measured RLR is less than -1dB, gains should be reduced. If themeasured RLR is higher than 5dB, gains should be increased.① DSP gain may involve digital distortion whichmay cause receive distortion failed in high sound pressure. It’s better to keep DSP DL gain no higher than 6dB. ② FIR filter gain also can be used adjust thewhole spectrum loudness. If the measured RLR is not far away thespecified limits. Tune the frequency response to change the weight of tones also can reach the target. But the RFR must keep in the mask.DSP DL GainFIR filter gain3. It’s better to trim RLR within 3~4dB which is incompliance with requirement and benefits to idle channel noise and echo loss test cases.7.3 Tuning of Send Frequency Response (SFR)This section describes how to tune frequency response in the audio send path.7.3.1 DescriptionThe send frequency response is specified as the transmission ratio in decibel of the voltage at the decoder output to the input noise pressure at the artificial mouth.The mobile terminal under test should be installed in the LRGP according to ITU-T P.76 and the speaker must be sealed to the artificial ear.Tones with a sound pressure of -4.7 dBPa are created with an artificial mouth at the Mouth Reference Point (MRP), and the corresponding output voltage is measured at the instrument voice coder (for example, CMU) output and evaluated.The send frequency response must be within the tolerance mask specified according to below table. The maskis drawn with straight lines between the breaking points in the table on a logarithmic (frequency)/linear (dBSensitivity) coordinate. Test results shall be within the mask.Frequency (Hz) Upper Limit Lower Limit100 -12 -200 0 -300 0 -121000 0 -62000 4 -63000 4 -63400 4 -94000 0 -Note 1: All sensitivity values are expressed in dB on a coordinate axis.Note 2: The limit of “-” lies on a straight line drawn between the breaking points on a logarithmic(frequency)/linear (dB sensitivity) coordinate.7.3.2 ProcedurePlease refer to section 7.1.2 (RFR tuning procedure). The difference is the tuning is in audio uplink path.7.4 Tuning of Send Loudness Rating (SLR)This section describes how to tune loudness rating in the audio send path.7.4.1 DescriptionThe send loudness rating (SLR) takes into account the absolute loudness in the transmit direction and weights the tones in compliance with the normal sensitivity of the human ear.The SLR is calculated at frequency bands 4 to 17 according to Table 1 of ITU-T P.79.According to 3GPP TS26.131 the send loudness rating should be between 5 dB and 11 dB, with lower decibel-values corresponding to greater loudness (5 dB = maximum loudness, 11 dB = minimum loudness).7.4.2 ProcedureThe main procedure can refer to section 7.2.2 (RLR tuning procedure) but there are some differences.Except DSP UL gain and UL FIR gain, a two stage PGA is in analog part. Too high gain of analog PGA may cause MIC saturated or involve much noise in uplink path.A noise suppress function in DSP is recommended to turn on which benefits to idle channel noise performance.But this function will reduce sending loudness significantly. It has to be compensated by increase digital gains.Details of noise suppressor please have a look at reference.7.5 Tuning of Sidetone Masking Rate (STMR)This section describes how to tune the sidetone masking rating (STMR).7.5.1 DescriptionThe so-called sidetone path is the desired output from the part of the signal picked up by the microphone from the phone's speaker. We need sidetone because if we cannot hear ourselves during a call, our brain refuses to accept that anyone else can hear us and we tend to speak too loudly.The artificial mouth generates tones with a sound pressure of -4.7 dBPa at the MRP, and the sound pressure is measured in the artificial ear.When the mobile terminal is set to the rated receiving loudness, the STMR should be between 18±5 dBaccording to 3GPP TS 26.131.TIP：According to the old spec (TS 51.010), STMR requirement has been 13±5 dB. Please note this has been modified in new spec which applies in CTA.A high level of sidetone has a significant effect on the use of the mobile terminal in high ambient noiseconditions, making received speech extremely difficult to recognize.Sidetone is related to SLR and RLR. Any attempt to change them to achieve compliance with loudness rating requirements can also have a marked effect on sidetone performance.7.5.2 Procedure1. Active sidetone in audio path of AudioMon CodecConfig section.2. Measure STMR in UPV, adjust sidetone gain inAudioMon Codec Misc section till the measuredSTMR is between 13~23dB.7.6 Tuning of Sending DistortionThis section describes how to tune sending distortion.7.6.1 DescriptionThe S/N ratio in the transmit path is measured as a function of the sound level.A sine-wave signal with a frequency in the range of 1004Hz to 1025Hz shall be applied in the test. The level ofthis signal at the MRP shall be adjusted until the output of the terminal is -10dBm0. The level of the signal at the MRP is then the ARL.The ratio of the signal to total distortion power (SINAD value) of the received signal is measured at the CMU’s decoder output. The SINAD value is measured at sound pressures between -35 dB and +10dB relative to the acoustic reference level ARL and compared with the limit lines specified in table as belowLevel Relative to ARL Sending Level Ratio (dB)-35 17.5-30 22.5-20 30.7-10 33.30 33.7+7 31.7+10 25.5Limits for intermediate levels are found by drawing straight lines between the breaking points in the table on a linear (dB signal level)/linear (dB ratio) coordinate.7.6.2 ProcedureMeasure the sending distortion in UPV. According to the result, there are there scenarios to be analyzedrespectively.1. The curve failed in high sound pressure part. The distortion mainly caused by signal distortiondue to too high amplifier gain in uplink path. Reduce a certain PGA gain can resolve this problem.2. The curve failed in low sound pressure part and the failure is very significant (normally around20dB to the limit). This can be concluded the test signal is removed by uplink noise suppressor inDSP. Tune noise suppressor parameters can resolve this problem.3. The curve failed in low sound pressure part and the failure is slight. The reason is very complex. Mainlycaused by noise in MIC circuit. Optimize MIC circuit or replace MIC itself is helpful.Also it is worth to retrim sending frequency response. The main part of MIC noise is in lower frequency (217Hz and the harmonics) and the test signal is around 1K Hz. Thus, reduce lower frequency weight and increase 1KHz weight in spectrum can improve the S/N rate. Below are some examples:7.7 Tuning of Receive DistortionThis section describes how to tune receive distortion.7.7.1 DescriptionFor handset terminal, headset terminal, handheld hands-free terminal and Desktop-operated hands-freeterminal, when RLR is equal to the nominal value, receiving distortion shall be measured between MRP and the input port of the reference speed coder/decoder of the SS.The ratio of signal-to-total distortion power measured with the proper noise weighting (see Table 4 of ITU-T Recommendation G.223) shall be above the limits given in below table. For sound pressures ≥+10dBPa at the ERP there is no requirement on distortion.Receiving Level at Digital Interface of the TestedReceiving Level Ratio (dB)Apparatus (dBm0)-45 17.5-40 22.5-30 30.5-20 33.0-10 33.5-3 31.20 25.5Limits for intermediate levels are found by drawing straight lines between the breaking points on a linear (dB signal level)/linear (dB ratio) coordinate.7.7.2 ProcedureThe tuning method is very similar with tuning sending distortion. Please refer to section 7.6.2.The lower sound pressure part failure may caused by improper setting of Noise Gate.The high sound pressure part failure may caused by two high PGA gain setting especially the DSP DL gain.7.8 Tuning of Idle Channel Noise ReceivingThis section describes how to tune the idle channel noise receiving.7.8.1 DescriptionThe sound pressure in the artificial ear is measured with the mobile terminal set up in a quiet environment (<30 dB(A)).The sound pressure in the artificial ear is measured with A-weighting on.With optimum volume set on the mobile, the sound pressure should not exceed -57 dBPa(A).At maximum volume, the sound pressure should not exceed -54 dBPa(A).This measurement makes high demands on the sound insulation of the test chamber and the S/N ratio of the measuring microphone including preamplifier in the artificial ear. The artificial ear is observed sensitive withTDD noise. Please make sure the mobile power level is PCL12 and keep the cable of artificial ear as short as possible exposing in RF.7.8.2 ProcedureWith proper RLR, RFR and noise gate settings, normally no more tuning needed for this test case.If audio parameter modification still can not make the test pass, add two serial 10 Ohm resistors in receiver path should be considered.7.9 Tuning of Idle Channel Noise SendingThis section describes how to tune the idle channel noise sending.7.9.1 DescriptionThe noise voltage at the voice decoder output is measured with the mobile terminal set up in a quietenvironment (< 30 dB(A)).The decoder output voltage is measured, psophometrically weighted according to ITU-T G.223 and calculated at the internal level in dBm0p.The idle noise level should not exceed -64 dBm0p.7.9.2 ProcedureWith proper SLR, SFR and noise suppressor settings, normally no more tuning needed for this test case.7.10 Tuning of Acoustic Echo Control (AEC)This section describes how to tune the acoustic echo control. It has been said Echo Loss (EL) in 3GPP TS51.010.7.10.1 DescriptionThe AEC is the attenuation between the voice coder input and the voice decoder output. Normally the echocaused by internal acoustic coupling between the mobile phone receiver and the microphone. Since the echo considerably reduces the sound transmission quality, it should not exceed a certain value. 3GPP TS26.131specifies an echo loss of at least 46 dB.To obtain realistic results, an artificial voice is used for the echo loss test. Before the actual test, a trainingsequence consisting of 10s artificial voice (male) and 10s artificial voice (female) according to ITU-TRecommendation P.50 shall be applied.7.10.2 ProcedureEcho loss is measured on maximum volume.With default acoustic template, the echo canceller and echo suppressor are active. EL test case should be no problem to pass. But if the terminal under test has problems in mechanic design, there is not a full isolationbetween MIC and receiver within the mechanic for example, EL will fail. In this case, the best solution is tooptimize mechanic. But if change mechanic is impossible, reduce the RLR in maximum volume, increaseattenuation of ES are also considered.8. Legal information8.1 DisclaimersGeneral _Information in this document is believed to be accurate and reliable. However, ST-NXP wireless does not give any representations or warranties,expressed or implied, as to the accuracy or completeness of such information and shall have no liability for the consequences of use of such information.Right to make changes _ ST-NXP wireless reserves the right to make changes to information published in this document, including without limitationspecifications and product descriptions, at any time and without notice. This document supersedes and replaces all information supplied prior to the publication hereof.Suitability for use _ ST-NXP wireless Semiconductors products are not designed, authorized or warranted to be suitable for use in medical, military, aircraft, space or life support equipment, nor in applications where failure or malfunction of a NXP Semiconductors product can reasonably be expected to result inpersonal injury, death or severe property or environmental damage. ST-NXP wireless accepts no liability for inclusion and/or use of ST-NXP wireless products in such equipment or applications and therefore such inclusion and/or use is at the customer’s own risk.Applications _ Applications that are described herein for any of these products are for illustrative purposes only. ST-NXP wireless makes no representation or warranty that such applications will be suitable for the specified use without further testing or modification.ST-NXP wireless 490x AudioAudio TuningNotesHwAN_PNX4902_Audio_Subsystem © NXP Semiconductors 2007. All rights reserved. Application note Rev. 1.2— 27/11/0821 of 21。

Finnet Group

Project P911-PFIP MulticastDeliverable 1State-of-the-Art Technologies, Products, and ServicesVolume 1 of 3: Main ReportSuggested readers:•People in the Shareholders responsible for planning and deployment of services in IP networks.•Also this Deliverable functions as a ´white paper`, describing a European view from the Project, concerning the relevance of ongoing work and prioritisation of missing issues in the area of IP MulticastFor Full PublicationMay 2000EURESCOM PARTICIPANTS in Project P911-PF are:•Deutsche Telekom AG•Finnet Group•France Télécom•Iceland Telecom Ltd.•Telecom Italia S.p.A.•Hellenic Telecommunications Organisation SA (OTE)This document contains material which is the copyright of certain EURESCOM PARTICIPANTS, and may not be reproduced or copied without permission.All PARTICIPANTS have agreed to full publication of this documentThe commercial use of any information contained in this document may require a license from the proprietor of that information.Neither the PARTICIPANTS nor EURESCOM warrant that the information contained in the report is capable of use, or that use of the information is free from risk, and accept no liability for loss or damage suffered by any person using this information.This document has been approved by EURESCOM Board of Governors for distribution to all EURESCOM Shareholders.© 2000 EURESCOM Participants in Project P911-PFDeliverable 1Volume 1: Main ReportPrefaceIP Multicast technologies have been around for a few years, but have still to see theircommercial breakthrough. The well-known MBone provides access for many peopleto IETF meetings and other events, but the operation of the MBone needs expertise, aresource that is scarce.In search of Multicast technologies, which are deployable for a Network Operator in acommercial scale and to non-technical customers, the Project P911 has looked at thestate-of-the-art. Not only concerning Multicast mechanisms in the network, but alsosupport in applications and deployed and planned services based on Multicast.•This first Deliverable of the Project presents the survey. It should be regarded as state-of-the-art report in an environment, which is changing rapidly.•The second Deliverable reports on tests, which were performed on a set of Multicast protocols (implemented on popular routers). Since this world is alsochanging, the results should be used as indications of maturity of the differentprotocols, rather than an absolute rating of them.The scope of the Project was intentionally broad, in order to achieve a solid base forfurther work. And indeed a continuation Project is planned, and will start early in theyear 2000.Participants from 6 Shareholders contributed to the work. Project Leader was PeterFeil, Deutsche Telekom, T-Nova/Berkom.© 2000 EURESCOM Participants in Project P911-PF page iii (xii)Volume 1: Main Report Deliverable 1Executive SummaryThis first Deliverable of the Project P911 presents a state-of-the-arts report oftechnologies, products, and services in the area of IP Multicast.It gives an overview of the work done around the world by relevant research groups,service providers, and vendors. Serving as an ´IP Multicast White Paper` thisDeliverable covers not only the available protocols, services, and applications, butalso identifies missing issues from a European perspective.Starting with a more general description of Multicast services and some examples ofalready existing commercial implementations, the most important applications in thearea of IP Multicast are presented. This includes not only the well-known MBonetools but also some commercial products.The next chapters are more technologically oriented: First, the general mechanismsand the architecture of IP Multicast are presented followed by an overview of themost important protocols in this area (routing, transport, addressing). Technical issuesare then covered with topics like IP Multicast and QoS, Reliable Multicast, andSecurity. Finally deployment issues are addressed which need some furtherelaboration if IP Multicast is to be deployed on a broader scale.The main volume of this Deliverable comprises the most important facts whereasadditional and more detailed information can be found in the two Annexe.Based on this survey the project participants performed trials with protocols,applications, and services. The results and experiences achieved in these experimentsas well as recommendations for new services with IP Multicast are described inDeliverable 2.page iv (xii)© 2000 EURESCOM Participants in Project P911-PFDeliverable 1Volume 1: Main ReportList of AuthorsPeter Feil (Project Leader and Editor)DTMarkku.Mäki AFOlaf Bonness DTF. Hartanto DTNicolai Leymann DTChristian Siebel DTMichael Smirnov DTDorota Witaszek DTV. Yau DTAndré Zehl DTTanja Zseby DTNoël Cantenot FTEmmanuel Gouleau FTChristian Jacquenet FTNicole le Minous FTC. Proust FTSaemundur E. Thorsteinsson ICHafþór Óskarsson ICF. Bracali ITLoris.Marchetti ITGeorge Diakonikolaou (Editor)OGConstantinos Boukouvalas (Editor)OG© 2000 EURESCOM Participants in Project P911-PF page v (xii)Volume 1: Main Report Deliverable 1Table of ContentsPreface (iii)Executive Summary (iv)List of Authors (v)Table of Contents (vi)Abbreviations (ix)1Introduction (1)2Services (3)2.1Introduction (3)2.2Multicast Services (3)2.2.1Real-Time Services with Multimedia Content (4)2.2.2Real-Time services with Data-only Content (4)2.2.3Non-Real-Time Services with Multimedia Content (4)2.2.4Non-Real-Time Services with Data-only Content (5)2.3Commercial Services (5)2.3.1Overview of Multicast Services (5)2.3.2Examples of Services based on IP Multicast (6)2.3.3Some Multicast Services offered today by ISPs (7)3Applications (9)3.1Requirements from IP Multicast Applications (9)3.1.1Routing (9)3.1.2Multimedia Transport Protocols (9)3.1.3Reliability (10)3.2Experimental IP Multicast Applications (11)3.2.1VIC – The Video Conferencing Tool (11)3.2.2VAT – The Visual Audio Tool (12)3.2.3SDR – The Session Directory (12)3.2.4WB – The Shared WhiteBoard Application (12)3.2.5MPOLL (12)3.2.6RAT – The Robust Audio Tool (13)3.2.7RTPTOOLS (13)3.2.8CMT (Berkeley Continuous Media Toolkit) (13)3.2.9MASH (14)3.2.10MInT (14)3.2.11Freephone (14)3.2.12Rendezvous (15)3.2.13MultiMon (15)3.2.14NTE – The Network Text Editor (16)3.3Products and Commercial Applications (16)3.3.1IP/TV from Cisco (16)3.3.2Microsoft NetShow Services (17)3.3.3RealAudio / RealVideo (18)3.4Summary Table of Applications (20)page vi (xii)© 2000 EURESCOM Participants in Project P911-PFDeliverable 1Volume 1: Main Report 4Architecture and General Mechanisms of IP Multicast (21)4.1General Mechanisms for IP Multicast (21)4.1.1Multicast Group Membership (21)4.1.2Host Group (21)4.1.3Multicast Group Address (21)4.1.4Multicast Group Membership Management (22)4.1.5Delivery Techniques (22)4.1.6Techniques for Reliable Multicast (23)4.1.7Scoped Multicast (24)4.1.8Multicast Address Allocation (24)4.2Routing and Transport Protocols (25)4.2.1Multicast Routing Protocols (25)4.2.2Multicast Transport Protocols (26)4.2.3General Transport Mechanisms (27)4.2.4Reliable Multicast Transport Protocols (29)4.2.5Interactivity versus Reliability (29)4.2.6Multicast Transport Classification (30)4.3Standardisation (31)4.3.1The IETF and IP Multicast (31)4.3.2The IRTF and IP Multicast (32)4.4Existing Implementations of Routing Protocols (33)5Technical Issues (34)5.1IP Multicast over specific Link Layer Technologies (34)5.1.1IP Multicast over ATM: The Multicast Integration Server(MIS) (34)5.2IP Multicast and QoS (34)5.2.1IntServ (35)5.2.2DiffServ (35)5.2.3QoS-based Routing (36)5.2.4Open Issues (36)5.3Reliable Multicast (37)5.3.1General Purpose Protocols (39)5.3.2Support For Multipoint Interactive Applications (39)5.3.4Support for Data Dissemination Services (40)5.4Security (40)5.4.1Requirements (40)5.4.2Design Goals (41)5.4.3Architecture for Secure Multicast (42)6Deployment Issues (45)6.1Monitoring, Management, and Accounting (45)6.1.1Monitoring and Management (45)6.1.2Future Work (46)6.1.3Accounting (46)6.1.4Issues (47)6.2Scalability, Stability, and Policy Issues (47)6.2.1Scalability (47)6.2.2Stability (48)6.2.3Policy (48)6.2.4The MIX Experience (48)6.3Address Management and Allocation (49)© 2000 EURESCOM Participants in Project P911-PF page vii (xii)Volume 1: Main Report Deliverable 16.3.1TTL-Based Scoping (49)6.3.2Administratively Scoped IP Multicast (50)6.3.3The MALLOC layered Architecture (50)6.3.4Open Issues (Potential Drawbacks) (51)7Conclusions and Outlook (52)8References (53)page viii (xii)© 2000 EURESCOM Participants in Project P911-PFDeliverable 1Volume 1: Main ReportAbbreviationsAAP Address Allocation ProtocolACK AcknowledgementAF Finnet GroupALF Application Layer FramingAPI Application Programming InterfaceATM Asynchronous Transfer ModeAV Audio / VideoBGMP Border Gateway Multicast ProtocolBGP Border Gateway Protocol (Routing Protocol)CBT Core Based Tree (Routing Protocol)CBQ Class Based QueuingCSCW Computer Supported Co-operative WorkDiffServ Differentiated ServicesDSCP Differential Service Code PointDT Deutsche TelekomDVB Digital Video BroadcastDVMRP Distance Vector Multicast ProtocolEARTH EAsy IP Multicast Routing THrough ATM clouds (protocol)FDDI Fiber Distributed Data InterfaceFEC Forward Explicit ControlFT France TélécomHPY Helsinki Telephone Corp.IC Iceland TelecomICMP Internet Control Messaging ProtocolIDMR Inter Domain Multicast Routing (IETF Working Group)IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics EngineersIETF Internet Engineering Task ForceIGMP Internet Group Management ProtocolIntServ Integrated ServicesIOS Interface Operating System (Software on Cisco Systems)IP Internet ProtocolIRTF Internet Research Task ForceISDN Integrated Services Digital Network© 2000 EURESCOM Participants in Project P911-PF page ix (xii)Volume 1: Main Report Deliverable 1ISP Internet Service ProviderIT Telecom ItaliaITU-T International Telecommunication Union – Telecommunications JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group (Video Coding)kbps Kilobit per secondLAN Local Area NetworkLBL Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryLIS Logical IP SubnetMAAS Multicast Address Allocation ServerMAC Media Access ControlMADCAP Multicast Address Allocation ProtocolMALLOC Multicast Address Allocation (Working Group of the IETF) MARS Multicast Address Resolution ServerMASC Multicast Address Set ClaimMBGP Multicast Border Gateway Protocol (Multicast RoutingProtocol)MBone Multicast Backbone on the InternetMBONED MBone Deployment Working Group of the IETFMFTP Multicast File Transfer ProtocolMIB Management Information BaseMIKE Multicast Internet Key ExchangeMIS Multicast Integration ServerMIX Multicast Exchange PointMLD Multicast Listener DiscoveryMLIS Multicast Logical IP SubnetMOSPF Multicast Open Shortest Path First (Routing Protocol)MPEG Motion Pictures Experts Group (Compression Architecture forDigital Videos)MRM Multicast Routing MonitorMSA Multicast Security AssociationMSDP Multicast Source Discovery ProtocolMTP Multicast Transport ProtocolNACK Negative AcknowledgementNRT Non-Real-TimeNSAP Network Service Access PointNTE Network Text Editorpage x (xii)© 2000 EURESCOM Participants in Project P911-PFOCBT Ordered Core Based Tree (Routing Protocol)OG Hellenic Telecom Organisation SA (OTE)OSPF Open Shortest Path First (Multicast Routing Protocol)PGM Pragmatic Multicast ProtocolPHB Per Hop BehaviourPIM Protocol Independent Multicast (Routing Protocol)PIM-DM PIM Dense Mode (Routing Protocol)PIM-SM PIM Sparse Mode (Routing Protocol)PVC Permanent Virtual ConnectionQoS Quality of ServiceQoSMIC Quality of Service sensitive Multicast Internet Protocol Service RADIUS Remote Authentication Dial In User ServerRAT Robust Audio ToolRBP Reliable Broadcast ProtocolRFC Request For CommentsRMF Reliable Multicast FrameworksRMFP Reliable Multicast Framing ProtocolRMGR Reliable Multicast Research Group (IRTF Research Group) RMP Reliable Multicast ProtocolRMT Reliable Multicast Transport (IETF Working Group)RP Rendezvous PointRPB Reverse Path BroadcastingRPM Reverse Path MulticastingRSVP Resource ReSerVation ProtocolRT Real-TimeRTCP Real-Time Control ProtocolRTFM Real Time Flow MeasurementRTP Real-Time Transport ProtocolRTSP Real-Time Streaming ProtocolRTT Round Trip TimeSAM Source Authentication ModuleSAP Session Announcement ProtocolSDP Session Description ProtocolSDR Session Directory ToolSIP Session Initiation ProtocolSLA Service Level AgreementSMUG Secure Multicast Research Group (IRTF Research Group) SNMP Simple Network Management ProtocolSSM Source Specific MulticastTCP Transmission Control ProtocolTOS Type of ServiceTRPB Truncated Reverse Path BroadcastingTTL Time To LiveUCL University College LondonUDP User Datagram ProtocolUNI User Network InterfaceURGC Uniform Reliable Group Communication ProtocolVAT Visual Audio ToolVIC Video Conferencing ToolWB Whiteboard Tool (MBone Tool)WWW World Wide WebXTP Express Transport Protocol1IntroductionIP Multicast is an emerging set of technologies and standards that allow many-to-many transmissions such as conferencing, or one-to-many transmissions such as livebroadcasts of audio and video over the Internet. Although Multicast applications areprimarily used in the research community today, this situation is likely to change soonas the demand for Internet multimedia applications increases and Multicasttechnologies improve.Multicasting is a technical term which means that one piece of data (a packet) can besent to multiple sites at the same time. The usual way of moving information aroundthe Internet is by using unicast protocols, which send packets to one site at a time.On a Multicast network, one single packet of information can be sent from onecomputer for distribution to several other computers, instead of having to send thatpacket once for every destination. Because 5, 10 or 100 machines can receive thesame packet, bandwidth is conserved. Also, when Multicasting is used to send apacket, there is no need to know the address of everyone who wants to receive theMulticast stream: The data is simply ´broadcast` in an intelligent way to anyone whois interested in receiving it.Multicast enabled networks offer a wide range of services and new applications to theend user. Many of the Multicast enabled applications are multimedia applications,although there exists a variety of applications that use IP Multicast technology fornon-multimedia purposes. Real-time applications include live broadcasts of TV orradio shows, financial data information delivery, whiteboard collaboration and videoconferencing, non-real time applications including file transfer, data or filereplication, video-on-demand and many more.Multicast transmission offers many advantages compared to the traditional unicasttransmission. Available network bandwidth is utilised more efficiently since multiplestreams of data are replaced by a single Multicast transmission. It offers optimisedperformance since less copies of data require forwarding and processing within thenetwork nodes.Before an IP network and its users can benefit from these advanced features, IPMulticast routing capabilities must be enabled in the network nodes. Depending onthe network usage policies and the users’ demands issues concerning routing,reliability, network addressing and multimedia transport protocols are of primaryimportance nowadays for network operators in this context.IP Multicast relies on the existence of an underlying Multicast delivery system toforward data from a sender to all the interested receivers. Such delivery systems couldbe satellite networks, frame relay networks, ATM networks, ISDN connections andfinally the world-wide Internet.Multicasting does not offer advantages only to the end user. Most Multicastapplications are UDP-based, which can result to undesirable side-effects (packagescan be dropped) compared to similar unicast TCP-based applications. However, nocongestion control can result in overall network degradation. Also duplicate packetscan occasionally be generated as Multicast network topologies change.Today, companies exist that offer commercial services based on Multicast technology.In 3 to 5 years the deployment of IPv6 will bring native Multicast to the net user.More reliable routing software with new protocols that make good use of theinfrastructure is expected. With native Multicast routing issues will be resolved easier and bandwidth will be conserved.Multicasting is a relatively new technology allowing customers to benefit from real-time applications that otherwise would require extremely large amounts of bandwidth. This evolution makes it possible for a large category of companies to ´emit` their products to groups of people at an extremely low cost, compared to unicast. Multicast by reducing network traffic and saving bandwidth allows users to exploit the maximum possible utilisation of the Internet. Multicast offers to all kind of people that are concerned with the Internet (end users, network operators, ISPs and other related companies) an economical and technically viable solution to the problem of transmitting large amounts of information to selected groups of people.To enable IP Multicast on the global Internet or in intranets, the first way that has been gone was to interconnect multiple Multicast enabled network islands with the help of IP Multicast ´tunnels`. Since tunnels are neither scalable, nor do they offer the advantages of Multicast inherently, the next step is currently to replace the tunnel infrastructure with a ´real` Multicast routing infrastructure. The current state-of-the-art of IP Multicast technology offers various ways for routing and addressing, and the big challenge is currently to establish a reliable global infrastructure that allows for similar scalability and reliability in its deployment as the unicast Internet infrastructure does today.While the network protocol IP itself offers inherent mechanisms for IP Multicast, higher layer protocols do not support this. Although ´unreliable` protocols, like UDP or RTP, can be used on top of IP Multicast, TCP implementations and higher layer ´reliable` transport protocols well-known in unicast environments don’t support Multicast. Thus, specially tailored Multicast transport protocols have been developed, and the result is that there will be no general purpose Multicast transport protocol for all cases, but either highly configurable protocols or highly specialised protocols for specific reliable transmission purposes in an IP Multicast environment.2Services2.1IntroductionOver the the last 20 years, Internet traffic has been growing exponentially. This trafficgrowth was basically growth of the point-to-point traffic or ´unicast` traffic, whereeither a file is downloaded from a site, a web page is visited or an email is exchangedbetween two points. One of the biggest opportunities the Internet protocol offers, hasnot even slightly started for large-scale usage. This is the usage of the Internet forbroadcast-media like TV, Business TV, Interactive TV shows, radio, and so on, aswell as distribution of software, movies, CD-titles through subscribed ´push channels`to Internet users. Usage of the Internet for this type of applications will initiateanother wave of traffic on the net.The underlying ´IP Multicast` technology for simple one-to-many-transmission hasbeen available since the early 1990s and in the past two years considerable effort hasbeen put into the development of global routing protocols that allow for scalablerouting of this traffic over the Internet. Although an ´IP broadcast` mechanism isavailable in the Internet protocol, this mechanism is not intended for use with´Broadcast Media`, since this IP broadcast sends it traffic to every machine on thelocal sub-net. But since it is a waste of available bandwidth to send the traffic to everymachine, if needed or not, the Multicast mechanism was designed to allow for´subscription` of certain Multicast channels or ´Multicast groups`.Although IP Multicast is not widely used on the Internet today, it is generallyexpected that as soon as the experimental nature of the current Multicastimplementations moves to a more stable production network, new applications andservices will flourish on the network.Today few commercial services are based on Multicast technologies. It is generallyexpected that the deployment of IPv6 will bring native Multicast for the net user inthe coming years. More reliable routing software with new protocols that make gooduse of the infrastructure is expected. Native Multicast routing will allow for a betterscalability and even with traditional ´Broadcast media` on the Internet bandwidth willbe conserved. Multicast offers Internet end users, network operators, ISPs and Internetrelated industries an economical and technically viable solution to the problem oftransmitting large amounts of information to selected groups of people.2.2Multicast ServicesIP Multicast services can be divided into four groups:Real-Time (RT) services:1.RT with multimedia content: This kind of data includes video/audio. In real-timeservices, the presentation happens parallel to the downloading procedure andrequires hard limits on delay and jitter. Multimedia is not sensitive totransmission errors. Includes interactive and non-interactive services.2.RT with data-only content: Time-dependent data that is often sensitive totransmission errors and thus requires reliable Multicast. Includes both interactiveand non-interactive services.Non-Real-Time (NRT) services:3.NRT with multimedia content: Audio/video that is not presented in parallel to thedownloading procedure. Local playback of multimedia.4.NRT with data-only content: Distribution of data, often within a corporation;needs reliable Multicast.2.2.1Real-Time Services with Multimedia ContentThis group of services can be split into interactive and non-interactive services:•Interactive: Conferencing services (many-to-many) are highly interactive, having tight limits on delay and jitter. Typical are Audio/Video conferencingservices, which have been very successful with a number of commercialapplications already existing today. Such a conference scenario would normallyhave tens of members, some receiving and transmitting but some only receiving.•Non-Interactive: Typical is a broadcasting service similar to TV- or radio distribution (one sender and multiple receivers – one-to-many). It has to providea very high scalability, with possibly millions of recipients. The content madeavailable can include the broadcasting of live events, but also pre-recordedmaterial provided by Audio/Video servers.2.2.2Real-Time services with Data-only ContentThese kind of services can be interactive (many-to-many) such as and white-boarding-conferences and distributed games, or they can be non-interactive (one-to-many) suchas a typical data/news feed:•Whiteboard-conferencing: Similar to multimedia conferences but instead of video transmission, conference members share a whiteboard that supports text andimages. This is also known as ´Computer Supported Co-operative Work (CSCW)`Most likely not more than 20 participants will join such a session which needs tohave low latency and support reliable Multicast.•Distributed games: Networked multi-player games with unicast transmission exist but games using Multicast are in the development phase. The number ofplayers would typically be 10-30. Must have low latency and support reliableMulticast•Data/news feeds: This service broadcasts text information such as stock information and news headlines. Must of them support reliable Multicast and highscalability (possibly millions of users). Latency could be variable, users could paymore for less latency.2.2.3Non-Real-Time Services with Multimedia ContentThere may be the demand to re-transmit multimedia events. This is either because ofbandwidth limitations or simply because the consumers want to view the events later,at their leisure. Teleteaching sessions with pre-recorded material are also included inthis service scenario.By making use of non-real-time audio/video servers the multimedia data can bedownloaded at off-hours and presented later. This approach can be used if users donot want to view the material at download time or if the bandwidth available is nothigh enough for an on-line presentation.Similarly kiosks for dissemination of information can be part of such a servicescenario. A kiosk is typically a computer with a touch-screen placed in a secureenclosure at a public place. It enables consumers to have instant electronic access to information.2.2.4Non-Real-Time Services with Data-only ContentNearly all applications in this group of services require absolute reliability. Typicalapplication scenarios are:•Software Distribution or Database Replication: A large corporation may have hundreds of branches and Multicasting data decreases the time spent for thedistribution of software updates or for the replication of corporate databases.•´Push` Applications and ´Webcasting`: Push services are equivalent to subscription services and deliver the information automatically to theirsubscribers. Members of a certain group could for example get new informationof any kind as soon as it appears. Email is a typical push service. Push servicesshould be very scalable, up to millions of users.•Mirroring and/or caching of Web sites: This kind of service is used to bring the Web content closer to the user by using mirror servers. Multicast could be used todo the mirroring of Web sites in an efficient way.2.3Commercial Services2.3.1Overview of Multicast ServicesA new service that will take advantage of Multicast technology must be analysedthrough the following axis:•Benefit for the end user•Time advantage: ´my content is available more quickly`•Content advantage: ´my content in a continuous and constant quality mode`•Benefit for the content provider•Cost saving: links and servers are less expensive•The quality of service is better for the customer•Customers stay longer on a site (loyalty)•The information sent is the same for everyone at the same time (community for example)End users and providers will need to have a benefit in order for the technology to beimplemented.For the residential users Multicast services can be seen in the followings areas:•Services that will only replace the use of already existing broadcast solutions: This is the usual case where radio networks are broadcast over the network.•The association between personalization of content and push technology. For example data broadcasting can be foreseen in the field of。

世界五百强及行业中英文翻译2

101 Target 塔吉特美国零售102 Albertson"s 艾伯森美国零售103 Hyundai 现代韩国多样化104 Thyssen Krupp 蒂森克虏伯德国工农业设备105 Samsung 三星韩国多样化106 USX 美国钢铁马拉松美国炼油107 Royal Philips Electronics 皇家飞利浦电子荷兰电子电气108 Crédit Agricole 农业信贷银行法国银行109 Berkshire Hathaway 伯克希尔哈撒韦美国保险110 Intel 英特尔美国半导体111 BASF 巴斯夫德国化学112 Goldman Sachs Group 高盛集团美国证券经纪113 J.C. Penney 彭尼美国零售114 BMW 宝马德国汽车115 Conoco 的美国炼油116 Costco Wholesale 价格成本美国零售117 HypoVereinsbank 联合抵押银行德国银行118 Suez 苏伊士里昂水务法国水务119 Safeway 西夫韦美国零售120 MetLife 都市人寿保险美国保险121 Santander Central Hispano Group 桑坦德集团西班牙银行122 Dell Computer 戴尔电脑美国计算机123 SK 鲜京韩国炼油124 Electricite De France 法国电力法国电力125 Deutsche Post 德国邮政德国邮递包裹126 Tesco 特斯科英国零售127 France Télécom 法国电信法国电信128 BT 英国电信英国电信129 Ingram Micro 英格雷姆麦克罗美国零售130 Nortel Networks 北电网络加拿大电子电气131 Freddie Mac 弗雷德马克美国金融132 Cardinal Health 卡地纳健康美国的133 L.M. Ericsson 爱立信瑞典电子电气134 Meiji Life Insurance 明治生命日本保险135 United Parcel Service 联合包裹运输服务美国邮递包裹136 Royal Bank of Scotland 皇家苏格兰银行英国银行137 Mitsubishi Motors 三菱汽车日本汽车138 Pfizer 辉瑞美国制药139 Dynegy 的美国能源140 Reliant Energy 的美国电力煤气公用141 E.I. du Pont de Nemours 杜邦美国化学142 Delphi Automotive Systems 德尔福汽车系统美国汽车零件143 Johnson & Johnson 强生美国制药144 Allstate 好事达保险美国保险145 Robert Bosch 罗伯特博世德国电子电气146 Alcatel 阿尔卡特法国电子电气147 UtiliCorp United 公用事业联合公司美国电力煤气公用148 Tyco International 特科国际美国电子电气149 Hyundai Motor 现代汽车日本汽车150 Bayer 拜尔德国化学151 Aegon 的荷兰保险152 Ito-Yokado 伊藤洋华堂日本零售153 International Paper 国际造纸美国纸产品154 Nokia 诺基亚芬兰电子电气155 Nippon Mitsubishi Oil 日本三菱石油日本炼油156 Olivetti 好利获得意大利电信157 Wells Fargo 富国银行美国银行158 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries 三菱重工日本工农业设备159 GlaxoSmithKline 葛兰素史克英国制药160 Petrobrás 巴西石油巴西炼油161 Aetna 安泰美国保险162 Daiei 大荣日本零售163 Saint-Gobain 圣戈班法国玻璃164 United Technologies 联合技术美国航空航天165 Prudential Ins. Co. of America 美国宝德信人寿保险美国保险166 Lehman Brothers Holdings 雷曼兄弟美国证券经纪167 Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi 东京三菱银行日本银行168 Telefónica 西班牙电话西班牙电信169 PG&E Corp. 太平洋煤气电力美国电力煤气170 BellSouth 贝尔南方美国电信171 Canon 佳能日本办公设备172 Royal & Sun Alliance Insurance Group 皇家太阳保险集团英国保险173 J. Sainsbury 桑斯博里英国零售174 Walt Disney 沃特迪斯尼美国娱乐175 ConAgra 康尼格拉美国食品176 Lockheed Martin 洛克希德马丁美国航空航天177 Bank One Corp. 第一银行美国银行178 Barclays 巴克莱银行英国银行179 Jusco 吉之岛日本零售180 Honeywell International 霍尼韦尔国际美国航空航天181 Nippon Steel 新日铁日本金属182 Sumitomo Bank 住友银行日本银行183 Tosco 的美国炼油184 First Union Corp. 第一联合银行美国银行185 SociétéGénérale 兴业银行法国银行186 Kansai Electric Power 关西电力日本电力187 Dresdner Bank 德累斯顿银行德国银行188 American Express 美国运通美国金融189 Statoil 挪威石油挪威炼油190 Sprint 斯普林特美国电信191 Westdeutsche Landesbank 西德意志银行德国银行192 Lloyds TSB Group 劳埃德集团英国银行193 LG International 乐喜金星国际韩国多样化194 Southern 南方美国电力煤气195 Supervalu 超价商店美国零售196 Enel 国家电力意大利电力197 Alcoa 美国铝业美国金属198 East Japan Railway 东日本铁路日本铁路运输199 Dow Chemical 道化学美国化学200 ABB 阿西布朗勃法瑞瑞士电子电气。

加拿大国标43-101F1技术报告格式(1)

加拿大国标43-101F1技术报告格式Form 43-101 F1 Technical Report介绍(1) 43-101技术报告的目的是对矿产勘探,开发和生产活动进行的科学技术信息总结。

此格式提供了技术报告内容和准备的专用格式.(2) 此格式中所用的术语在43-101国标中有专门的定义和解释。

有些普通术语采用了国标14-101的定义。

读者应了解这些国标术语。

.(3) 资质人准备技术报告时要使用此格式的所有章节,也可以加上次一级的章节。

如有专用的特别的章节,要特别予以说明.(4) 对不适用的章节不需特别说明。

没用的章节可以省略。

在一个章节中说明的事,不必再另一处重复.(5) 如果老的技术报告中已有,而且没有重要改变的话,雌激素报告格式中6-11项内容中的信息不必在新的技术报告中出现,但要予以说明。

(6) 除25章外,开发和生产的矿业项目信息也可在报告中的其他地方出现以提供充分了解当前开发或生产的重要信息.(7) 技术报告中只能有符合43-101法规6.4节和此格式中第五项内容的免责声明.技术报告内容内容 1: 名称页–包括技术报告名称,矿产项目的一般位置,资质人的名称,专业资质和报告生效日期内容 2: 目录- 包括文字和图表的技术报告目录内容 3: 总结–包括矿产项目的简单描述,位置,归属,地质特征,矿化特征,勘探内容和勘探,开发或生产现状;以及资质人的结论和建议内容 4: 介绍–包括下列叙述:(a) 技术报告是为谁而写;(b) 准备技术报告的目的;(c) 技术报告中所包含或准备技术报告时所用信息和数据的来源,如需要,要加有引用出处;(d) 每个资质人和作者到现场考察的情况,如有,给出没有现场考察的原因。

内容 5: 依赖其他专家–如果资质人准备或监督准备的技术报告全部或一部分依赖于不是资质人的法律或其他专家的报告,意见或陈述。

这些信息为与技术报告有关的法律,环境,政治或其他问题和因素。

资质人可以插入免责声明,声明其技术报告的有关部分取决于其依赖的有关报告,意见和陈述。

世界十大猎头公司

世界十大猎头公司·光辉国际咨询顾问公司·海德思哲国际有限公司·美国阿托兹顾问有限公司·亿康先达国际咨询公司·罗兰贝格尔国际有限公司·尼科尔森国际有限公司·优异人力资源顾问公司· EMDS顾问有限公司·联合资源顾问有限公司·优利投资咨询有限公司国际知名猎头咨询公司-北京有office的（排名不分先后次序）1. 光辉国际咨询顾问公司 Korn/Ferry International2. 亿康先达国际咨询公司 Egon Zehnder International3. 史宾沙管理顾问咨询公司 Spencer Stuart Consultants4. 海德思哲国际有限公司 Heidrick & Struggles5. 海士国际咨询有限公司 HAX INTERNATIONAL6. 科尼尔高级咨询公司 A.T. Kearney Executive Search7. 安立国际 Amrop I Hever Group international8. 罗兰贝格尔国际有限公司 Roland Berger International9. 雷诺仕国际猎头 Russell Reynolds Associates New York10. 尼科尔森国际有限公司 Nicholson International11. 万宝盛华人力资源中国 Manpower12. 雷奔逊 Ray & Berndtson Fort Worth13. 浩华国际有限公司 Ward Howell International New York14. 豪敦咨询有限公司Horton International Avon15. 尤里克 unique-china16. StantonChase International （中文名没有）17. 雷文顾问管理公司 Noman Broadbent18. 普群企管顾问国际有限公司 PCI –IIC Partners19. 德勤咨询公司 Deloitte Touche Consulting20. 翰威特咨询公司 Hewitt Consulting21. 美国阿托兹顾问有限公司 ATOZ Consultants22. 优异人力资源顾问公司 Sterling Human Resource Consulting23. 杰迈晶雅人力资源公司 J. M. Gemini Personal Ltd.24. 英国丹尼尔森人才顾问公司 Danielson Consulting Co.Ltd.25. 安拓国际顾问公司 Antal International26. 优瑞集团 Euro Group International27. 亚通人才咨询 Executive Associates28. 讯升公司 comprise29. 天普国际顾问公司 Templar International30. 摩根柏客顾问公司 Morgan & Banks31. 哈德森环球资源顾问公司 TMP/Hudson Global Resource32. Foster Partners Executive （无中文名）33. 宝鼎国际咨询有限公司 Boyden International Ltd34. 克伦博国际顾问 Kienbaum Consultants International35. 翰德国际顾问有限公司 Hudson36. 德鑫管理咨询 Fiducia Management Consultants37. 香港人国际管理有限公司 MRI Worldwide38. 贝拉特管理顾问有限公司 Bilast39. 艺珂 Adecco40. 伯乐管理有限公司 bo-le41. Grammy Technology Ltd（无中文名）42. 汇择人才咨询开发有限公司 The Wright Company Ltd43. 机构发展顾问有限公司 Organisation Search Ltd44. 欧信英才 China Team45. 索邦企业管理咨询服务有限公司 Search-Bank46. 北京东方海配咨询有限公司 Seamatchasia47. P-infinity（中文名字无）本土猎头咨询公司-北京1. 科锐国际咨询有限公司 Career International2. 北京柏卓人力资源开发咨询有限公司 better choice hr abbrr :bchr3. 越秀人力资源顾问服务有限公司 hrs4. 北京波森人力资源公司 person hr5. 得卡咨询公司 Dacare6. 大瀚咨询公司 vastsea7. 屹川咨询有限公司 yichuan8. 浩竹 top job way9. 斯科人力资源 Seeker10. 智联招聘 zhaopin11. 英才网 chinahr12. 前程无忧招聘 51-job13. 泰来咨询事务所 Talent Consulting Agency14. 杰迈o晶雅 J.M.Gemini15. IPIChina 无中文名16. 东方赛博 Cyber Orient17. 北京阿兰信息咨询有限公司 ellen-hunter18. 安管理顾问有限公司 BN2119. 中国国际技术智力合作公司外企服务公司 CIICBJ20. 北京宏云时代咨询有限公司 Great Times21. 北京德威嘉业商务咨询有限公司 DoWellJoin22. 泽恩管理咨询公司 21CN Manager23. 北京首要资源商务咨询有限公司 E L China24. 捷毅人力资源有限公司 Gnehr25. 天择信科技信息咨询 STP26. 猎头网 27. 聚猎网 watchH28. 北京城市猎头咨询服务中心 JPI29. 东方彗博人力资源有限公司 risejob30. 北京创想人才咨询有限责任公司 china-min31. 北京标新思维企业管理顾问有限公司 CEMC32. 中国四达猎头服务 chstar33. 北京晋司猎头服务有限公 gains34. 融诚赛博企业管理咨询公司 chn-job35. 北京赛思卓越企业管理顾问公司 hr199336. 创造动力猎头部 czdlcv37. 北京创世远景管理咨询有限公司（网址暂无）38. 北京斯坦博企业管理顾问有限公司（网址暂无）39. 昂讯科技有限公司（网站建设中）附加信息（不局限与北京）1毕子杰 TMP 中国区经理2蔡春霖光辉国际中国有限公司执行董事3柴萌豪登国际管理顾问(上海)有限公司(Horton International) 总经理4陈思宏精英（IMC）中国资深猎头顾问5陈伟天马猎头公司总经理6陈颖中国国际技术智力合作公司猎头主管7程原光辉国际公司(Korn-ferry) 总经理8 董久杰上海环盛人力资源管理有限公司总经理9 高伟北京斯坦博企业管理顾问有限公司总经理10高勇科锐咨询公司总经理11郭皓海德思哲（Heidrick & Struggiles）中国区董事长12郭展序深圳展动力猎头公司总经理13黄剑北京赛思卓越企业管理顾问公司总经理14黄蕾北京城市猎头咨询服务中心总经理15 纪云泰来咨询事务所所长17 李军昆明远程猎头公司总经理16郎越杭州猎人人力资源开发有限公司总经理18李敏众领企业管理咨询有限公司经理19李葳英才网联副总裁20 李玮婷东方赛博副总经理21李彦桦 MRI 国际有限公司董事总经理22李耀文越秀人力资源顾问服务有限公司总经理23刘海洋上海斯科人力资源顾问有限公司总经理24马健西部猎头人力资源管理有限公司总经理25秦境南上海奥谷高级猎头总经理26秦君北京宏云时代咨询有限公司总经理27 秦小文上海嘉康信息有限公司经理28任军北京德威嘉业商务咨询有限公司总经理29邵美珍普创管理咨询（上海）有限公司总经理30孙立平上海创价咨询总经理31王保光北京柏卓人力资源开发咨询有限公司执行董事、总经理32王常江浩竹猎头总裁33王春生伯乐管理有限公司董事总经理34 王桂生万宝盛华人力资源(中国)北京分公司区域总监35王洪浩广州苛特杰咨询服务有限公司总裁36王姣万宝盛华人力资源(中国)北京分公司业务主管37 王晶斯科人力资源顾问有限公司总经理38 王雅清北京波森人才顾问有限责任公司总经理39吴金洪必安管理顾问有限公司总经理40肖建安上海厂长经理人才公司总经理41徐荷香智联招聘猎头部总监42许书扬保优美总经理43叶慧英才网联猎头部总监44尹湛棠上海欧信咨询有限公司总裁45仲望泽恩管理咨询公司总经理46张东扬前程无忧猎头部总监47张凯集金领猎头公司董事长48张秀澄台湾中华人力资源有限公司昆山合资公司49赵立民上海成达高级人才顾问有限公司总经理董事长50 庄华伯乐优才人才顾问公司北京总经理人力资源服务公司排名 FF证券公司排名排行榜收藏打印发给朋友举报发布者：admin热度0票浏览2次【共0条评论】【我要评论】时间：2010年5月18日 23:20办事涵盖本土、地区和全球的各行各业2010年04月06日默认分类2010-03-11 08:14:20阅读44评论0字号：大中小 1. 万宝盛华万宝盛华公司（Manpower Inc） (NYSE: MBN)是全球规模内领先的全方位人力资源雇佣与管理办事商，成立于1948年，在全球80个国家和地区拥有超过4,500家分支机构，2007年度公司总收益达210亿美元万宝盛华于1964年头次将业务拓展至大中华区，如今，在中国大陆地区拥有超过14年的本地经验，在19个主要都会拥有超过650名专业招募职员在中国大陆地区，万宝盛华拥有超过3500家跨国企业和本土企业的客户，包括超过80%的世界前50强企业2. 智睿DDI（美国智睿咨询有限公司）是全球领先的人力资源咨询公司DDI独有系统化的创新方法，协助企业快速提升现有人才气力，将其培养成为能成功执行企业未来商业战略的栋梁DDI两大专长范畴包括：预设和实施人才遴选系统，助您迅速聘用优秀人才；发掘和成长能构建高绩效事情团队的杰出领导人才DDI 已在全球26 个国家成立了75 家办事处并拥有1000 多名员工遍布全球60个国家的逾2,000家机构施用我们的系统和办事来构建高效敬业的事情团队DDI 已为各行各业的19000 多家企业提供过办事，平均每天均有9,200 人通过DDI 的选才系统进入各家企业3. 艺珂Bdecco艺珂是全球最大的国际性人力资源办事公司Bdecco艺珂能根据企业的需求，提供最好的专业人才雇用及人才调派等相关人力资源办事，协助企业跨越文化、地区及语言上的限制，雇用最合适及可托的人才Bdecco艺珂总部设于瑞士，2007年在《财富》杂志500强排名第261位今朝已有6,700多家分公司遍布于世界70个主要国家及地区，全球员工超过33,000名，每天更有超过700,000名的调派雇员为公司客户提供办事4. 翰威特翰威特（Hewitt)咨询公司是全球最大的综合性人力资源外包和人力资源管理咨询公司(NYSE: HEW)，在全球拥有65年的人力资源管理咨询办事经验翰威特咨询为全球2,300多家企业提供过咨询业务，并且为340多家公司数百万的员工和退休职员提供薪资和福利管理办事翰威特领导力咨询结合了世界一流的咨询能力、先进的评估诊断工具和方法，及领先的成长战略帮忙亚洲的领先公司建构强有力的领导力计划，推动经营的成功在翰威特漫衍于35个国家的办事机构中现拥有近24,000名员工5. 德勤德勤（Deloitt e)为各行各业的上市及非上市客户提供审计、税务、企业管理咨询及财务咨询办事德勤成员所网络遍及全球140个国家，凭借其世界一流的专业办事能力及对本地市场渊博的知识，协助客户在全球各地取得商业成功德勤150,000 名专家致力于寻求卓越，树立范例德勤是中国大陆及港澳地区居领导地位的专业办事机构之一，共拥有7,000名员工，漫衍在北京、大连、广州、香港、澳门、南京、上海、深圳、苏州和天津市早在1917年，德勤于上海成立了办事处德勤以全球网络为支持，为海内企业、跨国公司以及高成长的企业提供周全的审计、税务、企业管理咨询和财务咨询办事6. 中智中国国际技术智力互助公司（中文简称中智，英文简称DIID）是中央直接管理的国有重点主干企业中智适应全球知识经济时代新生产力的成长，适应全球办事产业结构转移的厘革性调整和全外包、离岸化的新趋势，适应中国办事产业结构的提升和新型经济增长方式的需求，在智力办事第四产业凝聚核心竞争力，以人力资源办事为主业，以投资办事、国际贸易办事为适度多元成长范畴，在新兴办事范畴拥有人才、资源、网络、规模、经验的巨大优势和影响力，成为具有高度竞争力和领先性优势的全新创事业组织7. 美世美世人力资源咨询公司（William Mercer）是世界上漫衍最广的人力资源管理咨询机构，总部位于美国纽约，隶属于威达信集团（MMD）美世咨询一直致力于帮忙客户了解、开发、实施并准确评估其人力资源系统和政策的有效性在全球40多个国家和地区的180多个都会设有分公司，拥有超过18000名雇员美世的顾问遵循全球统一的标准，为世界各地的客户提供有关人力资源、薪资福利以及投资咨询方案8. 翰德翰德国际顾问有限公司为世界知名的人力资源咨询公司总公司位于美国纽约并于全球四大洲共20多个国家设有146个分公司和办事处，员工超过3,800人作为全球三家上市的人力资源咨询公司之一，翰德国际为各类行业提供雇用及人力资源顾问办事全球财富500强企业中的大部分均为公司客户9. BDPBDP是世界最大的业务外包解决方案提供商之一，年收入近80亿美金，在全球拥有约600,000 家客户凭借55年以上的资深从业经验，BDP提供业界最周全的人力资源、薪酬、税务及福利管理解决方案这些简便易用的解决方案为各类不同类型及规模的公司创造高价值BDP同时也为全球轿车、卡车、Motor车、船只及休闲车辆经销商提供世界领先的集成化计算机信息解决方案10. 埃森哲埃森哲是全球领先的管理咨询、技术办事和外包机构，帮忙客户明确战略，优化流程，集成系统，引进创新，提高整体竞争优势, 成为绩效卓越的组织在49个国家设立了分公司，员工逾186,000名11. IBMIBM （国际商业机器公司）于1911年创立于美国，是全球最大的信息技术和业务解决方案公司，业务遍及 160多个国家和地区IBM的Human capit al management（HDM）业务通过一套整合的、创新的人力资本管理解决方案帮忙企业解决人才管理问题，提高劳动力效率12. 出息无忧"出息无忧"是海内领先的集多种媒介资源优势的专业人力资源办事机构它集合了传统电视台、网络电视台及先进的信息技术，加上一支经验丰富的专业顾问队伍，提供包括雇用猎头、培训测评和人事外包在内的全方位专业人力资源办事，现在全国包括香港的26个都会设有办事机构13. 普华永道普华永道迎合各行业的需要,透过提供审计、税务及咨询办事, 以建立公众的信任,并不断为客户及股东提升价值在150个国家和地区有超过146,000名专家，在全球网络规模内分享她们的思维成果，行业经验和解决方案, 以制定新方针及提供实用性的意见14. 甲骨文甲骨文是世界上第二大的企业软件公司，向遍及145多个国家的用户提供数据库、工具和应用软件以及相关的咨询、培训和支持办事甲骨文公司总部设在美国加利福尼亚州的红木城，全球员工超过40,000名，2003财年收入达到95亿美元，是《财富全球500强》企业自1977年在全球率先推出关系型数踞库以来，甲骨文公司已经在利用技术革命来改变现代商业模式中发挥关键作用甲骨文公司同时还是世界上独一可以或许对客户关系管理―操作应用―平台设施进行全球电子商务解决方案实施的公司15. Monster WorldwideMonster Worldwide成立于1967年，是全球最大的专业雇用网站，也是全球最大的雇用办事供应商，其访问量长期位居30位内，提供由雇用代理、线上雇用、猎头办事和雇用黄页广告四项构成的全方位的全球雇用解决方案作为全球互联网雇用行业的第一品牌，Monst er公司雇用收入占整个美国网络雇用市场近50％的份额Monst er分支机构密布全球，已在全球26个国家设立了分公司并施用22种不同语言设立办事专区Monster的母公司是TMP Worldwide Inc.16. SBPSBP公司成立于1972年，总部位于德国沃尔多夫市，是全球最大的企业管理和协夹杂商务解决方案供应商、全球第三大独立软件供应商今朝，在全球有120多个国家的超过75.000家用户正在运行SBP软件财富500强80%以上的企业都正在从SBP的管理方案中获益SBP在全球50多个国家拥有分支机构，并在多家证券交易所上市，包括法兰克福和纽约证交所SBP早在八十年代就开始同中国的国营企业互助，并取得了成功经验17. 智联雇用成立于1997年的智联雇用()是海内最早、最专业的人力资源办事商之一它的前身是1994年创建的猎头公司智联(Blliance)公司总部位于北京，在上海广州深圳天津市西安成都南京武汉长沙苏州沈阳长春大连济南青岛郑州等都会设有分公司, 业务涉及遍及全国的50多个都会从创建以来，已经为超过113万家客户提供了专业人力资源办事智联雇用的客户遍及各行各业，尤其在IT、快速消费品、工业制造、医药保健、咨询及金融办事等范畴享有丰富的经验18. 毕马威毕马威是网络遍布全球的专业办事机构，设有由优秀专业职员组成的行业专责团队，致力提供审计、税务和谘询等专业办事毕马威的成员机构遍及全球145个国家，拥有超过123,000名员工19. BonBon公司是提供风险管理办事、保险与再保险经纪及人力资本咨询的全球一流企业凭籍全球36,000名专业职员，Bon通过创新及有效的风险管理与员工生产率解决方案创造出优异的客户价值Bon在120多个国家的500个办事处20. 东软1991年，东软创立于中国东北大学公司主营业务包括：行业解决方案、产物工程解决方案、软件产物与平台及办事等今朝，公司拥有员工14000余名，在中国建立了8个区域总部，16个软件开发与技术支持中心，5个软件研发基地，在40多个都会建立营销与办事网络，在大连、南海、成都和沈阳分别建立3所东软信息学院和1所生物医学与信息工程学院；在美国、日本、阿联酋、匈牙利和印度设有子公司21. 安永安永会计师事件所(Ernst & Young) 是全球领先的专业办事公司，提供审计、税务及财务交易咨询等办事安永被公认能为客户增值，通过深入了解客户业务上的挑战，提供解决方案，协助客户实现公司的目标安永在中国实力雄厚，今朝在北京、香港、上海、深圳、广州、大连、成都、武汉、苏州及澳门十大都会设有办事处及分所，聘用专业职员约6,000人22. 海德思哲海德思哲国际咨询公司( Heidrick & St ruggles )是全球最大的提供企业领袖搜寻和企业领导咨询办事的专业公司1400多名海德思哲的专业顾问所建立起来的强大的办事知识支持网络，遍及美洲、欧罗巴洲、非洲和亚太区的65个都会23. 用友用友公司成立于1988年，致力于把基于先进信息技术（包括通信技术）的最佳管理与业务实践普及到客户的管理与业务创新活动中，周全提供具有自立知识产权的企业管理/ERP软件、办事与解决方案用友软件株式会社是亚太本土最大管理软件提供商，是中国最大的管理软件、ERP软件、财务软件、集团管理软件、人力资源管理软件及小型管理软件提供商24. HayHay（合益）集团于1943年在美国费城创建，是全球著名的管理咨询公司之一，帮忙各类组织和企业将她们的营运模式、组织架构、文化、领导团队、岗位以及职员本质结合在一路，将战略转化成现实，从而获得成功经过60多年的成长，今朝在全球47个国家拥有89处分支机构，为遍布全球的7000多个客户提供咨询办事，其中包括众多世界500强企业25. 中华网软件中华网软件是中华网投资集团有限公司下属全资子公司，是以客户为导向的全球领先的企业管理软件解决方案供应商铂金人力资源管理解决方案（Platinum HRM）是中华网软件旗下的一套周全的人力资源管理解决方案中华网软件总部设在美国亚特兰大，业务遍及全球50多个国家，拥有2000多名员工，为全球6000多家企业用户提供行业针对性的企业管理软件解决方案中华网软件在美国、欧罗巴洲、印度和中国设有全球软件研发中心26. 博思艾伦博思艾伦(Booz Bllen Hamilt on)在全球拥有18,000 名专业管理及技术咨询顾问，并在六大洲70多个国家设有200多处分支机构在1914年成立于芝加哥，现在博思艾伦在上海、北京、香港和台北都设立了办事处，为跨国公司和本土企业提供咨询办事27. 韬睿韬睿咨询是一家通过提高员工效率、实施风险及财务管理来帮忙企业改善业绩的专业咨询办事公司韬睿咨询从人力资源管理策略，项目预设和管理，风险和资产管理，以及再保险中介办事和精算咨询等范畴为企业提供创新解决方案分支机构遍布25个国家28. 华信惠悦华信惠悦成立于1946年，总部位于美国的华盛顿，在全球32个国家拥有7,000名专业顾问，今朝大中华区共有北京、上海、深圳、广州、香港及台北等6家分公司，以及武汉的一所研究中心，专门提供人力资源方面的咨询办事29. 人事决策国际公司人事决策国际公司（PDI）在一家处于国际领先地位的人力资源咨询公司PDI为各大公司提供测评方案已经有30 多年的汗青了PDI的咨询职员在全球30 多个国家内施用了多种语言来实施PDI的测评流程每一年，PDI测评的领导职员就超过 5,000 名，还向50,000 多人提供360 度反馈，并帮忙全球各大公司甄选超过 500,000 人数的员工30. 金蝶金蝶国际软件集团有限公司是亚太地区领先的企业管理软件及电子商务应用解决方案供应商，是全球软件市场中成长最快的独立软件厂商之一，总部位于中国深圳，始创于1993年8月在中国大陆拥有39家以营销与办事为主的分支机构和1100余家咨询、技术、实施办事、分销等互助伙伴拥有员工3200人31.施特伟施特伟公司在香港成立于1987年，在中国的外企一直持不变的增长势头在中国投资成了一种趋势为配合上述成长趋势，为客户提供最迅速的支持和办事，施特伟分别在北京、上海、苏州、广州、成都和深圳等地成立了全资分公司，并取得了空前成功施特伟的软件专家组一直关注着信息技术产业的成长，并不断地采用最先进的技术和工具施特伟这种持续成长的理念使其具有傲视同荠的竞争力，其客户则成为直接的受惠者32.光辉国际成立于1969年的光辉国际在全球39个国家设有90个办事机构,拥有上千名员工公司于1999年在纽约证券交易所上市今朝，光辉国际为财富500强企业中的近半数公司提供过办事，其中超过半数是DEO、DFO、DOO、董事会成员或其它最高等级的职位33.雅高作为法国雅高集团旗下与雅高酒店并列的两大核心业务之一，雅高办事是世界领先的在企业员工及社会形态公平易近福利、奖励与忠诚计划、费用开支管理等范畴提供解决方案的公司雅高办事于2000年进入中国凭借全球关系行销品牌Bccentiv'，公司致力于帮忙本土及跨国公司的客户预设并管理忠诚和激励计划，旨在提高其员工、客户和销售网络的积极性和忠诚度今朝，雅高办事的客户遍布全球40个国家的43万家公司和公共机构34.上海雇用网2006年，全球最大的网络雇用集团之一我的事情网(原爱尔兰尚龙集团)注资上海雇用网（SHjob.DN）上海雇用网(SHjob.DN)的日均页面浏览量达260万人次；每天有上万份的求职简历通过SHjob.DN向用人单位送达；80多万份有效简历供企业查询、甄选，这一数据并以每日6,000份的速率持续稳步上升35.万古汇力北京万古汇力科技有限公司成立于1998年，作为海内专业的人力资源管理信息系统供应商，万古科技的人力资源管理系统的开发、实施以及它所提供的周全人力资源管理信息化解决方案，已在同行业内处于绝对领先的地位随着行业经验的积累和自身的起劲，海内已有近500家企业选择了万古科技的人力资源管理系统这其中包括世界财富500强在华企业以及众多的海内知名企业36.任仕达总部位于荷兰的任仕达集团（Randstad Group）是全球最大的人力资源解决方案供应商之一起步于二十百年六十年代的人才调派公司，现在已经成长成为覆盖全球二十多个国家的人力资源办事跨国企业任仕达控股集团是国际性的人力资源外包解决方案供应商，以其专业职员雇用、人才调派、薪酬外包与员工配备布置等办事在欧罗巴洲、北美与亚洲地区颇负盛名集团业务可区分清楚为三大块：大规模定制员工配备布置、专业职员调派、客户现场人力资源办事37.盖洛普盖洛普公司由美国著名的社会形态科学家乔治.盖洛普博士于1930年代创立，是全球知名的平易近意测验和商业查询拜访/咨询公司盖洛普公司在长达60多年的时间里，用科学方法测量和阐发选平易近、消费者和员工的意见、态度和行为，并据此为客户提供营销和管理咨询，取得卓越的学术和商业成果，处于全球领先地位38.北森成立于2002年的北森测评技术有限公司是中国最大的人才测评解决方案提供商作为海内最早从事人才测评应用研究的公司之一，北森一直专注于人才评估工具的研究和人事决策咨询的办事随着业务的高速成长，经营规模的不断扩展，北森已拥有近百名专业测评顾问，设立北京、上海和广州三地分支机构，业务辐射全国今朝，市场份额达60%以上39.克罗诺思Kronos成立于1977年，被广泛公认为管理员工方面的市场和思想先驱今朝在全球拥有3400名员工，为50多个国家和提取的客户提供办事40.太德太德（MrTed）是全球著名的人才管理解决方案供应商，以帮忙大型组织优化其全球规模内子才需求与部署的庞大流程，所有的解决方案均基于WEB，易于施用，有超过25种语言版本，管理超过100多个国家的人才。

About Flash................................................................................

Production of multimedia content using FlashDepartment of Electronics and Computer Science, University of Southampton1. AbstractMacromedia Flash is one of the most powerful web authoring tools available to web designers today and is used to produce animated and still graphics. However, because of the poor use of Flash animations on the Internet, Flash has acquired a reputation for poor usability. Macromedia itself Macromedia itself and other individuals have produced tools and documentation to help designers make the most out of Flash have now published many usability tips. If these are followed, good multimedia content can be produced which is usable to others.ContentsKeywords ............................................................................................. 1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 1 Background .......................................................................................... 2 Research.............................................................................................. 2 About Flash ..................................................................................... 3 Flash Usability ................................................................................. 3 Alternatives to Flash........................................................................ 4 My Film ............................................................................................ 4 Conclusions.......................................................................................... 9 References......................................................................................... 102. KeywordsMacromedia Flash, Multimedia Content Creation, Animation Graphics, Sound, Video,3. IntroductionThe aim of this paper is to look at multimedia content produced by Macromedia Flash. Flash has become very popular over the past few years; 474 million Internet users use it today. In this paper I research into how Flash is used by developers today and why to give a background into the use of Flash. The advantages and disadvantages of Flash as a multimedia content creation tool are discussed to help developers to decide if Flash is a suitable tool for their project. A number of usability tips for Flash have been put together by a number of individuals, which it is recommended to follow if a usable Flash application is to1be made. I will research into these and outline them. I will also research briefly into alternatives to Flash. To fully understand how to create multimedia applications with Flash, I made a small movie of my own in Flash. I will describe the nature of my film and how it was created. Finally, I will evaluate my film and report my findings and give a summary of my experiences using Macromedia Flash.4. BackgroundFlash was first introduced in 1996 and was known as FutureSplash Animator and run by a company called FutureWave. It was used to play back animation on web browsers through Java. The company decided to sell off their technology due to financial difficulties, they tried Adobe who turned them down, but were soon bought by Macromedia. FutureSplash Animator became Macromedia Flash 1.0. There are 2 main components to the Flash software, which are: • Flash Editor – which is used to create the graphics and animation that make up the end movie • Plug-in or Flash Player – which is used by web-browsers to display the Flash movie Flash can be used to create movies, which incorporate graphics, sound and animation. These movies are generally placed on web sites on the Internet. The main reason web designers use Flash is because it provides a good online user interface, allowing visitors to interact with a web site. Also, animation is known to have a tremendous effect on human peripheral vision and therefore is a good way to relay information to people. Unfortunately, bad use of Flash on web sites has left Flash with a tarnished reputation. Most people either love it or hate it. Even though Flash is very popular on the Internet, many people find the Flash content unusable and annoying. The main arguments for Flash content being unusable are as follows: • The majority of Flash content is unnecessary and gratuitous • Content is usually built once and then not updated regularly • Content usually follows the established standards for Web content5. ResearchFirstly, it is important to look at reasons why and why not to use Flash as a way of conveying information on the Internet. These reasons are outlined below. Advantages of using Flash: • Flash films are browser independent; therefore they can be viewed with any browser, so is not limited. • Designers are able to control colours, fonts and resolution quality, and so can make their films to their needs. • As vector graphics are used, films can be scaled without it affecting the image resolution and objects will be smaller than their bitmap equivalents.2• •Animated and interactive films can be produced with sound, which will be more appealing to visitors, and get information across more easily. Flash software is very powerful, well supported and updated frequently.Disadvantages of using Flash: • Flash is quite a hard piece of software to learn, it may take developers a significant amount of time to learn to use the flash development environment • A plug-in is required to view Flash films, so not all machines will be able to view Flash films. • Flash does not have a user-friendly interface and it not intuitive for designers, and therefore might take designers longer to produce multimedia content. • Printing Flash movies results in poor text quality. • Search engines are unable to read Flash movies, so they do not show up. • It takes longer to create a Flash website than the usual HTML ones.About Flash Flash files have the .SWF extension. These files combine code, media and data into a format that is compact. These are loaded using a steaming model, where the first few frames become available to view once. The files are also cached, so that they can be retrieved again locally, saving time. Video and audio are streamed, which means that MP3 content can be dynamically loaded and player, and that full-motion films can be added. The Sorenson Spark Codec is used for high quality playback with low bandwidth. Flash uses a compressing/decompressing model to help lower network costs. Developers can compress their code when publishing the movie, and when a user wants to run this, it is decompressed on the user’s machine at runtime. Flash Usability One of the main problems with Flash is that it is known to have poor usability. Some usability tips have been produced by individuals. Macromedia’s Flash Usability tips: [/software/flash/productinfo/usability/tips/] • Remember user goals • Remember site goals • Avoid unnecessary intros • Provide logical navigation and interactivity • Design for consistency • Don’t overuse animation • Use sound sparingly • Target low-bandwidth users • Design for accessibility • Test for usability3Alternatives to Flash Flash is not the only development tool available to create multimedia content. A brief discussion of alternatives is presented below. Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language (SMIL) – this is a mark-up language (XML) which is used to write interactive multimedia content. Developers can define the temporal behaviour of their content and the layout of this on screen. Video and audio can be streamed with together with other media types. Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) – this is a language used to describe two dimensional vector based graphics. It allows for images, text and vector and vector graphic shapes. The Document Object Model (DOM) includes full XML DOM, which allows for effective vector animation via scripting. My Film I used Macromedia Flash to create a small animated film which is to be placed on my university website. I had only ever encountered these types of films on the Internet, but never made one of my own. I also had never used Flash before, so it was a new experience. My film is titled “How to Turn a Geek into a Super Stud”, and shows through animated and still graphics how you can make a geek into a super stud! It can be viewed at /~mkg100 There are some important concepts that need to be understood before starting with Flash, these are described below. • SYMBOLS – these are graphics that have been created by using the drawing tools, and can be used over and over again within the film. • LAYERS – these can be thought of as transparent sheets that are placed on top of each other. Objects can be drawn on one layer without affecting objects in other layers. • FRAMES – displays the contents of I second of the film; a film is made of a series of frames. • KEYFRAMES – these are frames where changes in animation occur. The first frame in a frame is automatically a keyframe. • TIMELINE – shows the frames in all the layers of the film, and what events are occurring in the frames. The film starts of with the opening screen which shows the title, with a moving flashy yellow border, and a button, which when pressed will start the main part of the film. These three objects are placed in their own layers (I made a new layer for each). To place the title on screen, I created a layer called text (Insert ! Layer) and had to use the Text tool from the drawing tools, which works pretty much the same way as the ones found in other programs. You just have to enter the required text into the4box, and change the font size, type and alignment, as you so please. I also inserted a keyframe at frame 25 (Insert ! Keyframe), as this is the last frame that the text appears in. To insert the keyframe, you have to have that particular frame selected from the timeline. I created a new layer for the yellow flashy border, which was created by using keyframes and motion tweening. Motion tweening is used to change the size of objects or rotate them in an animated manner. I placed a keyframe every 5 frames, up to frame 25, and changed the size of the border in each one by transforming the shape (Window ! Inspectors ! Transform), or you could use the re-size option in the drawing tools to change the size. I then inserted the motion tween in each keyframe (Insert ! Create Motion Tween), which makes the border move from one size to the other. These 25 frames run continuously until the arrow button is pressed. This was achieved by selecting frame 25 in this layer and modifying the frame properties (Modify ! Frame ! Actions tab). I added a ‘Go to’ action and specified the frame to ‘go to and play’ scene 1, frame 1; the beginning of the film. The red arrow was also created in another layer, using the drawing tools, and was then turned into a button (Insert ! Convert to Symbol ! Button). When the cursor is placed over the button, the arrow increases in size. To do this you have to select the arrow button and then edit the object (Edit ! Edit Selected). This brings up a new scene with just the button in it. The timeline at the top of the screen has frames for ‘up’, ‘down’, ‘over’ and ‘hit’. You need to edit the button design in each frame depending on what you want the button to do when the corresponding actions occur. In this case, in the ‘over’ frame I drew an enlarged arrow by using the re-size tool. When the arrow button is pressed, the film jumps to the next screen, which starts in frame 30. The button performs this action by editing the buttons properties (Modify ! Instance ! Actions tab). I added a ‘Go to’ action and specified the frame ‘go to and play’ at as frame 30. Again I added a keyframe at frame 25, as this is the last frame for the arrow. There is another layer in this screen, which displays the background. In this instance the layer is empty as the background is white. The next scene shows the geek and ‘Mandy’s Geek Transformer’ machine, which starts from frame 30. The background is now a sea blue colour, which I created by drawing a large box with the drawing tools to fill the screen. The background layer must be the layer at the bottom so that all the other objects can be place on top of it. I created a new layer for the geek and placed a keyframe at frame 30. In this frame I used the drawing tools to create the geek. I then used drawing tools to create the speech bubble and then added a text box inside this to add the words. I also wanted some to be played at this frame; the geek saying “hello, my names Colin”. I had recorded some voices earlier with my microphone onto my5computer. I then imported this sound into Flash (File ! Import ! select sound file). I wanted the sound to be played at frame 30, so created a new layer for this sound. I then edited the frame properties to play the required sound file (Modify ! Frame ! Sound tab ! select file from drop down box) at this frame. Then I added another keyframe at frame 45, as this is the frame in which the transformer machine enters the film. I wanted the film to stop here until the button on the machine is pressed. Therefore, I set an action to frame 45 in the geek layer called ‘Stop’. This causes the film to stop at that frame until another event is triggered; in this case, the red button on the machine is selected. The machine is also drawn in a new layer and is created with the drawing tools. The title is drawn using the text facility. The red circle on the machine is a button whose action is to ‘go to and play’ at frame 50. At frame 50, I placed keyframes in the geek layer and the machine layer, as I wanted the objects in this layer to be displayed on screen but I deleted the geek’s speech bubble, as it was no longer required. I then created another layer, which starts at frame 50. This layer contains the rays that shoot out of the machine when the button is pressed and the ‘zap’ graphic. I drew the rays and zap with the drawing tools and then inserted another keyframe in this layer 3 frames down, frame 53, and used the re-size tool to reduce the size of the rays. I then used motion tweening to make the ray’s change in size on an animated way. I repeated this until frame 71, increasing and decreasing the size of the rays each time, with motion tweening between each. This was to give a shooting rays effect. I moved the ‘zap’ graphic in each of these keyframes as well with the aid of the arrow tool from the drawing tools. During the zapping, the geek shouts “Nooo!” which occurs from frame 50 to frame 82. Again I used the drawing tools to create this.After the zapping has finished the film has reached frame 83. The layer that contains the machine is no longer needed, so there are no frames for this layer anymore. In the geek layer, the geek has a speech bubble beside him, which was made by the drawing tools. The only layers active at this point are the one with the geek in it and the background.6Now the geek transformation begins!In this scene, which starts at frame 98, I entered a keyframe and deleted the glasses from the geek and added a text box, both changes were made to the geek layer. I also drew some new eyes with the drawing tools and placed them over the old eye. I left this scene and all the others after this on for 15 frames in order to give people time read the text and note the difference in the geek.This scene starts at frame 113, where I placed a keyframe. I deleted the spots from the geeks face and entered new text into the text box.Another keyframe was placed at frame 128 in the geek layer. I drew another mouth using the drawing tools and placed it over the old one. I also edited the text in the text box.I placed another keyframe at frame 143 in the geek layer. I deleted the excess hair from the nose and ears with the aid of the eraser tool from the drawing tools. I then re-drew the hair using the paintbrush tool. Again, I edited the text.7This keyframe was added at frame 158 in the geek layer. I used the drawing tools to change the shape of the face and changed the text.A keyframe was inserted at frame at 173, and again drawing tools were used to change the shape of the body.This keyframe is at frame 188 and I used the fill tool to change the colours of the clothes.This is the last scene and the keyframe was inserted at frame 203 and I used the text tool to edit the text. I also created a button using the drawing tool to draw it. I then added an action to the button, which is ‘go to and play’ frame 1, which is the beginning of the film. I also added some sound to this frame, which says “hey baby!”, by changing the frame properties.8This concludes my film. The final step is to convert the Flash file into a movie so that is can be viewed in Flash players (File ! Export Movie ! specify file name and Save).6. ConclusionsI found Macromedia Flash a very powerful tool. It allowed me to draw pictures and make simple animations quite easily. I found Flash relatively easy to use when drawing basic pictures and animations, but it started to get very complicated when I attempted to produce more advanced animations. In my film, where the rays bombard the geek, I tried to animate the geek so that it looked like he was getting electrocuted. Unfortunately I was unable to do this. When I animated the geek Flash automatically turned the geek into a symbol, which meant that I was unable to change the appearance of the geek after this. This meant that I could not finish my film as the last part of the film is concerned with editing the appearance of the geek. I therefore decided that it would be more beneficial to not have the animated geek, but to have the appearance of the geek change. Flash has a large variety of tools, but there are far too many to learn. It would take a tremendous amount of time to fully learn all the tools and functions available. Also, as there are lots of things that Flash can do, it is hard to know exactly what can be done, as lots of time would be required to learn everything. It can also get very confusing knowing what does what. There are a number of tutorials that are available in the Flash software, which cover: • Basic drawing • Concepts • Buttons • Simple animation • Streaming audio These tutorials are extremely useful as you can learn enough to make a simple film and are very easy to follow. There are step-by-step instructions on how to make objects and lots of screen dumps so you can check if you are doing the right thing. Flash also has a good Help, where you can search on keywords. The concept of layers in Flash is extremely useful as it helps to organise objects. You can also colour code the layers, which helps to show which objects belong to which layer, especially when there are a lot of objects. It is also possible to lock layers, which is useful when you do not want to accidentally change objects, Making simple animations is quite straight forward, especially since there is a whole tutorial on it. But it is a lot harder to make complex animations, as there is no extra help. I found Flash quite easy to use, but to fully master it would take a lot of time and energy. It is very good for making multimedia content, as it allows you to incorporate graphics with animation and sound without any programming knowledge. It can annoying sometimes as it can quite awkward to draw objects as you want and it could benefit from more advanced drawing tools. Also, more help is needed on how to produce animations.97. References1. /alertbox/9512.html (last accessed 13/12/02) 2. http://www/iboost/com/build/design/articles/pageview/603.htm (last accessed 13/12/02) 3. /acrlnec/sigs/itig/tc_july_aug2000.htm (last accessed 13/12/02) 4. /software/flash/productinfo/usability/tips/ (last accessed 13/12/02) 5. /macromedia/events/john_gay/page04.html# (last accessed 13/12/02) 6. /approach/ (last accessed 13/12/02) 7. Allaire.J, Macromedia Flash MX – A next - generation rich client 8. /archives/2000/10/desirevu2/ (last accessed 13/12/02) 9. /TR/smil20/ (last accessed 13/12/02) 10. /Graphics/SVG/Overview.htm8 (last accessed 13/12/02)10。

BRAUN 液体壁墙钻取机产品目录说明书

Product catalogue Concrete Cutting & Drilling MachinesImprintMedia owner and publisher: BRAUN Maschinenfabrik Gesellschaft m.b.H., Gmundner Straße 76, 4840 Vöcklabruck, AustriaResponsible for content: Siegfried ÜbleisConcept and graphic design: BRAUN Maschinenfabrikimages: BRAUN Maschinenfabrikmail:*************,web:www.braun.atContentsWall sawspage 3 - 11Drill rigspage 12 - 15Wire sawspage 16 - 21Plunge sawspage 22 - 24Modular systempage 25 - 28Hydraulic powerpack &page 29 - 31accessoriesWall sawsThe benefits at a glance• high cutting performance thanks to high-tech drive units• short set-up times due to quick mounting system• high cutting accuracy, by specially designed torsion-resistant tracks• highly versatile - from wall shaver to circle wire saw within one wall saw• low maintenance costs due to changeable single components• various mounting possibilitesTitan Light11 kWup to Ø 1200 mmelectrically drivenArt. No.: 026720Set consist of:1x saw head1x control unit & handpanel with joystick 1x set of cables1x track 1500 mm1x track 1000 mm3x track foot normal cut1x blade cover normal cut Ø 800 mm1x flange flush cut1x flange normal cut1x toolboxTitan18 kWup to Ø 1500 mmelectrically drivenArt. No.: 019019Set consist of:1x saw head1x control unit & handpanel with joystick 1x set of cables1x track 2250 mm1x track 1500 mm4x track foot normal cut1x blade cover normal cut Ø 800 mm1x flange flush cut1x flange normal cut1x toolboxoptionally with remote servicing availableTitan Power22 kWup to Ø 2000 mm (floor cutting)electrically drivenArt. No.: 019284Set consist of:1x saw head1x control unit & handpanel with joystick 1x cable set1x track 2250 mm1x track 1500 mm4x track foot normal cut1x blade cover normal cut Ø 800 mm1x flange flush cut1x flange normal cut1x toolboxoptionally with remote servicing availableBWS12-S11 kWup to Ø 1200 mmelectrically drivenArt. No.: 026697Set consist of:1x saw head1x control unit & handpanel with joystick 1x set of cables1x track 1500 mm1x track 1000 mm3x track foot normal cut1x blade cover normal cut Ø 800 mm1x flange flush cut1x flange normal cut1x toolboxBWS15-Ti18 kWup to Ø 1500 mmelectrically drivenArt. No.: 026718Set consist of:1x saw head1x control unit & handpanel with joystick 1x set of cables1x track 2250 mm1x track 1500 mm4x track foot normal cut1x blade cover normal cut Ø 800 mm1x flange flush cut1x flange normal cut1x toolboxBWS15-TiP22 kWup to Ø 2000 mmelectrically drivenArt. No.: 026695Set consist of:1x saw head1x control unit & handpanel with joystick 1x set of cables1x track 2250 mm1x track 1500 mm4x track foot normal cut1x blade cover normal cut Ø 800 mm1x flange flush cut1x flange normal cut1x toolboxBWS15-HS 2222 kWup to Ø 1500 mmhydraulically drivenArt. No.: 029395Set consist of:1x saw head1x control unit & handpanel with joystick1x hydraulic powerpack & hose kit1x set of cables1x track 2250 mm1x track 1500 mm4x track foot normal cut1x blade cover normal cut Ø 800 mm1x flange flush cut1x flange normal cut1x toolboxBWS15-HS 2626 kWup to Ø 2000 mmhydraulic drivenArt. No.: 029396Set consist of:1x saw head1x control unit & handpanel with joystick1x hydraulic powerpack & hose kit1x set of cables1x track 2250 mm1x track 1500 mm4x track foot normal cut1x blade cover normal cut Ø 800 mm1x flange flush cut1x flange normal cut1x toolboxTool boxincluded in sets and within complete saw headsArt. No.: 019031Set consist of:1x socket wrench 241x spanner set (13/15, 16/17, 18/19, 36)1x double-end box wrench (17/19)2x C-wrench (KM3, KM5)1x grease gun 100ccm1x hex socket spanner set (2.5 - 6mm)1x counterflange incl. screw1x multimeter1x socket LW131x coupeling LW13accessoriesTitan seriesarticle numberBWS seriesarticle numbertrack L = 750 mm 004435track L = 1000 mm 004436track L = 1500 mm 004437track L = 2250 mm004438more lengths available on requesttrack foot normal cut 021753track foot angle cut 004440track connector 007762track end stop005379blade cover normal cut Ø 800 mm 004441blade cover normal cut Ø 1000 mm 005698blade cover normal cut Ø 1200 mm 004442blade cover normal cut Ø 1500 mm 007956blade cover normal cut Ø 2000 mm 017932blade cover flush cut Ø 800 mm 004443blade cover flush cut Ø 1000 mm 005696blade cover flush cut Ø 1200 mm 004444blade cover flush cut Ø 1500 mm 007957track foot angle cutsaw blade flange normal cutsaw blade flange normal cuttrack connectorconversion kits for tracks from different manufacturerstrack foottracktrack end stopsafety componentblade cover normal cutblade cover flush cutaccessoriesTitan seriesarticle numberBWS seriesarticle numbersaw blade flange normal cut 017622020383saw blade flange normal cut thicksame dowel dimension as BWS021071-counter flange incl. screw -004371saw blade flange flush cutBRAUN Standard 020724saw blade flange flush cut Hydrostress017170saw blade flange flush cut Hilti018308conversion kit for tracksHydrostress 017890012292conversion kit for tracks Cedima019150-trackroller for tracksHilti (4 pcs. required)006011track foot angle cutsaw blade flange normal cutsaw blade flange flush cutconversion kits for tracks from different manufacturerstrack foottracktrack end stop safety componentblade cover normal cutblade cover flush cuttrack connectorsupply cablefor tool drive Ti/HF 10 mArt. No.: 020774suitable for:Titan Light TitanTitan Power BWS12-S BWS15-Ti BWS15-TiPhandpanel with joystickincl. connection cable 10 mArt. No.: 020755suitable for:Titan Light TitanTitan Power BWS12-S BWS15-Ti BWS15-TiP BWS15-HS22BWS15-HS26control unitBWS-ES-RSL Art. No.: 029439suitable for:BWS15-HS22BWS15-HS26control unitBWS-ES-22Ti-W water cooled Art. No.: 017939suitable for:Titan Power BWS 15-TiPcontrol unitBWS-ES-22Ti Art. No.: 022619suitable for:Titan BWS15-Ticontrol unitBWS-ES-11Ti Art. No.: 026621suitable for:Titan Light BWS12-Ssaw head BWSincl. feed drive unitwithout tool drive motor Art. No.: 020868suitable for:BWS 12-S BWS 15-Ti BWS 15-TiPsaw head Titanincl. feed drive unitwithout tool drive motor Art. No.: 017376suitable for:Titan Light TitanTitan Powertool drive motorBSM-22Ti 22kW watercooledTitan Serie Art. No.: 017719BWS SerieArt. No.: 026789tool drive motorBSM 18-Ti 18 kW watercooledTitan Serie Art. No.: 017330BWS SerieArt. No.: 027630tool drive motor BSM11-Ti 11kWwatercooledTitan Serie Art. No.: 026670BWS SerieArt. No.: 026024connection cablefor feed drive unit 10 mArt. No.: 015882suitable for:TitanTitan Power BWS15-Ti BWS15-TiP BWS15-HS22BWS15-HS26Art. No.: 026628suitable for:Titan Light BWS 12-SFully hydraulic driven saws are available upon request. Further technical details can be found in the respective brochures,which are available for download on our website.We would be glad to offer you individually customised cutting solutions.Sendyourrequestto:*************vacuum plate B2V-Sincl. safety valve for track mounting Art. No.: 001321vacuum pumpincl. hose kitfor up to 4 vacuum plates Art. No.: 029217saw head BWS-Hfully-hydraulic driven available upon requestsawhead BWS15-HSincl. feed drive unit Art. No.: 029442suitable for:BWS15-HS22BWS15-HS26Drill rigsThe benefits at a glance• indestructible thanks to robust construction• light-wight and maximum performance combinated• torsion-resistant due to double-column design• highly versatile - from plunge saw to circle wire within one drill rig• precise, even with large tool drive power and high feed rate• individual tool drive possibilities• clever mounting possibilitiesBBD6Wusable length 760-1500 mmweight 49 kg with UL=760 mmbit diameter up to Ø1000 mmusable length 760 mmArt. No.: 001261usable length 1000 mmArt. No.: 001316usable length 1200 mmArt. No.: 001262usable length 1500 mmArt. No.: 001317BBD4Wusable length 860-1300 mmincl. drill motor plate BMA 2,5weight 39 kg with UL=860 mmbit diameter up to Ø600 mmusable length 860 mmArt. No.: 001254usable length 1100 mmArt. No.: 003526usable length 1300 mmArt. No.: 003527BBD2Wusable length 660-1200 mmincl. drill motor plate BMA 2,5weight 22 kg with UL=660 mmbit diameter up to Ø500 mmusable length 660 mmArt. No.: 001209usable length 660 mm swivellingArt. No.: 001315usable length 800 mmArt. No.: 001211usable length 1000 mmArt. No.: 001212usable length 1200 mmArt. No.: 001313BBD1WS-Dusable length 600 mmweight 17 kgbit diameter up to Ø250 mmincl. drill motor plate BMA 2,5Art. No.: 007094incl. clamping support Ø 60 mmArt.No.: 007524BBD1WSusable length 600 mmweight 17 kgbit diameter up to Ø250 mmincl. drill motor plate BMA 2,5Art. No.: 001318incl. clamping support Ø 60 mmArt.No.: 007523accessoriesBBD1WS BBD1WS-Darticle numberBBD2W BBD4Warticle numberBBD6Warticle numberspacer BHZspacer for bigger core bits-001381001579adapter BHA --001382drill motor mounting plateBMA 1,5BMA 2,5Weka SR 75 Jumbo003907---001383018286--018744inclined drilling devicefor drill angle up to 45°-001326001327swivelling device-007506extension shaft for core bit BKV-Fusable length 500 mm usable length 1000 mm005511006702intermediate flange BKA-Fsubstitute UNC-thread for core bits bigger than Ø600 mm-001388base support for hydraulic motors-001359001360clamping support Ø60003493-adapter BKA-UNC 1 1/4"for direct fixing at hydraulic bearing unit-001325spacer BHZ adapter BHA drill motor mountig plate inclined drilling deviceswivelling deviceextension shaft for core bitintermediate flange BKA-Fbase supportclamping supportadapter BKA-UNC 1 1/4"We would be glad to offer you individually customised drilling solutions.accessoriesBBD1WS BBD1WS-Darticle numberBBD2W BBD4Warticle numberBBD6Warticle numberwater collecting ring B1W/B2W003870001330-spare rubber plate 003913001333-spare rubber ring 004133001334-centering steady restfor core bits-028347-vacuum plate B2V-001290-spare rubber ring for vacuum plate-001322-sealing set for vacuum plateincl. connection kit for vacuum pump-001424-transport wheels-001324water collecting ringspare rubber platespare rubber ringcentering steady restvacuum platespare rubber ring for vacuum platesealing settransport wheelsWire sawsThe benefits at a glance• low wire load thanks to patented wire storage system • cost efficent - usable with existing wall saws and drill rigs • short set-up times due to quick mounting systems• versatile thanks extensive accessories• robust and compact design11 kWcapacity: up to 12 meter of wire electrically drivenArt. No.: 030049Set consist of:1x drill rig BBD2W UL=800 mm1x control unit & handpanel with joystick1x set of cables1x electric feed drive unit1x wire drive wheel1x wire storage SSP2.01x tool drive motor 11kW BSM11-Ti-F1x set safety covers2x swivelling axle 360°wire saw unit with wire storage SSP12 18 kWcapacity: up to 12 meter of wireelectrically drivenArt. No.: 016709Set consist of:1x drill rig BBD2W UL=800 mm1x control unit & handpanel with joystick1xset of cables1x electric feed drive unit1x wire drive wheel1x wire storage SSP121x tool drive motor 18kW BSM18-Ti-F1x set safety covers2x swivelling axle 360°wire saw unit with wire storage SSP1518 kWcapacity: up to 20 meter of wire electrically drivenArt. No.: 016948Set consist of:1x drill rig BBD4W UL=860 mm1x control unit & handpanel with joystick1x set of cables1x electric feed drive unit1x wire drive wheel1x wire storage SSP151x tool drive motor 18kW BSM18-Ti-F1x set safety covers2x swivelling axle 360°(hydraulic power pack not included)capacity: up to 20 meter of wire hydraulically drivenArt. Nr.: 029397Set consist of:1x drill rig BBD4W UL=860 mm1x control unit & handpanel with joystick1x cable set1x electric feed drive unit1x hydraulic wheeldrive1x wire drive wheel1x wire storage SSP151x set safety covers2x swivelling axle 360°wire storage SSP12for existing drill rigscapacity: up to 12 meter of wireArt. No.: 020401Set consist of:1x rerouting device1x support with pulley holder and guide pulley 2x Storage-pulley package SSP121x set safety coverswire storage SSP15for existing drill rigscapacity: up to 12 meter of wireArt. No.: 005919Set consits of:1x rerouting device1x support with pulley holder and guide pulley 2x Storage-pulley package SSP151x set safety coverscircle wire saw kitfor existing BRAUN-wall sawsArt. No.: 004522Set consist of:4x guide pulley Ø2501x bracket with turning unit 1x safety covers 1x support wheelwire storage SSP15-WS for wall saw tracksfor existing BRAUN-wall sawscapacity: up to 18 meter of wire Art. No.: 007349Set consist of:2x storage-pulley package SSP151x bracket for storage-pulley package inclined 1x bracket for storage-pulley package straight 1x pulley support 2x clamps for pulleys 1x bracket swivelling axle 2x swivelling axle 360°4x guide pulley Ø2501x safety cover for guide pulleysplunge saw kitfor existing BRAUN-wire saws up to 2,5 m cutting depth Art. No.: 017355Set consist of:2x guide pulley Ø2502x swivelling axle 360°2x bracket for guide pulley2x plunge saw bracket with pulley 4x shimaccessoriesarticle numberwire saw drivehydraulic motor incl. drive wheel carrier 001808adapter for Titan motorconnector to use the motor for wire saw017940feed drive with miter gear without resolver für SSP2.0029441feed drive with miter gearwith resolver für SSP12 & SSP15020199safety cover for SSP15-WS 018817safety cover for drive wheelfor setting on drill rig 005918rerouting device for setting on BBD2W & BBD4W001809rerouting devicefor setting on BBD6W001810wire drive wheel 000522spare rubber for drive wheel 000523electric wire saw drivewithout HF-motor014645feed drive with worm gearwithout resolver für SSP2.0027802feed drive with worm gearwith resolver SSP12 & SSP15017157wire saw drive unit feed drive with miter gearsafety coversrerouting devicewire drive wheelspare rubber for drive wheelelectric wire saw drivefeed drive with worm gear adapter for Titan motorWe would be glad to offer you individually customised drilling solutions.accessoriesarticle numberbullet proof security curtain with frame017828security curtain 017827water distributor 007355water lance007354guide pulley with nave Ø200mm 029180guide pulley with nave Ø250mm 029177spare body for guide pulley Ø200mm 029178spare body for guide pulley Ø250mm029170guide pulley Ø200mm 009092guide pulley Ø250mm 000533bracket for guide pulley026349shim 000530pulley axle straightwith shim 005916pulley axle with tilting headwith shim001811pulley axle straight 000536pulley axle with tilting head005525wire guiding device 007795swivelling axle 360°007767security curtain with framewater distributorwater lanceguide pulley with navebracket for guide pulleyshimpulley axle with shimpulley axle straightwire guiding deviceswivelling device 360°securtity curtainguide pulleyPlunge sawThe benefits at a glance• cutting depth up to 10 meters• cutting width up to 1200 mm• high cutting accuracy, by specially designed routing bracket• can be used with existing drill rigs and existing hydraulic power packs• versatile, from drill rig to stich drilling machinedrive unit BTS 12up to Ø1200 mm hydraulic drivenwith axial piston motor Art. Nr.: 001816consist of:1x angle drive 1x motor1x adapter unit with shim 1x 2-speed gear shaft 3x flange normal cutdrive unit BTS 8up to Ø800 mm hydraulic drivenwith toothed-gear motor Art. No.: 001817with axial piston motor Art. No.: 012568consist of:1x angle gear drive 1x motor1x adapter unit with shim 3x flange normal cutaccessoriesarticle numberdrill motor plate BMA-TS 005200drilling spindle bearingfixing by clamping jaws 000462extension shaftfor drilling spindle bearing000464extension shaft L= 500 mm 000465extension shaft L= 1000 mm000466guide unit000537flange flush cut with diamond segments000506flange flush cut 000501clamping unit 000467blade cover BTS Ø800 mm 000518blade cover BTS Ø1200 mm000519feed drive slide 000426rail L= 750 mm 000428rail L= 1000 mm 000429rail L= 1500mm 000430rail L= 2250mm000431electric feed drive unitincl. power pack, gear, motor & cable032973drill motor mounting platedrilling spindle bearingextension shaftguide unitflange flush cut with diamond segmentsflange flush cutclamping unitblade coverSchienefeed drive slideelectric feed drive unitAll purpose - modular systemThe benefits at a glance• existing wall saw tracks can be used• almost limitless combination possibilities• the frame can be sprayed against the ceiling therfore a dowel-free installation is possible • universally applicable, for drilling to sawing• shortening of assembly time when cutting several openingssawing framemodular kit for sawing tracks not included Art. No.: 026713consist of:2x dowel-base plate 2x turning units2x double-clamping plate 2x support2x support bracket 2x clamping unit 2x threat brace 1x traverseBBZ2modular kit for drilling tracks not included Art. No.: 025845consist of:2x dowel-base plate 1x connector1x connector plate 2x supporttrapezoidal thread on requestBBZ1modular kit for drilling track not included Art. No.: 025461consist of:1x dowel-base plate 1x slide1x supportaccessories article number base plate for drilling024658base plate for sawing024659suppport bracket026119 for sawingsupport024548 for sawing and drilling026706 threat brace L= 650 mmfor ceiling supportconnection plate BBZ 2026054 for drillingVerbindungselement für BBZ 2026047 for drillingslide with star-hub025338double clamping plate026624clamping unit slewable026448 clamping unit with support connector026705We would be glad to offer you individually customised solutions.accessoriesarticle numbertrack L= 750 mm 004435track L= 1000 mm 004436track L= 1500 mm 004437track L= 2250 mm 004438adapter for 90° drilling 028142swiveling drilling adapter 026806centering steady rest for core bit026526feed drive unit electricwith wormgear 026714feed drive unit hydraulic with wormgear026562attachment kit for feed drive026715traverse028896Further technical details can be found in the respective brochures,which are available for download on our website.trackadapter for 90° drillingswiveling drilling adaptersteady restfeed drive unit electricfeed drive unit hydraulicattachment kit for feed drivetraverseThe benefits at a glance• applicable thanks to stepless adjustment of flow rate and operating pressure• long life time thanks to adjustable axial piston pump• very high drive power, thanks to operating pressures up to 260 bar• closed oil circuit and high efficiency• remote controlled & easy to transportHydraulic power packs & accessoriesHAE26V-0 (F)watercooledhydraulic power: up to 30 kW oil flow 0 - 60 l/min Art. 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Project Lead

Harvard Brain Tissue Resource CenterNational Brain DatabankNeuroscience Gene Expression RepositoryResearch on Standards and PlatformsWorking Technical ReportAugust 11, 2003Project LeadNitin Sawhney, Ph.D.Technical DevelopmentTom Hickerson, Shai Sachs, Dmitriy AndreyevAbstractThe Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center (or The Brainbank) at the McLean Hospital is one of three federally funded centers for the collection and distribution of human brain specimens for research, and the only designated acquisition center. The Brainbank seeks to establish a publicly accessible repository (The National Brain Databank) to collect and disseminate results of postmortem studies of neurological and psychiatric disorders. The National Brain Databank will primarily provide neuropathology information including gene expression data, which will be accessed and queried using a web-based interface. The project will utilize key microarray metadata standards such as MAIME and MAGE-ML and best practices employed by existing gene expression repositories like NIH’s Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and ArrayExpress at the European Bioinformatics Institute.The National Brain Databank initiative requires a long term perspective to develop an appropriate application platform with a scaleable and robust database while incorporating suitable microarray standards and ontologies. In this technical paper, we survey the overall lifecycle of research at the Brainbank with respect to the microarray experiments. We also review the main gene expression repositories and analytic tools as well as the emerging MAIME and MAGE-ML standards being adopted by the research community.We propose a system architecture that allows integration of existing Affymetrix-based microarray data using the MAGE object model and interfaces, while retaining the data in its raw form. We believe the proposed repository will benefit from an architecture using the Java J2EE application framework and the Oracle 9i relational database running on a secure and high-performance Linux-based server. This architecture enables an open, scaleable and extensible approach towards development and deployment of the repository in conjunction with existing software tools and standards in academic settings. We believe that the basic framework outlined in this technical report should serve as a robust foundation for the evolving gene expression repository at the Brainbank.Table of ContentsKey Recommendations (3)1Introduction: Objectives of the National Brain Databank (4)2Lifecycle of Research at the Brainbank (5)2.1Acquisition and Curation of Brain Tissue Samples (5)2.2Gene Expression Experiments using Microarrays (5)2.3Analysis of Expression Data: Software Tools and Data Standards (7)2.4Current Computing Infrastructure and Databases at the Brainbank (8)2.5Basic Requirements for National Brain Databank (9)3Public Gene Expression Repositories (12)4Microarray Standards and Ontologies (13)4.1Motivation for Microarray Standards (13)4.2What is an Ontology? (14)4.3Understanding the Role of MIAME (14)4.4Understanding MAGE-OM and MAGE-ML (15)4.5Software Support for MAGE (16)4.5.1Affymetrix GDAC Exporter (16)4.5.2MGED’s MAGE-stk (16)4.5.3Commercial Software: Rosetta Resolver (16)4.6Data Formats used by Gene Expression Repositories (16)4.6.1SOFT Format at GEO (16)4.6.2MAGE Standards at ArrayExpress (17)4.6.3GeneXML at GeneX (17)4.7Historical Evolution of MAGE Standards (17)4.8Proposed Use of MIAME/MAGE and Related Technologies (18)4.8.1National Brain Databank Database Structure (18)4.8.2Importing Experimental Data (18)4.8.3Curating the Brainbank Data (19)4.8.4Searching the Data (20)4.8.5Browsing the Data (20)4.8.6Exporting the Data (20)5National Brain Databank: Proposed Model and Approach (21)5.1Summary of Preliminary Requirements (21)5.2Proposed Application Model and System Architecture (22)5.3Designing the Application Platform: Adopting Java J2EE (24)5.3.1What is J2EE? (24)5.3.2Case Study: PhenoDB Project at Massachusetts General Hospital (25)5.3.3Available Java Tools and Comparison with Other Languages (26)5.4Adopting a UNIX Operating Environment for the National Brain Databank Server (28)5.5Adopting a Relational Database: Comparison of Database Platforms (29)6Summary of Ongoing Requirements Analysis (32)7Conclusions (33)References (34)Appendix: Comparison of Databases and Security IssuesKey RecommendationsØTo support the large volume of heterogeneous data generated from microarray experiments at the Brainbank, the system must provide a range a mechanisms for indexing, annotating and linking thedatasets with clinical and diagnostic data on the brain tissue samples. Hence, use of standardizedapproaches such as the MAIME ontology is important along with a robust and scaleable database.ØTo ensure standardized submission, export and exchange with other gene expression repositories, the system should support the MAGE-OM object model and the XML-based MAGE-ML data exchangestandards. These standards are increasingly being adopted by many databases and software tools.ØWhile the MAGE standards are becoming popular, many existing databases and analytic tools are only now beginning to adapt to these standards. Hence, for the foreseeable future the Brainbank mustcontinue to provide gene expression data in their native formats to enable analysis by current software.The system must export data using MAGE while providing access to raw data files stored in the server.ØTo maintain the high standards for archiving and disseminating data to the neuroscience community, the Brainbank must carefully curate data submitted from internal experiments and external investigators.Hence software tools and workflows should be provided to annotate, validate, cross-reference, and map data to the internal representation. These data submission and curation mechanisms should be MAIME compliant and can be adapted form existing software tools.ØSimilar to existing gene expression repositories, the National Brain Databank must provide adequate tools for querying the diagnostic and gene expression data along a number of searchable parameters.This requires that the experimental data be submitted using MAIME compliant processes as well asindexing the raw data and clinical reports to extract relevant keywords and terms for extensive queries.ØTo allow data to be usable it must be referenced to standardized Gene sequences in GenBank and linked to relevant publications in online resources such as PubMed. The system must support mechanisms to cross-link and reference these online sources using a combination of manual and automated methods.ØSince the brain samples collected and gene expression data generated are based on patient profiles and the online repository is designed to be a publicly accessible resource, data must be selectivelydisseminated to comply with HIPAA guidelines. Hence, the system should support user authenticationmechanisms, a range of user roles and privileges for certain datasets and files, while enforcing adequate security measures in a robust and secure database.ØExtracting and archiving gene expression data in the online repository requires acquiring data from specialized software like Affymetrix using export tools like GDAC and other utilities for converting content to MAIME and MAGE-ML-based formats. The system must support extensible interfaces and APIs toallow integration with such tools. It is important to use nonproprietary platforms, open standards andmethodologies in the design of the system architecture.ØThe deployment architecture for the National Brain Databank must ensure long term scalability, robustness, performance, extensibility and interoperability with other systems and platforms. We proposea system architecture using the Java J2EE application framework and the Oracle 9i relational databaserunning on a secure and high-performance Linux-based server. We believe this architecture provides the most secure and extensible foundation in the long term for deploying a public gene expression repository.1 Introduction: Objectives of the National Brain DatabankThe Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center1 (or The Brainbank) directed by Dr. Francine M. Benes at the McLean Hospital is one of three federally funded centers for the collection and distribution of human brain specimens for research, and the only designated acquisition center. The center’s brain tissue provides a critical resource for scientists worldwide to assist in their investigations into the functioning of the nervous system and the evolution of many psychiatric diseases.The Brainbank seeks to establish a publicly accessible repository (The National Brain Databank) to collect and disseminate results of postmortem studies of neurological and psychiatric disorders. For this project, Akaza Research2 has been contracted to conduct research, design and development of the public gene expression repository for the Brainbank’s National Brain Databank. Akaza Research is an informatics consulting firm based in Cambridge, MA that provides its academic and nonprofit clients with open and customized solutions to facilitate public research in the life sciences. The National Brain Databank will primarily provide neuropathology information including gene expression data along with anonymous demographics, which will be accessed and queried using a web-based interface. While general information will be publicly available, authorized researchers will have access to detailed results and export data into relevant standardized formats. As the system evolves, distributed researchers will have the ability to upload their own results using a specified metadata format, pending a process of approval and curation from administrators at the National Brain Databank.The project will utilize key microarray metadata standards such as MAIME and MAGE-ML3 and best practices employed by existing gene expression repositories like NIH’s Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO)4 and ArrayExpress at the European Bioinformatics Institute. Akaza is conducting requirements analysis to identity the core specifications of the system over several phases of software releases that address the near-term needs and long term vision of the National Brain Databank. This research and analysis effort conducted in conjunction with the Brainbank will be distilled into technical papers (such as this one) and formal specifications. Based on feedback from the Brainbank, Akaza will commence on the design and development of the system’s first release which will include a project website, implementing the new database schema and data migration from existing MS Access and MS SQL Server databases at the Brainbank, as well as the deployment of the core Java J2EE based web-application framework for the online repository.A key aspect of the National Brain Databank project includes specification and design of appropriate metadata formats and related import/export mechanisms. In addition, several workflow processes will be implemented to provide administrators with mechanisms for selective authorization of users, data import/depositing andcuration/administration of the repository. The Brainbank eventually intends to support the neuroscience research community by expanding the scope of neuropathology information available to include SNP and proteomics data, while providing additional online tools for advanced search and cross-indexing, and supporting the ability to exchange relevant data with other online repositories. As the system is deployed, Akaza will continue to conduct ongoing evaluation, documentation, training and testing with lead users and administrators for iterative refinement of the system to ensure a useful and robust repository for the neuroscience research community.This working technical paper, based on preliminary requirements gathering and background research, summarizes the key goals of the National Brain Databank, the process of research at the Brainbank, existing gene expression repositories and metadata standards as well as relevant software tools and databases. The paper proposes a high-level implementation approach for the National Brain Databank’s online gene expression repository including the conceptual database model and application framework, rationale for adopting Java J2EE, Oracle and Linux as the basis for the system and outlines the ongoing requirements analysis work. Based on review and feedback from Brainbank, key decisions and tradeoffs indicated here will be resolved to finalize the key requirements and specifications towards development of the first system release of the National Brain Databank.123/4/geo/2 Lifecycle of Research at the BrainbankThe Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center (the Brainbank) was established at McLean Hospital as a centralized, federally funded resource for the collection and distribution of human brain specimens for research. As a designated “NIH National Resource”, the Brainbank provides a vital public service by collecting and disseminating postmortem brain tissue samples to the neuroscience research community (at no charge). These brain tissues are typically related to neurological disorders including Huntington's, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's, psychiatric disorders like schizophrenia or manic-depression (bipolar disorder), as well as normal control specimens which are essential for comparative work. Collectively, these specimens are used for a wide variety of applications, including receptor binding, immunocytochemistry, in situ hybridization, virus detection, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA sequencing, mRNA isolation, and a broad range of neurochemical assays.2.1 Acquisition and Curation of Brain Tissue SamplesHaving been established for over 20 years, the Brainbank has created a strong reputation as a NIH National Resource for brain tissue collection, archiving and dissemination to aid neuroscience research. To maintain this high standard, the Brainbank takes very meticulous care in receiving, documenting, caring for, and collecting background data for its cases. Samples are examined by neuropathologists and extensive case histories and family interviews are performed wherever possible, given privacy and practical limitations.There are currently over 5800 brains stored in the Brainbank. Previously, brain tissue samples for Huntington's, Parkinson's, and Alzheimer's disease were collected, whereas now the Brainbank additionally collects samples from patients with psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia or manic-depression as well as normal control tissue. The Brainbank also houses private collections of brain tissue samples for the Tourette Syndrome Association (TSA), which are managed by the organization. Over the years, the Brainbank has compiled a representative brain tissue sample for research called the "McLean 66" cohort5 (with samples from about 66-67 brains) includes roughly equal numbers of Schizophrenic, Bipolar (hardest to obtain), and control cases. Gene expression data is now being derived from this set and will be included in the online repository initially.The Brainbank’s website currently provides password-based access to an anonymized catalog of brain tissue samples, with demographic information, diagnosis information, some neuropathological and clinical information, and related images. Investigators can browse and query the database and request additional demographic information as well as the actual samples from the Brainbank. Requests for samples are handled by an independent committee that provides a recommendation to the Brainbank, before it can supply these tissue samples to the investigators. Currently the Brainbank supplies nearly 100 investigators with about 4000 samples every year.2.2 Gene Expression Experiments using MicroarraysIn addition to providing brain tissue samples with the relevant patient demographic information, the Brainbank is currently extracting gene expression levels from thousands of DNA samples of its tissue specimens. Over the last 2 years the Brainbank has expanded its capability to extract gene expression data using newly acquired microarray technologies6 primarily from Affymetrix, including GeneChip® microarrays. Previously all gene expression experiments were contracted out to external labs; however the results were neither consistent nor of high quality. Hence the decision was made to bring this capability in-house.Affymetrix offers high-density microarrays for human, mouse and rat genomes. These arrays are clustered into sets of GeneChips containing probe pairs for up to 12,000 transcripts. For example, the Human U133 Genome Set of more than 39,000 transcripts is divided over two GeneChips labeled A (composed of known genes) and B (composed of express sequence tag or EST7 with unknown function). Affymetrix matching uses 25 base pair (bp) probes8 affixed to known regions on a DNA chip, which has between 8,900 and 33,000 probes. The Microarray scanner uses lasers to detect DNA stained with fluorescence, to help analyze binding of complementary5 This previously originated as the “McLean 60” cohort sample, which has since been slightly expanded to include additional brain samples.6 Tutorial on microarrays: /About/primer/microarrays.html7 Express sequence tag (EST) is a single-pass sequence from either end of a cDNA clone; approximately 200 to 600 base pairs in length.8 A labeled, single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule of specific base sequence, that is used to detect the complementary base sequence by hybridization. At Affymetrix, probe refers to unlabeled oligonucleotides synthesized on a GeneChip probe array.cDNA/RNA sequences from the tissue sample. Each chip costs about $600 in materials (including reagents) to prepare and run, and takes about a week to prepare (as part of a batch).Researchers at the Brainbank create 5-7 gene expression profiles for each case, corresponding to the various brain regions that need to be studied. A gene expression experiment is rarely repeated for the same tissue sample to create another profile, unless the first one yields poor quality data. For example, over-washing and straining of the tissue samples in preparation for gene expression experiments can yield uniformly white images which are not useful for analysis. Hybridization quality is verified using background calculations in the report files generated, particularly examining the 3’/5’ signals at housekeeping genes (values of 2 are considered good). Before the Brainbank had acquired in-house capacity to conduct microarray experiments, it had provided the RNA solutions for the McLean 60 cohort study to a commercial firm, Psychiatric Genomics9 in Maryland to allow them to replicate these experiments using their own approach and unique procedures. This data may be provided to the Brainbank in the future, and hence it must be archived as a replicated data set accordingly. Experimental replicates may be assigned the same or different accession number.Gene expression experiments can generate nearly 72 MB of data for a just a single typical array according to Affymetrix10, hence the storage and management of such data becomes a crucial task. Each sample hybridized to an Affymetrix GeneChip generates five Absolute Analysis files:1. EXP: The experimental file (in ASCII text) stores laboratory information, for each array including theexperiment name, sample, and the type of GeneChip array being used.2. DAT: The data file contains the raw image of the scanned GeneChip array, corresponding to the rawhybridization data. These data are not processed, and no scaling factors or normalization is embedded.(40-70 MB)3. CEL: The cell intensity file assigns X, Y coordinates to each cell on the array and calculates the averageintensity of each cell. This file can be used to re-analyze data with different expression algorithmparameters. This file provides a normalized image. (the ASCII/Excel file is around 10-12 MB)4. CHP: The chip file is generated using information in the CEL file to determine the presence or absence ofeach transcript and its relative expression level. (Binary file around 7 MB for Rats and 14MB for Humans)5. RPT: The report file (in ASCII text) provides quick access to the quality control information for eachhybridization, including noise, scale factor, target values, percent present, absent or marginal andaverage signal values, and housekeeping controls such as Sig(3'/5').The report file is often examined first after running an experiment to ensure the quality of results and then the image files are used to check for any artifacts. Affymetrix software uses the EXP file together with the DAT file to process the raw data in order to generate data analysis files. The chip file is primarily used for statistical analysis. Although the EXP, DAT, CEL, CEL, CHP and RPT files can only be read using Affymetrix software, the quantitative and qualitative expression values in each CHP file can be exported as text (tab delimited) files. The DAT and CHP image files can be saved in TIFF format and later converted to JPEG for easy viewing. Optionally a mask file can also be generated to provide additional information on the microarray chip quality.The Affymetrix Absolute Analysis text files contain a row for each transcript represented in the microarray and columns of the raw expression data for that transcript (indicating mRNA expression levels). The Affymetrix platform contains multiple pairs of perfect match and mismatch oligonucleotides11 for each transcript examined. The software uses the pattern and intensity of hybridization to these oligos to calculate a relative expression value for each transcript (referred to as ‘Signal’ in version 5.0 Microarray Suite and ‘Average Difference’ in previous910/technology/data_analysis/11 A short length of single-stranded nucleotides; used as probes on GeneChip® arrays.software versions).12 The algorithms also determine whether each transcript was detected during the hybridization. This qualitative information is reported as a “Present”, “Absent” or “Marginal”.Each Affymetrix microarray contains thousands of different oligonucleotide probes. The sequences of these probes are available at the Affymetrix NetAffx13 website. It provides background/annotation info on the Affymetrix probes (based on probe ID) and also maps relationships between Affymetrix microarray chip probe IDs with that of repositories like GenBank. Currently, GenBank and dChip do not read Affymetrix IDs. Generating and using these IDs from the NetAffx website is somewhat confusing as they are not always corresponding and the relationships between them can often be many to 1, 1 to many, or many to many.Affymetrix software includes MicroSuite for cataloging microarray data, the MicroDB database, and Data Mining tools which perform statistical tests and run on MicroDB. The Affymetrix Analysis Data Model14(AADM) is the relational database schema provided along with a set of Application Programming Interfaces (API) implemented as views to provide access to data stored in Affymetrix-based local gene expression databases. While the raw microarray gene expression data may be stored in an internal database, the results are valuable for the neuroscience researchers if the data is shared along with the relevant experimental metadata and demographic details. Hence it is important to consider standards and ontologies for sharing microarray data among databases and analytic tools used by the research community.2.3 Analysis of Expression Data: Software Tools and Data StandardsA number of software tools are used for analysis of gene expression data generated by Microarray experiments. In addition to Affymetrix’s own Data Mining Tool (DMT) and a number of proprietary commercial tools, several freely available tools are used within the research community including dChip, BioConductor and GeneCluster. Affymetrix provides the Data Mining Tool (DMT) v3.015 to allow filtering and sorting of expression results from microarray experiments, perform cluster and matrix analysis as well as annotate genes (manually or from the NetAffx website). DMT software runs on Windows NT and allows multiple queries to be performed in multiple GeneChip experiments simultaneously. To load data, one must register and select the MicroDB database to query and view the CHP files generated by Affymetrix. These can then be filtered to perform relevant analysis. Despite having been developed for Affymetrix users, the software interface does not appear to be intuitive, and many of these features have now been incorporated in publicly available analysis tools.16The DNA Chip Analyzer (or dChip)17 is the most commonly used microarray analysis software, particularly utilized at the Brainbank. It was developed by Dr. Cheng Li (2003) at the Harvard School of Public Health and is freely available from Harvard. dChip requires the CDF chip file and the CEL files for conducting analysis. The software can normalize the data, export expression values, filter genes, and perform hierarchical clustering or compare genes between groups of samples. The authors of dChip encourage researchers to make their gene expression results available publicly for analysis by others:18“We encourage researchers who generate Affymetrix data to also put the CEL or DAT files available with the paper. This will enhance the efforts of improving on the low-level analysis of Affymetrix microarray such as feature extraction, normalization and expression indexes, as well as ease the data-sharing and cross-reference among researchers since CEL level files can be pooled to analyze in a more controlled manner.CEL files have text format and contain summarized probe-level (PM, MM) data of Affymetrix array. dChip software uses the raw CEL files. If CEL files are stored in a central database system (containing the raw CEL files or directory links to CEL files), such a function would be convenient (as implemented in theWhitehead Xchip database): users query the database through web interface for their experiments, and request the raw CEL files to be stored temporarily on a ftp site for downloading.“12/documents/tech/Tech%20Note%20-%20Data%20Deliverables.pdf13/analysis/index.affx14/support/developer/15/products/software/specific/dmt.affx16 Manual on Affymetrix Data Mining Tool compiled by Bob Burke at the Brainbank, Summer 2003.17/complab/dchip/18/complab/dchip/public%20data.htmBioConductor19 is collaborative open source software developed by researchers at the Dana Farber Cancer Institute and the Harvard Medical School/Harvard School of Public Health. It provides a range of tools for statistical and graphical methods for analysis of genomic data and facilitates integration of biological metadata from PubMed and LocusLink. It is based on the “R” statistical programming language. The system handles Affymetrix data by allowing users to provide CEL files, as well as phenotypic and MAIME information through graphical widgets for data entry.GeneCluster 2.020 is a Java-based software tool developed by Whitehead Institute/MIT Center for Genome Research (WICGR). GeneCluster allows data analysis using supervised classification such as K nearest neighbor, gene selection and permutation tests. GeneCluster supports 2 data formats – the WICGR RES file format (*.res) and the GCT (Gene Cluster Text) file format (*.gct). The main difference between the two file formats is the RES file format contains labels for each gene's absent (A) versus present (P) calls as generated by Affymetrix's GeneChip software (which are currently ignored by GeneCluster). Data files for use in GeneCluster can be created automatically by a special tool such as WICGR's Res File Creation Tool or manually by standard tools such as Microsoft Excel and text editors.To support data exchange with a range of analytic tools, the online repository for the National Brain Databank must provide the CHIP (for Affymetrix DMT), CDF and most importantly the CEL files in raw form for downloading. In addition, any report and experiment files may also be desired by some researchers to gain confidence in the experiments, while experimental metadata in accordance with MAIME will be useful for analysis as well. All files generated by Affymetrix can be placed in a secure directory within the server and referenced in the sample metadata, such that they can be easily accessed if the online user has appropriate privileges. In the future many analytic tools will begin to support MAIME metadata and microarray data import/export in MAGE-ML formats, such as GeneSpring21 and GenePix22.2.4 Current Computing Infrastructure and Databases at the BrainbankThe Brainbank currently houses its databases in 2 main servers (Brain Servers 1 and 2) while a third server is being deployed for the National Brain Databank and an additional machine will be provided for development. Clinical Server (or Brainserver-1) hosts the primary brain tissue and clinical data. As it contains the initial unanonymized patient data (Brains DB), it maintains restricted access in compliance with HIPAA guidelines. The server configuration is a HP Proliant ML370 G2 with 1 GHz processor, 256 MB RAM and 37.8 GB storage, RAID5 w/ (6) 9.1 GB removable hard drives. It runs on Windows NT 4.00.1381 with ML SQL Server 7.00.839 and MS Access databases. Clinical demographic and diagnostic data for brain samples are archived on these databases. It also includes brain tissue information and freezer inventory as well as neuropathology reports. This server is isolated from other machines on the network to maintain security of sensitive data.Public Web Server (or Brainserver-2) hosts the publicly accessible website for the Brainbank23 and the Harvard Image Database v1.0024 which allows restricted access to query the anonymized data on brain tissue samples. The server configuration is a HP Proliant ML370 G3 with 2.4 GHz processor, 1.5 GB RAM and 90.2 GB storage, RAID5 w/ (6) 18.2 GB removable hard drives. It runs on Windows NT 4.00.1381, IIS Server with ML SQL Server 7.00.839 and Webhunter v4.0 databases. The Webhunter is a database product developed by ADS Image, Inc.25 which is used for querying and indexing brain tissue images stored in SQL Server (previously in Access). The database (Anonymous Brains) contains anonymized brain tissue and clinical data, which is bulk imported manually using SQL Server scripts from the databases in the clinical server.National Brain Databank (Brainserver-3 or National-DB) will host the public gene expression repository for the Brainbank. Some data from other Brainbank databases will be imported into the database running on this server. The server configuration is a HP Proliant ML370 G3 with dual 2.4 GHz processors, 1.5 GB RAM and 90.2 GB19/20/cancer/software/genecluster2/gc2.html21/cgi/SiG.cgi/Products/GeneSpring/index.smf22/GN_GenePixSoftware.html2324/BrainDB/default.htm25。

Article1

Evidence of the voice-related cortical potential:An electroencephalographic studyJessica Galgano and Karen Froud ⁎Department of Biobehavioral Sciences,Teachers College,Columbia University,USA Received 1October 2007;revised 4March 2008;accepted 12March 2008Available online 21March 2008The Bereitschaftspotential (BP)is a slow negative-going cortical potential associated with preparation for volitional movement.Studies since the 1960s have provided evidence for a BP preceding speech-related volitional motor acts.However,the BP associated specifically with voice initiation (i.e.a volitional motor act involving bilateral true vocal fold adduction)has not to date been systematically investigated.The current investigation utilizes a novel experimental design to address methodological confounds typically found in studies of movement-related cortical potentials,to demonstrate the existence and localization of generators for the voice-related cortical potential (VRCP).Using high-density EEG,we recorded scalp potentials in preparation for voice onset and for exhalation in a stimulus-induced voluntary movement task.Results showed a slow,increasingly negative cortical potential in the time window of up to 2500ms prior to the mean onset of phonation.This VRCP peaked at a greater amplitude and shorter latency than the BP associated with exhalation alone.VRCP sources were localized to the anterior rostral regions of the medial frontal gyrus (Supplementary Motor Area (SMA))and in bilateral laryngeal motor areas before and immediately following the mean initiation of phonation.Additional sources were localized to the bilateral cerebellum and occipital lobe in the time window following the mean onset of phonation.We speculate that these results provide additional support for fine somatotopic organization of the SMA.Further examination of the spatiotemporal change of the VRCP yielded source models which indicated involvement of the laryngeal motor cortices and cerebellum,likely responsible for the initiation and continuation of phonation.©2008Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.IntroductionThe event-preceding brain component associated with prepara-tion for volitional movement,referred to as the Bereitschaftspo-tential (BP),has been described in detail over many years of research (Kornhuber and Deecke,1965;Deecke et al.,1969,1976).Several studies have attempted to identify and isolate the BP related specifically to preparation for speech.For example,Brooker and Donald (1980)put a significant amount of consideration into matching the time constants of instrumentation,and included EMG recordings of several muscles that are active during speech.Wohlert (1993)and Wohlert and Larson (1991)investigated the BP preceding speech and nonspeech movements of various levels of complexity.Both experiments controlled for respiratory artifact by having subjects hold their breath prior to task initiation.In addition,electro-ocular and EMG activity were monitored,and (in the 1993study)a pneumatic respiration transducer was utilized to monitor breathing patterns.Additionally,EMG activity from the orbicularis oris muscle was used to trigger and average segments.More recent advances in electroencephalo-graphic and electromyographic techniques have made it possible for examinations of this nature to more accurately identify BPs associated with vocalization and oral movements.These advances have also permitted investigations aiming to specify the cortical and subcortical pathways involved in volitional control of exhalation,which is required for voice production.Kuna et al.(1988)found thyroarytenoid muscle activity during exhalation,suggesting that cortical control of volitional respiration may be related,in part,to the requirement for precise management of vocal fold position during respiration.Although a significant amount is understood about the BP,it has been difficult to extract these components from EEG recordings,since the BP is typically a slow change in amplitude with a wide bilateral distribution (Brooker and Donald,1980;Deecke et al.,1986;Ertl and Schafer,1967;Grabow and Elliott,1974;McAdam and Whitaker,1971;Morrell and Huntington,1971;Schafer,1967),representing shifts of only a few microvolts.Thus,accurate triggering by the exact onset of movement is extremely important.Studies attempting to identify the BP associated with the volitional motor act of laryngeal or vocal fold movement (which we will refer to as the V oice-Related Cortical Potential,or VRCP)have encountered other obstacles too:in particular,difficulties withco-/locate/ynimg NeuroImage 41(2008)1313–1323Corresponding author.Department of Biobehavioral Sciences,Box 180,Teachers College,Columbia University,New York,NY 10027,USA.Fax:+12126788233.E-mail address:kfroud@ (K.Froud).Available online on ScienceDirect ().1053-8119/$-see front matter ©2008Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.019registration between physiological measurements and electrophy-siological instrumentation,inaccurate identification of vocal fold movement onset,and methodological confounds between voice, speech and language(Brooker and Donald,1980;Deecke et al., 1986;Ertl and Schafer,1967;Grabow and Elliott,1974;McAdam and Whitaker,1971;Morrell and Huntington,1971;Schafer,1967). In addition,respiratory artifact or R-wave contamination of the BP preceding speech has proven a major difficulty,particularly in early studies(Deecke et al.,1986).Larger-amplitude artifacts due to head-,eye-,lip-,mouth movements and respiration must also be eliminated before signal averaging(Grözinger et al.,1980).Earlier studies investigating voice-related brain activations typically confounded the distinctions between voice,speech and language.Voice refers to the sound produced by action of the vocal organs,in particular the larynx and its associated musculature. Speech is concerned with articulation,and the movement of organs responsible for the production of the sounds of language—in particular,those of the oral tract,including the lips,tongue and nguage refers to the complex set of cognitive operations involved in producing and understanding the systematic processes which underpin communication.Therefore,studies which have at-tempted to isolate voice or speech-related activity by the use of word production instead have described activation relating to a combina-tion of these cognitive and motor operations(for example,Grözinger et al.(1975)used word utterances amongst their tasks designed to elicit speech-related activations;Ikeda and Shibasaki(1995)used single words as well as nonspeech-related movements like lingual protrusion;McAdam and Whitaker(1971)used unspecified three-syllable words to elicit ostensibly speech-related activity).Con-versely,in a magnetoencephalography(MEG)study,Gunji et al. (2000)examined the vocalization-related cortical fields(VRCF) associated with repeated production of the vowel[u].Microphones placed close to the mouth were used to capture the sound waveform from the vocalization;the onset of the waveform provided the trigger for segmenting and averaging epochs.This design carefully attempts to identify vocalization-related fields;however,operationalizing a procedure which is able to most closely capture the onset of voicing is particularly difficult.Difficulty stems,in part,from the limited number of compatible neuroimaging techniques and instruments able to capture these phenomena.The present study contributes to understanding of the timing and distribution of the VRCP by addressing two major sources of methodological confound:the blurring of distinctions between voice, speech and language;and the accurate identification of movement onset for triggering and epoch segmentation.Furthermore,we use high-density EEG recordings,providing an increased level of detail in terms of the scalp topography,and additionally enabling the application of source modeling techniques to ensure accurate identification of the VRCP.Our results provide novel insight into voice generation by addressing the following research question: Can the true VRCP,associated only with laryngeal activity,be isolated from related movement potentials,by utilizing the right combination of control and experimental tasks?We predicted that a stimulus-induced voluntary movement paradigm would yield significant differences in the characteristics of the Readiness Potentials associated with(a)initiation of phonation and(b)respiration.To be specific,we predicted the existence of an isolable voice-related cortical potential associated only with prepara-tion for initiation of phonation and greater amplitude of the VRCP vs. the respiration-related cortical potential.We also predicted that VRCP sources would be localized to the Supplementary Motor Area, primary motor cortices,and sensori-motor regions.Elucidation of the neural mechanisms of normal voice is a crucial step towards understanding the role of functional reorganization in cortical and subcortical networks associated with voice production, both for changes in the normal aging voice,and in pathological populations.This approach to determining the neural correlates of voice initiation could provide a foundation for creating neurophy-siologic models of normal and disordered voice,ultimately informing our understanding of the effects of surgical,medicinal and/or behavioral interventions in voice-disordered populations. The findings could ultimately provide us with new basic science information regarding the relative benefit of different treatment approaches in the clinical management of neurogenic voice disorders.In addition,the larger significance of this work is related to the fact that voice disorders are currently recognized as the most common cause of communication difficulty across the lifespan,with a lifetime prevalence of almost30%(Roy et al.,2005). Materials and methodsA stimulus-induced voluntary movement paradigm in which trials of different types were presented in subject-specific rando-mized orders was utilized.This method addressed the documented problem of the classic BP paradigm which involves self-paced movements separated by short breaks:the person is already conscious of and preparing for a particular movement and there is a known repetition rate of the movements(Libet et al.,1982,1983). This can lead to automatic movements,which change the presentation of the VRCP.In our procedure,it is not possible for the participant to predict ahead of time which task they have to perform,which allows for a spontaneous movement.The movements were chosen to avoid another methodological confound,between voice,speech and language tasks.Requiring subjects to produce linguistically complex units,such as sounds or words(e.g.Ikeda and Shibasaki,1995;Wohlert and Larson,1991; Wohlert,1993)led to some debate concerning whether BPs for speech might be lateralized to the dominant hemisphere for language.This problem is avoided in the current study,and the problem of movement artifacts involved in speech and speech-like movements such as lip-pursing or vowel-production(Gunji et al., 2000;Wohlert and Larson,1991;Wohlert,1993),in particular of back,tense,rounded vowels(such as the[u]used in Gunji et al's experiments),by utilizing a task which involves voicing only,and has no related speech or language overlay.The actions of breathing out through the nose,and gentle-onset humming of the bilabial nasal [m]without labial pressing,are equivalent actions in terms of involvement of the articulatory tract,the only difference being the initiation of vocal fold movement in the humming condition.By having participants breathe or hum following a period of breath-holding,the possibility of R-wave contamination is also reduced (Deecke et al.,1986).Onset of phonation is established by mea-suring vocal fold closure using electroglottography(EGG),and a telethermometer attached to a trans-nasal temperature probe was used for the earliest possible identification of exhalation onset. Subjects24healthy subjects(21females and3males)with an age range of21–35years of age(mean age=26years)participated in the study.All subjects were informed of the purpose of the study and1314J.Galgano,K.Froud/NeuroImage41(2008)1313–1323gave informed consent to participate,following procedures ap-proved by the local Institutional Review Board.All participants took part in a training phase,which was identical to the experi-mental procedure and served to train participants on the expected response to each screen.Each step of the procedure was discussed and explained as it was occurring,and there was ample opportunity for feedback to be provided to ensure accurate task performance.EEG/ERP experimental set-up and proceduresEEG data acquisitionScalp voltages were collected with a 128channel Geodesic Sensor Net (Tucker,1993)connected to a high-input impedance amplifier (Net Amps200,Electrical Geodesics Inc.,Eugene,OR).Amplified analog voltages (.1–100Hz bandpass)were digitized at 250Hz.Individual sensors were adjusted until impedances were less than 30–50k Ω,and all electrodes were referenced to the vertex (Cz)during recording.The net included channels above and below the eyes,and at the outer canthi,for identification of EOG.The EEG,EOG,stimulus triggered responses,EGG and telethermometer data were acquired simultaneously and later processed offline.Recording of respirationA nasal telethermometer (YSI Model 43single-channel)with a small sensor (YSI Precision 4400Series probe,style 4491A)was placed 2–4cm inside one nostril transnasally and used to measure the temperature of inhaled and exhaled air.Readings from the telethermometer were digitally recorded by interfacing the teletherm-ometer with one outrider channel input to the EEG net amplifier connection,for co-registration of the time course of respiration with the continuous EEG.Recording of voice onsetA Kay Telemetric Computerized Speech Lab,Model 4500(housing a Computerized Speech Lab Main Program Model 6103Electroglottography)with 2electrodes placed bilaterally on the thyroid cartilage,adjacent to the thyroid notch,was used to measurevocal fold closure and opening.The EGG trace was acquired in the Computerized Speech Lab (CSL)proprietary software and co registered offline with EEG and telethermometer recordings,in order to determine error trial locations and confirm onset of vocal fold adduction and controlled exhalation.V oice sounds were also recorded by microphone on a sound track acquired on the CSL computer,sampling at 44.1kHz.A response button box permitted participant regulation of the start of each trial.At each button press,an audible “beep ”was generated by the system which provided an additional point of co-registration between the EGG system and the time of trial onset.In addition,pressing the button permitted the subject to move to the next trial set from a screen that allowed physical adjustment into a more comfortable position if needed in between tasks (to reduce movement artifact).Instructions and experimental taskThe experimental task required subjects to hold their breath for 4s,followed by breathing out or humming through the nose.The action carried out was determined by presentation of a “Go ”screen after the breath-holding interval;the “Go ”screen randomly presented either a “Breathe ”or “Hum ”instruction.To avoid using language-based stimuli in this experiment,the instructions to breath or hum were represented instead by letter symbols:a large 0for breathing,and a large M for humming.There were eighty trials altogether (forty voice and forty breathe).Experimental stimuli were presented using Eprime stimulus presentation software (Psychology Software Tools,Pittsburgh,PA).Subjects were visually monitored via a closed circuit visual surveillance system,to ensure compliance with experimental conditions.Each trial (breathe or hum)was followed by a black screen,which indicated to participants that they could take a break before the next trial,swallow,blink and make themselves comfortable (this was intended to reduce movement artifacts during trials).Participants used button presses to indicate when they were ready to continue on to the next trial (Fig.1).Data analysisRecorded EEG was digitally low-pass filtered at 30Hz.Trials were discarded from analyses if they contained incorrectresponses,Fig.1.The following experimental control module display shows the timeline of stimulus presentation during the experiment.Initially,a red screen instructed the subject to hold their breath with a closed mouth (4s).This was followed by a green screen which displayed either an “M ”or “0”,prompting the subject to hum or breathe out,respectively.Following each trial,a black screen instructed the subjects to make themselves comfortable to minimize movement artifact before moving onto the next trial.When subjects were ready,a button press triggered an audio beep which allowed for co-registration of instrumentation being utilized.1315J.Galgano,K.Froud /NeuroImage 41(2008)1313–1323eye movements (EOG over 70µV),or more than 20%of the channels were bad (average amplitude over 100µV).This resulted in rejection of less than 5%of trials for any individual.EEG was rereferenced offline to the average potential over the scalp (Picton et al.,2000).EEG epochs were segmented from −3000to +500ms from onset of voicing or exhalation,and averaged within subjects.Data were baseline-corrected to a 100ms period from the start of the segment,to provide additional control for drift or other low amplitude artifact.For identification of ERPs and for further statistical analyses,two regions of interest (ROIs)were selected:the Supplementary Motor Area (SMA)ROI,and the Primary Motor Region (M1)ROI.The 7SMA sensors were centered around FCz,where SMA activations have previously been reported (e.g.Deecke et al.,1986).The M1ROI consisted of 25sensors,centered anterior to the central sulcus and located around the 10–20system electrodes F7,F3,Fz,F4,F8,A1,T3,C3,Cz,C4,T4,A2(listed left-to-right,anterior-to-posterior),where Motor-Related Potentials have been previously identified (Jahanshahi et al.,1995).See Fig.2.Statistical analysesData from averaged segments were exported to standard statistical software packages (Microsoft Excel and SPSS),permit-ting further analysis of the ERP data.Repeated measures Analysis of Variance (ANOV A)was used to evaluate interactions and main effects in a 2(Condition:voicing vs.breathing)×2(region:SMA vs.M1)×3(time window:pre-stimulus,stimulus to voice onset,and post-voice onset)comparison.The dependent variable was grand-averaged voltages across relevant sensor arrays,determined following data preprocessing.The ANOV A was followed by planned comparisons,and all statistical analyses employed the Greenhouse –Geisser epsilon as needed to deal with violations of assumptions of sphericity.Point-to-point differences in mean amplitude between the 2conditions (humming vs.breathing)were evaluated for statistical significance,using separate repeated measures t -tests performed on mean amplitude measures within a 4ms sliding analysis window.Bonferroni corrections were employed to control for type 1error arising from multiplecomparisons.Fig.2.This sensor layout displays the 128-channel Geodesic Sensor Net utilized in the current experiment.Legend:Black=SMA montage;Grey=M1montage;Black+Grey=Channels entered into Grand Average.1316J.Galgano,K.Froud /NeuroImage 41(2008)1313–1323VRCP.Time-locking of the segmented EEG to the onset of true vocal fold adduction as recorded from the electroglottograph enabled identification of the standard BP topography,with a peak at the time of the movement onset,followed by a positive reafferent potential.The topography of the VRCP was examined using true vocal fold (TVF)adduction onset obtained from the EGG recording,and is subject-specific.Individual averaged files were placed into group grand-averages.The VRCP was identified in individual averaged data and in group grand-averages,based on the distribution and latency of ponent duration and mean amplitude for each subject(and for grand-averaged data)in each experimental condition were calculated.Three pre-movement components of the VRCP were measured, i.e.early(−1500to−1000ms prior to movement onset),late(about −500ms prior to movement onset),and peak VRCP(coincides with or occurs approximately50ms prior to movement onset)(Deecke et al.,1969,1976,1984;Barret et al.,1986).To determine the onset of each VRCP component,mean amplitude traces from individual and grand-averaged voice trials were examined independently by scientists with BP experience(Jahanshahi et al.,1995;Fuller et al., 1999).The mean latency of the early VRCP(rise of the slope from the baseline),the late VRCP(point of change in slope),and the peak VRCP(most negative point at or prior to vocal fold closure)were measured.The slope of the early VRCP was calculated(in microvolts per second)between the point of onset of the early VRCP and the onset of the late VRCP.The slope of the late component was calculated from the point of onset of the late VRCP to the onset of the peak VRCP.A2(region:SMA vs.M1)×2(time window:early VRCP te VRCP/late VRCP vs.peak VRCP)repeated measures ANOV A,followed up with planned comparisons,was used to examine interactions and main effects.BESA.In order to model the spatiotemporal properties of the VRCP sources,we used Brain Electrical Source Analysis(BESA: Scherg and Berg,1991).Source modeling procedures were applied to the voice produc-tion condition only(not to the exhalation condition).This is because a telethermometer was used to record changes in temperature associated with inhalation and exhalation;however,these associated changes do not reliably correlate with the true onset of exhalation or thyroarytenoid muscle activity associated with exhalation,as evidenced by the wide variety of measures reported in the literature for determination of respiration onset(e.g.Macefield and Gandevia (1991)used EMG measured over scalene and lateral abdominal muscles;Pause et al.(1999)used a thermistor placed at the nostril to determine onset of respiration based on changes to air temperature; Gross et al.(2003)determined onset of respiration to be associated with highest cyclic subglottal pressure;and other methods have also been reported).Source localization approaches are therefore not appropriate for the exhalation condition;consequently,we con-ducted comparisons between potentials associated with exhalation and voice using statistical analyses of differences in amplitude only. Source localization procedures were conducted on the voice pro-duction condition,because in that condition we were able to identify the initiation of voicing,using electroglottography.BESA attempts to separate and image the principal components of the recorded waveform as well as localizing multiple equivalent current dipoles(ECDs).Any equivalent current dipole was fit to the data over a specified time window,and the goodness of fit was expressed as a percentage of the variance.Our procedure for developing the ECD model was closely based on procedures detailed in Gunji et al.(2000),as follows.First,we selected an interval for analyzing the data in terms of a spatiotemporal dipole model.Following Gunji et al.,we selected the interval of−150ms to+100ms,because this interval covered the approximate period from the onset of the instruction screen to preparation to move the vocal folds,through to onset of phonation and the start of auditory feedback.Gunji et al.further recommend a dipole modeling approach limited to this time interval in order to focus on brain activations just before and after vocalization,rather than attempting to model the complex and persistent sources associated with Readiness Potentials.We therefore seeded sources and fit them for orientation and location in the time window from −150ms to0ms(the averaged time of the start of phonation).The time window from0to+100ms was examined separately.Sources seeded in both time windows are described below.ResultsIndividual data were grand-averaged and component identifica-tion was based on distribution,topography,and latency of activations (individual subjects and grand-averaged data).AVRCP was identified in all subjects,maximized over fronto-central electrodes(overlying the SMA).For grand-averaged data,all electrodes overlying the SMA showed a large VRCP in the specified time window(see Fig.3). Voicing vs.Controlled Exhalation ConditionsThe ANOV A revealed that the triple Condition×Region×Time interaction was significant(F(1,124)=2488.463,p b.0001),as were both two-way interactions(Condition×Region,F(1,124)=68.428, p b.0001;Condition×Time,F(1,124)=1808.242,p b.0001; Region×Time,F(1,124)=6651.504,p b.0001).Planned compar-isons revealed that the mean amplitudes of the VRCP were significantly more negative than the BP associated with the controlled exhalation condition,and SMA amplitudes were significantly more negative than M1.The significant interaction between Condition and Region for all subjects was found to be due to the fact that,although SMA sensors were always significantly more negative than M1 sensors(t(1939.233)=26.272,p b.0001),there was a greater difference in the measured negativities in V oice trials compared to Breathe trials(see Fig.4).Further examination of the main effect of Time revealed that,as time progressed,mean amplitudes became significantly more negative(i.e.VRCPs became significantly more negative from the pre-stimulus time window to the time of voice onset and beyond). Investigations of the Condition by Time interaction revealed sig-nificant progressive increases in the measured negativities from early to late time windows for the V oice condition.However, subjects showed a greater degree of negativity in the pre-and post-screen time windows for the breathe condition only(see Fig.5).For the Controlled Exhalation/Breathing Condition,the SMA BPs from stimulus to exhalation were significantly more negative than in the pre-stimulus interval.The M1region,however,showed no significant increase in negativity until the later time windows.In other words,over the SMA sensors the movement-related negativity increased in the period leading to exhalation,as well as later;over the M1sensors,however,readings did not become significantly more negative until after movement.Investigations of the Region×Time interaction for the voicing trials showed a significant increase in the negativity over both the SMA and M11317J.Galgano,K.Froud/NeuroImage41(2008)1313–1323regions between the pre-stimulus interval and the time to voice onset.Mean amplitudes continued to become significantly more negative across time intervals post-voice onset for both regions.This is summarized in Table 1and shown in Fig.5below.To summarize,several significant findings were revealed.The voicing condition was significantly more negative than the exhalation condition,activation over SMA sensors was significantly more negative than over M1sensors,and negativities significantly increased over the three time windows for the voice condition only.VRCP slope changesThe 2×3repeated measures ANOV A examining changes in the VRCP slope (microvolts per second)revealed a significant main effect of time,with the earlier time window being associated with ashallower slope than the later time window in both Regions.No other main effects or interactions were significant.Source localization using BESAUsing BESA,we fit dipoles to the grand-averaged data from 23subjects'responses to the V oice condition.We accepted an ECD model as a good fit when the residual variance dropped to 25%or below (standard for fitting to data from individuals is 10%RV).We began by seeding pairs of dipole sources to the left and right laryngeal motor areas,and in the middle frontal gyri,known to be associated with oro-facial movement planning in humans (Chainay et al.,2004)and the origination of human motor readiness potentials (Pedersen et al.,1998),respectively.A final pair of dipoleswasFig.3.The above waveform demonstrates grand-averages of 24subjects.In the voice condition,a peak negativity of the VRCP (SMA:−10.0086,V;M1:−5.2983,V)was found at bilateral TVF adduction,evidenced by onset movement shown in the Lx (EGG)waveform.A standard BP topography in M1is revealed.The late VRCP in M1shows a steeper slope,positive deflection preceding movement onset,and longer latency when compared to SMA.In the breathe condition,peaks showed longer latencies over both M1and SMA sensors,and reduced amplitude over SMA.Steps in the stimulus presentation/analysis procedure are superimposed:the breath-holding screen starts at −4000ms,and the “Go ”screen (instruction to hum through the nose)appears after 4s of breath-holding and is shown for a further 4s period.Initiation of phonation (recorded by EGG)was established for each individual trial within each subject.The interval between the onset of the “Go ”screen and phonation is where the specific VRCP could be identified.1318J.Galgano,K.Froud /NeuroImage 41(2008)1313–1323。

四大名著ppt课件英文版

Dream of the Red Chamber
CATALOGUE
02
Summary
The Dream of the Red Chamber is a classic Chinese novel that tells the story of the decade of an once powerful noble family in the Qing Dynasty
A strategy and advisor to the alliance, Wu Yong is known for his cutting and wit He is often the brains behind the operations of the outlooks
Song Jiang
The pious and determined master who is on a mission to retrieve Buddhist scripts from the West He is patient and tolerant rewards his decisions
Tang Sanzang
Description
The story revolves around the lives of various characters, their loves, ambitions, and the complex relationships within the Jia family It also explores themes such as love, fate, and social commentary
A mischievous and powerful monkey who has great magical powers He is loyal to his master and helps him overcome many challenges on their journal

世界驰名商标中英文对照

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Introduction1

Chapter 1: IntroductionRegional anaesthesia has increased in popularity in recent years (Clergue et al., 1999). This was prompted by two significant events. Firstly, the realisation that children do feel pain and require pain relief like adults; and secondly, that avoiding general anaesthesia in premature babies may have major advantages.With the increased survival of premature infants in recent years, the number of premature neonates presenting for surgery has increased. These premature neonates present with either chronic or acute defects that urgently need to be corrected. The risk of general anaesthesia is significant in these patients as they are at a greater risk of developing respiratory failure and postoperative apnoea compared to term infants of the same age (Welborn et al., 1986). Recent concerns regarding the deleterious effects of general anaesthesia on the developing brain further justifies the use of regional anaesthesia in this vulnerable age group (Sun et al. 2008).The use of regional anaesthesia therefore may have considerable advantages not only in premature neonates but also in infants, children and adults. The stages of development can be classified as follows: Stage 1: Neonate or newborn (0-30 days), Stage 2: Infant or baby (1 month-1 year), Stage 3: Toddler (1-4 years), Stage 4: Childhood (prepubescence) (4-12 years), Stage 5: Adolescence and puberty (12-20 years), and Stage 6: Adulthood (21 years - death), which can be subdivided into early adulthood (21-39 years), middle adulthood (40-59 years) and advanced adults/senior citizen (older than 60 years) (Jones, 1946).1.1) A brief history of paediatric regional anaesthesiaThe 19th century was a time when fundamental changes were made in the concepts regarding medicine. This is especially true for the speciality of regional anaesthesia. It is also the period regarded as the birth of modern regional anaesthesia (Bonica, 1984; Dalens, 1995). The thought that the heart is the centre for pain reception was discounted and Bell in 1811 andMagendie in 1822 showed that both motor and sensory impulses were relayed by the nerve tracts. By 1840, Muller established that the brain is the centre for perception and received all sensory information, including pain stimuli (Dalens, 1995).August Bier is commonly regarded as the “father of regional anaesthesia” and discovered the “cocainization of the spinal cord”, using a spinal anaesthetic technique (Fortuna & de Oliveira Fortuna, 2000). Since then, the regional anaesthetic techniques of the time included spinal, caudal epidural and supraclavicular brachial plexus blocks. These procedures gained enthusiastic acceptance by the anaesthesiologists of the time (Bainbridge, 1901; Farr, 1920; Campbell, 1933). However, these procedures gradually fell into disuse and almost came to a complete halt after the Second World War. This was mainly due to the development of new anaesthetic agents and improved techniques for general anaesthesia, which were safer and more reliable to use.The nineteen seventies saw a re-emergence of paediatric regional anaesthesia. Studies conducted by Lourey and McDonald (1973), Kay (1974) and Melman et al. (1975) caused a resurgence in the popularity of paediatric regional anaesthesia. The concept that regional and general anaesthesia can be used in a complimentary fashion, rather than being in contention with each other, also gained increasing acceptance (Dalens, 1995).This increase in regional anaesthesia could be attributed to the constant refinement, and/or development of new techniques. Research into newer, safer and better local anaesthetic solutions, as well as the use of continuous infusions through pumps, has offered new ways of providing pre- and post-operative analgesia to patients scheduled for paediatric surgery (Cook et al., 1995). With the above-mentioned advances in the field of anaesthesiology, the need for a strict protocol for administration, with reliable equipment, well-trained and alert personnel, become even more important (Fortuna & de Oliveira Fortuna, 2000).1.2) The importance of clinical anatomy in regional anaesthesiaDespite all the opportunities in medical research today, as well as the advances made in medical technology, the effective performance of clinical procedures still rests on a solid anatomical basis. This is even more important for medical practitioners in developing countries where technology is often lacking and they are dependent on their anatomical knowledge for the successful performance of clinical procedures (AACA, EAC, 1999).The practice of regional nerve blocks relies heavily on a sound knowledge of clinical anatomy (Winnie et al., 1975). This is especially true for anaesthesiologists who perform these blocks on paediatric patients (Bosenberg et al., 2002). Clinical procedures, such as regional nerve blocks, which either fail to achieve their objective or that result in complications, can often be linked to a lack of understanding, or even misunderstanding, of the anatomy relevant to the specific procedure (Ger, 1996; AACA, EAC, 1999).Winnie and co-workers (Winnie et al., 1973) states that no technique could truly be called simple, safe and consistent until the anatomy has been closely examined. This is quite apparent when looking at the literature where many anatomically based studies regarding regional techniques have resulted in the improvement of the technique, as well as the development of safer and more efficient methods. Anaesthesiologists performing these procedures should have a clear understanding of (a) the anatomy, (b) the influence of age and size, and (c) the potential complications and hazards of each procedure to ensure good results (Brown, 1985). Ellis and Feldman (1993) stated that anaesthesiologists required a particularly specialised knowledge of anatomy, which in some cases should even rival that of a surgeon. There is however a distinct lack of studies focusing on the anatomy of a paediatric population and relating it to a clinical setting (van Schoor et al., 2005). The anatomy described for paediatric patients are in most instances, obtained from adults and could be flawed (see Table 3.1 for an example).Performing regional anaesthetic procedures on paediatric patients have some additional complications and problems associated with it. Many anaesthesiologists may not be comfortable with working on a dose/weight basis. Most importantly, many anaesthesiologists not used to working with paediatric patients may lack the knowledge of the relative depths or position of certain key anatomical structures, as it is known that the anatomy of children of different ages may differ to a greater or lesser degree from that of adults (Bosenberg et al., 2002, Brown, 1985, Brown & Schulte-Steinberg, 1988, Katz, 1993). A thorough knowledge of the anatomy in children is therefore essential for successful nerve blocks and it cannot be substituted by probing the patient with a needle attached to a nerve stimulator, while the effective use of ultrasound requires a sound knowledge of the anatomy of the specific region. The anatomy described in adults is not always, and in most instances not applicable, to children of different ages as anatomical landmarks in children vary with growth. Bony landmarks (e.g. the greater trochanter of the femur) are poorly developed in infants prior to weight bearing. Muscular and tendinous landmarks commonly used in adults, tend to lack definition in young children partly because of poorer muscle development (Bosenberg et al., 2002), but also because they require patient cooperation to locate them. Most children are under sedation or general anaesthesia when the nerve block is being performed (Bosenberg et al., 2002, Armitage, 1985). Finally, classical anatomical landmarks may be absent or difficult to define in children with congenital deformities (Bosenberg et al., 2002).1.3) Indications and limitations of paediatric regional anaesthesiaRegional anaesthesia has advantages over general anaesthesia since it covers not only the intra-operative but also the postoperative period. Regional anaesthesia can be used to treat both acute and chronic pain and, in addition, it also provides both sympathetic and motor blockades (Saint-Maurice, 1995). Like all clinical procedures, the indications of regional anaesthetic techniques is based on well-established criteria, such as patient safety, quality of analgesia, duration of surgery, and whether it is a minor ormajor surgical procedure (Melman et al., 1975; Armitage, 1985; Saint-Maurice, 1995, Markakis, 2000, Wilder, 2000).Indications should not be decided by the subjective preferences of the anaesthesiologist or on the basis of mastery of the specific technique (although this is vital when the procedure is actually performed), but solely on whether the technique is required by careful examination of the indications (Saint-Maurice 1995). In order to select the best anaesthetic technique available, the benefits and risks of the regional nerve block should first be weighed against the advantages and disadvantages of all other available techniques of analgesia (Dalens & Mansoor, 1994).1.3.1 General indications of regional anaesthesiaPatients often have certain medical conditions, where the use of regional nerve blocks would be an advantage, these include:1.3.1.1 Disorders of the respiratory tractThe presence of respiratory diseases is in most cases (except the interscalene block, which has a high incidence of blocking the phrenic nerve) an indication for the use of regional anaesthesia. A regional nerve block can safely be performed on paediatric patients with respiratory distress, provided that the needle insertion, as well as the surgical site, is easily accessible. In certain cases, regional anaesthesia can be performed under mild general anaesthesia, after the patient has been intubated. In these situations, peripheral nerve blocks may be more preferable than central blocks. The advantages of combining both regional and general anaesthesia include reducing the requirements for intravenous and inhalational agents, thereby decreasing the risk of complications and also decreasing the recovery time. The patient should be extubated only when fully conscious and with the effect of anaesthetic inhalant worn off. This will allow the anaesthesiologist to effectively avoid aspiration (Saint-Maurice, 1995).1.3.1.2 Disorders of the central nervous systemThis is often considered to be a contraindication for performing regional nerve blocks. It is however more likely that an anaesthesiologist would refrain from performing regional nerve blocks on these patients more from the fact that there is a concern that the regional nerve block might worsen the disease state. The only true contraindications for performing regional nerve blocks on these patients are mechanical (neuropathy) and infectious conditions (infections in the vicinity of the block). Nevertheless, all children with disorders of the central nervous system should undergo careful evaluation before performing any regional nerve block on them. A neurologist should preferably do the evaluation and, as always, the risk versus benefit ratio should be carefully examined. (Saint-Maurice 1995)myastheniaand1.3.1.3 MyopathyRegional anaesthesia is especially indicated for patients with muscular dystrophy because it avoids the complications associated with general anaesthesia, particularly malignant hyperthermia. Unfortunately, due to the various anatomical deformities often found in these patients, certain regional nerve blocks might be more difficult to perform (Saint-Maurice 1995).1.3.2 General contraindications or limitations of regional anaesthesiaRegional anaesthesia has a very important place in children. Like any technique, it has its distinct advantages and specific indications. However, it also has limitations, disadvantages and contraindications that should be taken into account when performing regional blocks. Although contraindications are block dependant and should be known before attempting any regional nerveblock, general contraindications for regional anaesthesia include:1.3.2.1 Patient refusalPatient refusal is an absolute contraindication to regional anaesthesia. Appropriate information should be given to the patient regarding the technique, its advantages, disadvantages and potential complications. Informed consent must be obtained (Eledjam et al., 200).1.3.2.2 Local infections at the needle insertion siteSkin infections at the needle insertion site are an absolute contraindication to regional anaesthesia(Ecoffey & McIlvaine, 1991). This is also true for inflammation of the lymph nodes near the site of needle insertion.1.3.2.3 Septicaemia(presence of pathogens in the blood)1.3.2.4 Coagulation disordersCoagulation disorders, as well as patients who are undergoing antithrombotic or anticoagulant treatment are contraindications to a regional block because of the potential risk of haematoma formation (Dalens, 1995; Ecoffey & McIlvaine, 1991). Most of the complications have been described with epidural anaesthesia due to multiple traumatic vascular punctures and needle placement difficulties (Dalens, 1995).involving the peripheral nerves 1.3.2.5 Neurologicaldiseases(neuropathy)Although neuropathy (due to neurological or metabolic diseases) is not an absolute contraindication to perform a regional block, a clear benefit over general anaesthesia should be made (Ecoffey & McIlvaine, 1991).1.3.2.6 Allergy to the local anaesthetic solutionLess then 1% of all adverse reactions to local anaesthetics are due to patient allergy to the solution (Ramamurthi & Krane, 2007). Ester-linked local anaesthetics which are metabolized to para-amino benzoic acid (PABA) are far more likely to be associated with allergic reactions compared to amide local anaesthetics. Allergic reactions with amide local anaesthetics have yet to be reported in medical literature, although preservatives like methylparaben, present in many commercial preparations of amide local anaesthetics, are responsible for occasional allergic reactions (Naguib et al., 1998). Ester local anaesthetic allergies are true anaphylactic IgE-mediated allergies and not anaphylactoid reactions more commonly associated with other drugs used in the practice of anaesthesia (Ramamurthi & Krane, 2007).1.3.2.7 Lack of trainingAdequate skills regarding a specific technique are essential for a successful procedure to avoid complications and malpractice claims. Skills and expertise are key points to success in regional anaesthesia (Eledjam et al., 2000).1.4) Equipment used for paediatric regional anaesthesiaThe importance of selecting the appropriate devices and have them readily available when performing a regional block in children has long been underestimated and virtually all types of needles have been used for almost all types of block procedures (Dalens, 1999). Specifically designed needles and catheters are currently available for paediatric regional anaesthesia and it is now well established that a significant proportion of complications are directly related to the use of the wrong device (Giaufre et al., 1996). The importance of the correct equipment for a successful block was further confirmed in a survey of South African paediatric anaesthesia (van Schoor, 2004).Dalens (1999) stated that in addition to skin preparation solutions and sterile drapes to protect the site of puncture from bacterial contamination, the materials required to perform local or regional anaesthesia are rather simple but, nevertheless, specific. Sterile needles specifically designed to perform the relevant technique have to be used in children. He summarised the relevant equipment in a table (see Appendix A).An intravenous cannula should always be inserted in either the upper or lower limb in case of local anaesthetic toxicity caused by an accidental intravenous injection, or profound sympathetic blockade from a high epidural block. Light general anaesthesia is normally given to the paediatric patient. The procedure must be carried out with a strict aseptic technique. The skin should be thoroughly prepared and sterile gloves must be worn as infection in the caudal space is extremely serious (Jankovic & Wells, 2001).1.5) Imaging techniques used to aid in regional anaesthesia1.5.1 Nerve stimulators and regional anaesthesiaThe idea of stimulating a motor nerve in order to determine the ideal injection site for regional anaesthesia was first suggested by Von Perthes in 1912. Although, only within the past twenty years, have peripheral nerve stimulators (see Figure 1.1) become popular as clinical and teaching tools in regional anaesthesia practice (Visan et al., 2002). Nerve stimulators enable confirmation of the correct needle placement without inducing paraesthesia (Vloka et al., 1999) and, in turn, allow anaesthesiologists to perform the block in sedated or anaesthetised patients (Brown, 1993).Figure 1.1: Some commercially available peripheral nerve stimulators(Vloka et al., 1999).Since Pither et al. (1985) made recommendations on the use of nerve stimulators in regional anaesthesia; there has been an explosion of new and varied nerve stimulators available on the market. Although the advances in the technology surrounding nerve stimulators have made their use to localise the desired nerve(s) much easier, the wide variety of functions and features can be confusing for first-time users. This could in turn leave anaesthesiologists with an insufficient understanding of the basic principles behind nerve stimulation.principles of nerve stimulation1.5.1.1 BasicNerve stimulation techniques rely on the elicitation of appropriate motor responses to electrical current to confirm the proximity of the needle or catheter to the target nerve structure. Typically, nerve stimulation involves application of electrical current once the needle/catheter has penetrated the subcutaneous tissue, although surface mapping by transcutaneous electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves in children has been described (Bosenberg et al., 2002).The relationship between the strength and duration of the current and the polarity of the stimulus is of particular importance to nerve stimulation (Pither et al., 1985). To propagate a nerve impulse, a certain threshold level ofstimulus must be applied to the nerve. Below this threshold, no impulse ispropagated. Any increase of the stimulus above this threshold results in a corresponding increase in the intensity of the impulse (Tsui, 2007).It is also possible to estimate needle-to-nerve distance by using a stimulus of known intensity and pulse duration. A clear motor response achieved at 0.2 to 0.5 mA indicates an appropriate needle-to-nerve relationship. The tip of the needle is therefore close enough to the desired nerve to cause an effective block if the anaesthetic solution is administered. Nerve stimulation at <0.1 mA may indicate intraneural placement of the needle. This should be avoided as it may lead to nerve injury if the local anaesthetic is injected (Visan et al., 2002).Another important aspect to remember is that the cathode can be up to four times more effective at nerve depolarization than the anode, and thus it is the preferred stimulating electrode. Some problems may arise when nerve stimulators are not made to connect properly for other manufacturers’ stimulating needles and an adapter would therefore be required. It is best to use similarly manufactured stimulators and needles if possible (Tsui, 2007).A surface electrode is required to complete the electrical circuit and the optimal position to place the electrode on the patient’s body during peripheral nerve blocks is controversial (Tsui, 2007). According to Hadzic and co-workers (2004), this is less critical than was previously thought due to the introduction of constant-current nerve stimulators.features of nerve stimulators1.5.1.2 EssentialAccording to Visan et al. (2002), the essential features of the nerve stimulator include:•Constant current output: This assures automatic compensation for changes in tissue or connection impedance during nerve stimulation, inturn, assuring accurate delivery of the specified.•Current display: The ability to read the current being delivered is of utmost importance because the current intensity at which the nerve is stimulated gives the operator an approximation of the needle-to-nerve distance.•Current intensity control: Current can be controlled using either digital means or an analogue dial. Alternatively, current intensity can be controlled using a remote controller, such as a foot pedal, which allowsa single operator to perform the procedure and control the currentoutput (Hadzig & Vloka, 1996)•Short pulse width: Many peripheral nerve stimulators lack the ability for the user to control pulse width.•Stimulating frequency: Nerve stimulators with a 1 Hertz (Hz) stimulation frequency (1 pulse per second) are the norm. A model with a 2 Hz stimulation frequency may prove to be more clinically advantageous because it allows faster manipulation of the needle.•Malfunction indicator: This is a necessary feature because the operator should know when the stimulus is not being delivered because of malfunctions such as poor electrical connection and/or battery failure.A study conducted by Bosenberg (1995) revealed that a relatively cheap, unsheathed needle could be successfully used to locate peripheral nerves with the aid of a nerve stimulator in anaesthetised children. Although a slightly larger current is required to produce a motor response when compared to sheathed needles, a success rate of greater than 98% underlines its value as a cost-effective teaching tool, and the ease with which a technique can be mastered when using a nerve stimulator.Surface nerve mapping or transdermal nerve stimulation is a modification of the standard nerve stimulator technique and can be used to trace the path of a nerve prior to skin penetration. Surface nerve mapping could prove to be most useful in paediatric patients since anatomical landmarks are less precisely defined (Bosenberg et al., 2002), and paediatric patients are at the greatest risk for complications of regional anaesthesia.(Giaufre et al.,1996) Nerve mapping offers a further dimension for localisation of superficial peripheral nerves prior to skin penetration in both infants and children (Bosenberg et al.,2002).For locating superficial nerves, in patients of normal weight or paediatric patients, a special device can be used together with the nerve stimulator to trigger a transdermal response from the target muscle. The pulse duration of the device is set to 1 millisecond (ms) and the current range to 5 mA. In this way, it is possible to get a better fix on the puncture site or even correct the puncture direction. This also serves as an invaluable training tool for anaesthesiologists. Not only can the correct stimulus response be demonstrated but needle localisation and direction can be practiced before the needle is inserted (, 2009)Bosenberg and co-workers (2002) stated that peripheral nerve stimulation should not be a substitute for sound anatomical knowledge and careful technique. In a study, they did however show that using a nerve stimulator does provide a greater degree of reliability and accuracy in finding the correct needle insertion site, compared to using only anatomical landmarks or paraesthesias to perform nerve blocks. It is also a safer technique for attaining close proximity to the actual nerve.A combination of using a nerve stimulator/surface nerve mapping device and anatomical landmarks seem to be the best method for accurate, safe and successful blockade (Bosenberg, 1995).1.5.2 Ultrasound guidance and regional anaesthesia1.5.2.1 Advantages of ultrasound guidance during regional anaesthesiaThe use of ultrasound guided techniques for performing regional anaesthesia has greatly increased within the past decade. Recent studies show that ultrasound guided nerve blocks may have many advantages over traditional techniques. These studies reported less vascular puncture, highersuccess rates, and a reduced dose of local anaesthetic required in order to obtain a successful block (Marhofer et al., 2004; Sandhu et al., 2004; Bigeleisen, 2007).1.5.2.2 Basic principles of ultrasoundUltrasound machines can typically deliver sound waves of 2–15 MHz. Characteristically, the higher the frequency, the less the penetration depth but the better the resolution and vice versa. In the paediatric population, a high frequency linear probe is usually sufficient as the anatomy is much smaller and most structures being blocked are reasonably superficial. Sound waves propagate through the body and the amplitude of the reflected signals is based on different acoustic impedance of human tissue and fluids. Signals of least intensity appear dark (hypoechoic) or black as with body fluids, while signals of greatest intensity appear white (hyperechoic) as with bones and with intermediate intensities appearing as shades of gray. A common artefact is anisotropy, which is caused by an incidence angle of less than 90o between the probe and the structure being imaged. This results in poor or no reflection of the ultrasound beam from the tissue and, consequently, an inability to visualise it. The ultrasound beam must be oriented perpendicularly on the nerve axis to be able to visualise it (Marhofer et al. 2005; Brain et al., 2007).regional anaesthesia:1.5.2.3 UltrasoundguidedThe success of ultrasound guided nerve blocks relies on several aspects (Perlas & Chan, 2008):•Quality of image: This depends on the quality of the ultrasound machine and transducers, proper transducer selection (e.g., frequency) for each nerve location, sonographic anatomy knowledge pertinent to the block, and good hand-eye coordination to track needle movementduring advancement.•Patient position and technique: Optimal patient positioning and sterile technique is essential. This is particularly important for the continuouscatheter technique when it is necessary to use sterile conducting geland a sterile plastic sheath to fully cover the entire transducer.•Nerve stimulation: Nerve localisation by ultrasound can be combined with nerve stimulation. Both tools are valuable and complementary andnot mutually exclusive. Ultrasonography provides anatomical information, while a motor response to nerve stimulation provides functional information about the nerve in question.•Spread of anaesthetic solution: Ultrasound allows the anaesthesiologist to observe the spread of the local anaesthetic solution as well as real-time visual guidance to navigate the needle toward the target nerve.Two approaches are generally available to block peripheral nerves. The first approach aims to align and move the block needle inline with the long axis of the ultrasound transducer, so that the needle stays within the path of the ultrasound beam (see Figure 1.2a). In this manner, the needle shaft and tip can be clearly visualized. This approach is preferred when it is important to track the needle tip at all times (e.g., during a supraclavicular block to minimize inadvertent pleural puncture). The second approach places the needle perpendicular to the probe (see Figure 1.2b). In this case, the ultrasound image captures a transverse view of the needle, which is visible as a hyperechoic "dot" on the screen. Accurate moment-to-moment tracking of the needle tip location can be difficult, and needle tip position is often inferred indirectly by tissue movement. This approach is particularly useful for continuous catheter placement along the long axis of the nerve.。