曼昆《经济学原理(宏观)》期末复习资料
曼昆《经济学原理(宏观经济学分册)》课后习题详解(开放经济的宏观经济理论)
第32章开放经济的宏观经济理论一、概念题1．贸易政策（trade policy）答：贸易政策指直接影响一国进口或出口物品与劳务量的政府政策。
一国的对外贸易政策，是一国政府为实现一定的政策目标在一定时期内对本国进出口贸易所实行的政策，它是为国家最高利益服务的，是统治阶级意志的集中反映。
它包括：对外贸易总政策、国别对外贸易政策、进出口商品政策。
一个国家的对外贸易政策是这个国家的经济政策和对外政策的重要组成部分，它随着世界政治、经济形势的变化，国际政治、经济关系的发展而改变，同时它也反映各国经济发展的不同水平，反映各国在世界市场上的力量和地位，另外它还受到一国内部不同利益集团的影响。
一国的对外贸易政策有两种基本类型：自由贸易政策和保护贸易政策。
2．资本外逃（capital flight）答：资本外逃指出于安全或保值方面的考虑，短期资本持有者迅速将其从一国转移到另一国的行为或过程。
引起资本外逃的具体原因有三种：①一国政局动荡不稳，资本外逃以求安全。
②一国国内经济情况日益恶化，国际收支持续逆差，其货币可能发生贬值，资本逃至币值稳定的国家以期保值。
③一国加强外汇管制或颁布新法，使资本使用受到限制或资本收益减少，资本外逃以免遭受损失。
在本世纪发生的两次世界大战和20世纪30年代经济大萧条时期，欧美等国家曾出现过大规模的资本外逃现象。
近年来，发生大量资本外逃的主要是发展中国家，主要是因为这些国家的国内经济形势严峻，债务负担沉重，国际收支状况不断恶化以及国内政局动荡。
资本外逃对于一国的经济发展和国际收支稳定有着十分不利的影响。
它将降低该国的国内储蓄水平，从而造成投资下降和生产萎缩；它将加剧国际收支逆差，从而引起外汇储备的减少和国际清偿能力的恶化；大量资本外逃时，如果一国试图维持一定的生产和消费水平，势必引起外债负担的迅速积累。
因此，防止资本外逃是一国宏观经济政策的一项重要任务。
二、复习题1．说明可贷资金市场与外汇市场的供给与需求。
曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理.
1Q4Why should policy makers think about incentives?Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to the policies they put in place. The text's example of seat belts shows that policy actions can have quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a very different type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knivesin steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives.Q6what does the invisible hand of the marketplace do?The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and firms are all acting intheir own self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole.2Q1How is economics like a science?Economics is like a science because economists use the scientific method. They devise theories, collect data, and then analyze these data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories about how the world works. Economists use theory and observation like other scientists, but they are limited in their ability to run controlled experiments. Instead, they must rely on natural experiments.Q5 Use a production possibilities frontier to describe the idea of“efficiency”?The idea of efficiency is that an outcome is efficient if the economy is getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available. In terms of the production possibilities frontier, an efficient point is a point on the frontier, such as point A in Figure 4. A point inside the frontier, such as point B, is inefficient since more of one good could be produced without reducing the production of another good.Q7What is the difference between a positive and a normative statement? Give an example of that.Positive statements are descriptive and make a claim about how the world is, while normative statements are prescriptiveand make a claim about how the world ought to be. Here is an example.Positive: A rapid growth rate of money is the cause of inflation. Normative:The government should keep the growth rate of money low.3Q1 Explain how absolute advantage and comparative advantage differ.Absolute advantage reflects a comparison of the productivity of one person, firm, or nation to that of another, while comparative advantage is based on the relative opportunity costs of the persons, firms, or nations. While a person, firm, or nation may have an absolute advantage in producing every good, they can't have a comparative advantage in every good.Q4Will a nation tend to export or import goods to Question2.A nation will export goods for which it has a comparative advantage because it has a smaller opportunity cost of producing those goods. As a result, citizens of all nations are able to consume quantities of goods that are outside their production possibilities frontiers.4Q5Propeye’s income declines, and as a result, he buys more spinach. Is spinach an inferior or a normal goods? What happens to Popeye’s demand curve for spinach?Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him.Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the decrease in his income.Q8 Dose a change in producers’technology lead to a movement along the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the supply curve or a shift in the supply curve?A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads to a movement along the supply curve.Q9 Define the equilibrium of a market. Describe the forces that move a market towards its equilibrium.The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied.If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below theequilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage.Sellers can raise their price without losing customers.That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.Q11 Describe the role of prices in market economies.Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If the price is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leadssuppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.5Q2 List and explain the four determinants of the price elasticity of demand discussed in the chapter.The determinants of the price elasticity of demand include how available close substitutes are, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, how broadly defined the market is, and the time horizon. Luxury goods have greater price elastic ties than necessities, goods with close substitutes have greater elastic ties, goods in more narrowly defined markets have greater elastic ties, and the elasticity of demand is higher the longer the time horizon.Q4 On a supply-and-demand diagram, show equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers.Figure 1 presents a supply-and-demand diagram, showing equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers. Total revenue equals the equilibrium price times the equilibrium quantity, which is the area of the rectangle shown in the figure.Figure 16Q2Which causes a shortage of a good—a price ceiling or a price floor? Which causes a surplus?A shortage of a good arises when there is a binding price ceiling. A surplus of a good arises when there is a binding price floor.Q6How does a tax on a good affect the price paid by buyers, and the quantity sold?A tax on a good raises the price buyers pay, lowers the price sellers receive, and reduces the quantity sold.Q7What determines how the burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers? Why?The burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers depending on the elasticity of demand and supply. Elasticity represents the willingness of buyers or sellers to leave the market, which in turns depends on their alternatives. When a good is taxed, the side of the market with fewer good alternatives cannot easily leave the market and thus bears moreof the burden of the tax.7Q1Explain how buyer’s willingness to pay, consumer’surplus, and the demand curve are related.Buyers' willingness to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and aboveQ2 Explain how seller’s costs, producer’s surplus, and the supply curve are related.Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related.The height of the supply curve represents thecosts of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price minus each sellers' costs.Figure 413Q2 Give an example of an opportunity cost that accountant might not count as a cost. Why would the accountant ignore the cost?An accountant would not count the owner ’ opportunityscost of alternative employment as an accounting cost. Anexample is given in the text in which Helen runs a cookie business, but she could instead work as a computer programmer.Because she's working in her cookie factory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour as a computer programmer. The accountant ignores this opportunity cost because no money flow occurs. But the cost is relevant to Helen's decision to run the cookie factory.Q3What is marginal product, and what does it means if it is diminishing? Marginal product is the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input.Diminishing marginal productmeans that the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.Q8Defind economies of scale and explain why they might arise. Define diseconomies of scale and explain why then might arise.Economies of scale exist when long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies of scale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of coordination problems inherent in a large organization.14Q2Draw the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price, explain how the firm chooses the level of output thatmaximizes profit. Figure 2 shows the cost curves for a typical firm.For a given price (such as P * ), the level of output thatmaximizes profit is the output where marginal cost equals price ( *Q ), as long as price is greater than average variable costat that point (in the short run), or greater than average total cost (in the long run).Figure 2Q6 Does a firm ’s price equal marginal cost in the short run, in the long run, or both? Explain.The firm's price equals the minimum of average total cost only in the long run. In the short run, price may be greaterthan average total cost, in which case the firm is making profits, or price may be less than average total cost, in which casethe industry, which will lower the price of the good. If firms are making losses, they will exit the industry, which will raise the price of the good. Entry or exit continues until firms are making neither profits nor losses. At that point, priceequals average total cost.15Q3Why is monopolist’s marginal revenue less than the price of its goods? Can marginal revenue be negative? Explain.A monopolist's marginal revenue is less than the price of its product because:(1) its demand curve is the market demand curve, so (2) to increase the amount sold, the monopolist must lower the price of its good for every unit it sells. (3) Thiscut in prices reduces revenue on the units it was already selling.A monopolist's marginal revenue can be negative because to get purchasers to buy an additional unit of the good, the firm must reduce its price on all units of the good. The fact that it sells a greater quantity increases revenue, but the decline inprice decreases revenue. The overall effect depends on the elasticity of the demand curve. If the demand curve inelastic, marginal revenue will be negative.isQ4 Draw the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curve for a monopolist. Show the profit-maximizing level of output. Show the profit-maximizing price.Figure 1 shows the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curves for a monopolist. marginal-revenue and marginal-cost curves determines the profit-maximizing level of output, then shows the profit-maximizing price, P m.The intersection of the Q m . The demand curveFigure 116Q1If a group of sellers could form a cartel, what quantity and price would they try to set?If a group of sellers could form a cartel, they would try to set quantity and price like a monopolist. They would set quantity at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and set price at the corresponding point on the demand curve.Q5What is the prisoners’dilemma and what does it have to do with oligopoly?The prisoners' dilemma is a game between two people or firms that illustrates why it is difficult for opponents to cooperate even when cooperation would make them all better off. Each person or firm has a great incentive to cheat on any cooperative agreement to make himself or itself better off.17Q2 Draw a diagram of the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. How is price related to average total cost? How is price related to marginal cost?In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1 and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is making profits because at quantity Q1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC). Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causing the demand curve to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR 2. The result is a decline in quantity to Q2, atwhich point the price ( P2) equals average total cost ( ATC), so profits are now zero.Figure 223Q1 Explain why an economy’s income must equal its expenditure.An economy's income must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyer and a seller.Thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers.24Q2 Describe the three problems that make the consumer price index an imperfect measure of the cost of living.The three problems in the consumer price index as a measure of the cost of living are:(1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive; (2) the introduction of new goods,which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.25Q2List and describe four determinants of productivity.The four determinants of productivity are:(1) physical capital, which is the stock of equipment and structures that areused to produce goods and services; (2) human capital, which consists of the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided by nature; and (4) technological knowledge, which is society derstanding of ’thes bestun ways to produce goods and services.Questions are chosen from problems and applications.Chapter 1: Q9By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores more quickly. If you divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than itwould take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores.Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers.Then Spain and France can both benefit if Spanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine, and they exchange some wine for some clothes.Chapter 2: Q2a. Figure 6 shows a production possibilities frontier between guns and butter.It is bowed out because when most of the economy’ s resources are being usedto produce butter, the frontier is steep and when most of the economyare being used to produce guns, the frontier is very flat.When the economy is producing a lot of guns, workers and machines best suited to making butter are being used to make guns, so each unit of guns given up yields a large increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is flat. When the economy is producing a lot of butter, workers and machines best suited to making guns are being used to make butter, so each unit of guns given upyields a small increase in the production of butter.Thus, the production possibilities frontier is steep.b. Point A is impossible for the economy to achieve; it is outside the production possibilities frontier.Point B is feasible but inefficient because it’ s inside the production possibilities frontier.Figure 6c. The Hawks might choose a point like H, with many guns and not much butter.The Doves might choose a point like D, with a lot of butter and few guns.d.If both Hawks and Doves reduced their desired quantity of guns by the same amount, the Hawks would get abigger peace dividend because the production possibilities frontier is much steeper at point H than at point D. As a result, the reduction of a given number of guns, starting at point H, leads to a much larger increase in the quantity of butter produced than when starting at point D.Chapter 3: Q4a.Since a Canadian worker can make either two cars a year or 30 bushels of wheat, the opportunity cost of a car is 15bushels of wheat. Similarly, the opportunity cost of a bushel of wheat is 1 /15 of a car. The opportunity costs are the reciprocals of each other.b.See Figure 4. If all 10 million workers produce two cars each, they produce a total of 20 million cars, which is the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier.If all 10 million workers produce 30 bushels of wheat each, they produce a total of 300 million bushels, which is the horizontal intercept of the production possibilities frontier.Since the tradeoff between cars and wheat is always the same, the production possibilities frontier is a straight line.If Canada chooses to consume 10 million cars, it will need 5 million workers devoted to car production.That leaves 5 million workers to produce wheat, who will produce a total of 150 million bushels (5 million workers times 30 bushelsper worker). This is shown as point A on Figure 4.c.If the United States buys 10 million cars from Canada and Canada continues to consume 10 million cars, then Canadawill need to produce a total of 20 million cars. So Canada will be producing at the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. But if Canada gets 20 bushels of wheat per car, it will be able to consume 200 million bushels of wheat, along with the 10 million cars. This is shown as point B in the figure. Canada should accept the deal because it gets thesame number of cars and 50 million more bushes of wheat.Figure 4Chapter 4: Q1a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. This can be seen in Figure 6 as a shift to the left in the supply curve for oranges. The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.b.People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so demand for Caribbean hotelrooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer people travel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are morepleasant. The result, as shown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of Caribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figure shows.Figure 6a Figure 7bc. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected.Since much oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8.The result is a rise in the equilibrium price of gasoline.With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating a gas-guzzling automobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will notfind Cadillacs as attractive.In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them.The result is that the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 9.The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.Figure 8c Figure 9cChapter 5: Q2a. For business travelers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(2,000 -1,900)/1,950]/[(250 - 200)/225] = 0.05/0.22 = 0.23. For vacationers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(800 - 600)/700] / [(250 - 200)/ 225] = 0.29/ 0.22 = 1.32.b.The price elasticity of demand for vacationers is higher than the elasticity for business travelers because vacationerscan choose more easily a different mode of transportation (like driving or taking the train). Business travelers are less likely to do so since time is more important to them and their schedules are less adaptable.Chapter 6: Q2a. The imposition of a binding price floor in the cheese market is shown in Figure 3. In the absence of the price floor, the price would be P1 and the quantity would be Q1. With the floor set at P f , which is greater than P1, the quantity demanded is Q2, while quantity supplied is Q3 , so there is a surplus of cheese in the amount Q3–Q2 .b.The farmers ’ complaint that their total revenue has declined is correct if demand is elastic. With elastic demand, the percentage decline in quantity would exceed the percentage rise in price, so total revenue would decline.c.If the government purchases all the surplus cheese at the price floor, producers benefit and taxpayers lose. Producers would produce quantity Q3 of cheese, and their total revenue would increase substantially. But consumerswould buy only quantity Q2 of cheese, so they are in the same position as before. Taxpayers lose because they would be financing the purchase of the surplus cheese through higher taxes.曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理.Figure 3aChapter 7: Q8a.The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, asshown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases.The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amountB +C+D.Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below theprice). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G.So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G–B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the pricereduces producer surplus. Since consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G –B, total surplusrises by C + D + F + G.Figure 14A Figure 15bb.Since adding machines are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that peoplesubstitute computers for adding machines, shifting the demand for adding machines to the left, as shown in Figure 15.The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of adding machines.Consumer surplus inthe adding-machine market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C–B.Producer surplus changes from areaC +D +E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Adding machine producers are sad about technological advance in computersbecause their producer surplus declines.c.Since software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The resultis an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B,a net change of A –C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C+D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’ s richest men, since his company prod software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理.Figure 16Chapter 13: Q4a.The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:Hours Fish Fixed Cost Variable Cost Total Cost Marginal Product0 $10 $0 $10 ---1 10 10 5 15 102 18 10 10 20 83 24 10 15 25 64 28 10 20 30 45 30 10 25 25 2b.Figure 7 graphs the fisherman's production function. The production function becomes flatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginal product.Figure 7b Figure 8cc.The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing.Figure 8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It slopes up because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish. Chapter 14: Q9a. Figure 9 illustrates the situation in the U.S. textile industry. With no international trade, the market is in long-run equilibrium. Supply intersects demand at quantity Q1 and price $30, with a typical firm producing output q1.Figure 9b.The effect of imports at $25 is that the market supply curve follows the old supply curve up to a price of $25, then becomes horizontal at that price. As a result, demand exceeds domestic supply, so the country imports textiles from other countries.The typical domestic firm now reduces its output from q 1 to q 2, incurring losses, since the large fixed costs imply that average total cost will be much higher than the price.c. In the long run, domestic firms will be unable to compete with foreign firms because their costs are too high.All the domestic firms will exit the industry and other countries will supply enough to satisfy the entire domestic demand.Chapter 15: Q4a.Figure 5 illustrates the market for groceries when there are many competing supermarkets with constant marginalcost. Output is Q C, price is P C, consumer surplus is area A, producer surplus is zero, and total surplus is area A.Figure 5a Figure 6b b. If the supermarkets merge, Figure 6 illustrates the new situation. Quantity declines from Q C to Q M and price rises to P M . Area A in Figure 5 is equal to area B + C + D + E + F in Figure 6. Consumer surplus is now area B + C, producersurplus is area D + E, and total surplus is area B + C + D + E. Consumers transfer the amount of area D + E to producersand the deadweight loss is area F.Chapter 16: Q2a.OPEC members were trying to reach an agreement to cut production so they could raise the price.b.They were unable to agree on cutting production because each country has an incentive to cheat on any agreement. The turmoil is a decline in the price of oil because of increased production.c.OPEC would like Norway and Britain to join their cartel so they could act like a monopoly.Chapter 23: Q1a.Consumption increases because a refrigerator is a good purchased by a household.Investment increases because a house is an investment good.Consumption increases because a car is a good purchased by a household, but investment decreases because the carin Ford ’ s inventory had been counted as an investment good until it was sold.Consumption increases because pizza is a good purchased by a household.Government purchases increase because the government spent money to provide a good to the public.Consumption increases because the bottle is a good purchased by a household, but net exports decrease because the bottle was imported.Investment increases because new structures and equipment were built.Chapter 24: Q4a.Since the increase in cost was considered a quality improvement, there was no increase registered in the CPI.b.The argument in favor of this is that consumers are getting a better good than before, so the price increase equals theimprovement in quality. The problem is that the increased cost might exceed the value of the improvement in air quality, so consumers are worse off. In this case, it would be better for the CPI to at least partially reflect the higher cost.Chapter 25: Q4The opportunity cost of investing in capital is the loss of consumption that results from redirecting resources towards investment. Over-investment in capital is possible because of diminishing marginal returns. A country can "over-invest" in capital if people would prefer to have higher consumption spending and less future growth. The opportunity cost of investing in human capital is also the loss of consumption that is needed to provide the resources for investment. A country could "over-invest" in human capital if people were too highly educated for the jobs they could get for example, if the best job a Ph.D. in philosophy could find is managing a restaurant.。
曼昆《经济学原理》复习资料
《经济学原理》期末复习提纲一、题型名词辨析（4分×5=20分）选择题（1分×20=20分）判断题（2分×10=20分）计算题（10分×2=20分）论述题（10分×2=20分）二、知识点第1章•理解稀缺性、经济学、机会成本、边际、激励以及市场失灵、外部性和通货膨胀等术语的含义稀缺性：社会资源的有限性。
社会拥有的资源是有限的，所以不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与劳务。
经济学：研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源经济学家研究：人们如何作出决策；人们如何与他人相互交易；影响整体经济的力量和趋势机会成本：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西边际变动：对行动变化微小的增量调整市场失灵：市场本身不能有效配置资源的情况外部性：一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响通货膨胀：物价总水平的上升•熟悉经济学的十大原理1、人们面对权衡取舍，有所得必有所失，要兼顾公平与效率。
2、所得的成本就是放弃的东西，真正的成本不是会计成本，而是机会成本。
3、增量大小的比较决定选择，边际分析是经济学分析的关键。
4、人们根据刺激做出决策，并随刺激的变化而进行调整。
5、交换可以使有关各方都得到好处。
6、市场可以最大限度地提高经济效率。
7、政府可以弥补市场的局限，如市场失灵、外部性和垄断等。
8、一国生产能力的大小决定国民生活水平的高低。
9、货币发行过多可能造成通货膨胀。
10、短期中，失业和通胀之间有替代关系。
•领会“天下没有免费的午餐”这句话的含义做出决策要求我们在一个目标与另一个目标之间权衡取舍。
（大炮vs黄油；环境vs收益；效率vs公平）第2章•理解循环流向图与生产可能性边界这两个模型的内容循环流向图：说明货币如何通过市场在家庭与企业之间流动的直观经济模型 p21生产可能性边界：表示一个经济在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产量的各种组合的图形。
表明了社会所面临的一种权衡取舍，但随着时间的推移，可以改变。
曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册...
曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册...第32章开放经济的宏观经济理论32.1复习笔记1．开放经济的宏观经济模型的两个假设（1）经济的GDP是既定的，⽤真实GDP衡量的⼀个经济物品与劳务的产量是由⽣产要素供给和所得到的投⼊变为产出的⽣产技术决定的。
（2）经济物价⽔平是既定的，物价⽔平的调整使货币的供求平衡。
2．开放经济的可贷资⾦市场开放经济的可贷资⾦市场中，可贷资⾦的供给来⾃国民储蓄（S），可贷资⾦的需求来⾃国内投资（I）和资本净流出（NCO）。
由于资本净流出既可以是正的，也可以是负的，所以它既可以增加，也可以减少由国内投资引起的可贷资⾦需求。
可贷资⾦的供给量和需求量取决于真实利率。
真实利率对国民储蓄和国内投资和资本净流出均有影响。
利率调整使可贷资⾦的供给与需求平衡。
在均衡利率时，可贷资⾦供给正好与需求平衡。
3．外汇市场真实汇率是由外汇市场上的供给与需求决定的。
外汇的供给来⾃资本净流出。
由于资本净流出不取决于真实汇率，所以，外汇供给曲线是垂直的。
外汇的需求来⾃净出⼝。
由于较低的真实汇率刺激了净出⼝（从⽽增加了为这些净出⼝⽀付需求的外汇量），需求曲线向右下⽅倾斜。
在均衡的真实汇率时，⼈们为购买外国资产⽽供给的外汇数量正好与⼈们为购买净出⼝⽽需求的外汇数量平衡。
4．开放经济中的均衡（1）资本净流出：两个市场之间的联系在可贷资⾦市场上，供给来⾃国民储蓄，需求来⾃国内投资和资本净流出，⽽且真实利率使供求平衡。
在外汇市场上，供给来⾃资本净流出，需求来⾃净出⼝，⽽且真实汇率使供求平衡。
资本净流出是联系这两个市场的变量。
在可贷资⾦市场上，资本净流出是需求的⼀部分。
在外汇市场上，资本净流出是供给的来源。
资本净流出的关键决定因素是真实利率。
图32-1表⽰利率和资本净流出之间的这种负相关关系。
这条资本净流出曲线表⽰可贷资⾦市场和外汇市场之间的联系。
图32-1资本净流出如何取决于利率（2）两个市场的同时均衡在图32-2（a）中，可贷资⾦的供给和需求决定了真实利率。
经济学原理复习题-曼昆版
《经济学原理》课程部分复习题（电子版）一、名词解释稀缺性机会成本外部性通货膨胀 GDP平减指数结构性失业市场失灵均衡价格均衡数量需求价格弹性需求收入弹性需求交叉弹性消费者剩余生产者剩余公共物品私人物品边际成本边际产量规模经济价格歧视国内生产总值 CPI 比较优势货币中性自然产量率无谓损失经济利润沉没成本二、单项选择题1、下列不会引起牛排需求发生变化的情况是（）A、医生说多吃牛肉有损健康B、牛的饲养者宣传牛排中含有丰富的营养C、牛排价格从3美元涨到4美元D、汉堡价格从每千克2美元降到1.5美元2、比萨和炸玉米饼是替代品，如果比萨价格上升，则（）A、比萨的需求减少，炸玉米饼的需求增加B、两种商品的需求都减少C、炸玉米饼的需求量增加，比萨的需求量减少D、炸玉米饼的需求增加，比萨的需求量减少3、下列哪项不列入GDP核算（）A、出口到国外的一批货物B、经济人为一座旧房屋买卖收取的佣金费C、政府为贫困家庭发放的一笔救济金D、保险公司收到的一笔家庭财产保险费4、经济学是研究个人、企业、政府以及整个社会在面对（）时做出选择的一门社会科学A．必要性 B.贫困 C.稀缺 D.效率5、已知某种商品的需求是富有弹性的，在其他条件不变的情况下，卖者要想获得更多的收益，应该( ) A．适当降低价格 B.适当提高价格 C.保持价格不变 D.加大销售量6、一国的GDP大于GNP，则该国公民从国外取得的收入与外国公民从该国取得的收入之间的关系是( ) A．大于 B.小于 C.等于 D.无法判断7、完全竞争和垄断竞争的主要区别是( )A．产品差异程度 B.市场中厂商的数量C.长期当中厂商获得的利润D.进出行业的容易度8、我们必须在“是生产大炮还是生产黄油”的问题上作出选择，这主要是( )A.欲望的无限性B.资源利用问题C.资源配置问题D.选择的普遍性9、照相机和胶卷是( )A.非相关品B.独立产品C.互补产品D.互替产品10、假定某机器原来生产产品A，利润收入为200元，现在改生产产品B，所花的人工、材料费为1000元，则生产产品B的机会成本是( )A.200元B.1000元C.1200元D.无法确定11、消费者剩余是消费者的( )A.实际所得B.主观感受C.没有购买的部分D.消费剩余部分12、一个行业的市场被几家厂商控制，他们通过操纵价格来决定这个行业产品的价格，这样的市场结构被称为( )A.完全竞争B.完全垄断C.寡头垄断D.垄断竞争13、建筑工人工资提高将使( )A.新房子供给曲线左移并使房子价格上升B.新房子供给曲线右移并使房子价格下降C.新房子需求曲线左移并使房子价格下降D.新房子需求曲线右移并使房子价格上升14、假定短期内在某一产量水平上，某厂商的平均成本达到了最小值，这意味着( )A.边际成本等于平均成本B.厂商获得了最大利润C.厂商获得了最小利润D.厂商的超额利润为零15、某人的吸烟行为属( )A.生产的外在经济B.消费的外在经济C.生产的外在不经济D.消费的外在不经济16、企业为了获得更多的利润提高产品价格所引起的通货膨胀属于( )A.需求拉上的通货膨胀B.预期的通货膨胀C.成本推动的通货膨胀D.惯性的通货膨胀17、公开市场业务是指( )A.中央银行在金融市场上买进或卖出有价证券B.中央银行增加或减少对商业银行的贷款C.中央银行规定对商业银行的最低贷款利率D.中央银行对商业银行实施监督18、下列哪一项不属于扩张性财政政策？( )A．减少税收 B.制定物价管制政策C.增加政府支出D.增加公共事业投资19、利润最大化原则是（）A、边际成本等于平均成本B、边际成本小于边际收益；C、边际成本等于边际收益D、边际成本大于边际收益；20、当存在正的外部经济影响时，（）A、社会边际成本大于私人边际成本，社会边际收益大于私人边际收益；B、社会边际成本小于私人边际成本，社会边际收益小于私人边际收益；C、社会边际成本大于私人边际成本，社会边际收益小于私人边际收益；D、社会边际成本小于私人边际成本，社会边际收益大于私人边际收益；21、短期平均成本曲线呈U型，是因为（）A、外部经济B、内在经济；C、规模经济D、边际收益递减规律。
曼昆-经济学原理-复习资料
《经济学原理》课程（曼昆版）复习资料第一章1.你在篮球比赛的赌注中赢了100美元.你可以选择现在花掉它或者在利率为5%的银行账户中存一年.现在花掉100美元的机会成本是CA现在的95美元；B一年后的95美元；C现在的105美元；D一年后的105美元.2.魔力饮料公司的三位经理正在讨论是否要扩大产量.每位经理提出了做出这个决策的一种方法，你认为哪位经理的决策是正确的呢？C哈利：我们应该考查一下我们公司的生产率——每个工人生产的加仑数——将上升还是下降.罗恩：我们应该考查一下我们的平均成本——每个工人的成本——将上升还是下降.赫敏：我们应该考查一下多卖一加仑饮料的额外收益，大于还是小于额外的成本.A哈利；B罗恩；C赫敏；D都正确.3.如果你的室友做饭比你好，但你打扫房间比你的室友快，那么你们两个人有效率的分工应该是AA你的室友承担全部做饭工作，你承担全部打扫工作；B你的室友承担全部打扫工作，你承担全部做饭工作；C你的室友与你交替地承担做饭工作和打扫工作；D你的室友与你共同雇工来承担做饭和打扫工作.4.在美国独立战争期间，美国殖民地政府无法筹集到足够的税收来为战争融资，为了弥补这个差额，殖民地政府决定更多地印发货币.印发货币弥补支出有时被称为“通货膨胀税”.你认为当增发货币时，谁被更多地“征税”了？BA穷光蛋；B有钱人；C男人；D女人.5.你管理的公司在开发一种新产品过程中已经投入500万美元，但开发工作还远远没有完成.在最近的会议上，公司销售人员报告说，竞争性产品的进入将使新产品的预期销售额减少到300万美元.那么你认为公司为了这项新产品开发，最多应该继续花费多少呢？CA0美元（即马上停止继续开发新产品）；B100万美元；C300万美元；D500万美元.6.假设你现在计划星期六在图书馆学习，但有朋友约你外出旅游.那么外出旅游的机会成本是什么呢？BA外出旅游的午餐费；B旅游时间里可以学习到的知识；C到图书馆抢座位的痛苦；D和朋友约会的快乐.7.社会保障制度为60岁以上的人提供收入.如果一个社会保障的领取者决定去工作并赚一些钱，那么他所领到的社会保障补助通常会减少.这种社会保障体制将会如何影响60岁以上老人的工作时间？BA增加工作时间；B减少工作时间；C工作时间不变；D无法确定工作时间的变化.8.下列哪一项政府活动的动机是关注平等？BA对有线电视频道的价格进行管制；B向穷人提供可用来购买食物的消费券；C在公共场所禁止吸烟；D把美孚石油公司分拆为几个较小的公司.9.从总体上来说，我们的生活水平通常要高于我们父辈或祖辈那个时代，主要原因是DA我们更年轻；B我们更聪明；C我们钞票更多；D我们生产率更高.第二章1.实证表述与规范表述之间的差别是什么？各举出一个例子.答：实证表述是描述世界是什么的观点，是描述性的.规范表述是企图描述世界应该如何运行的观点，是命令性的.两者的主要差别是我们如何判断它们的正确性.从原则上讲，可以通过检验证据而确认或否定实证描述.而规范表述的判断不仅涉及事实数据，还涉及价值观的问题.举例如下：实证表述：发放可交易的污染许可证可以有效地控制污染物的排放.规范表述：政府应该向企业发放可交易的污染许可证.2.下列论述中哪个问题属于宏观经济学范畴？CA家庭把多少收入用于储蓄的决策；B政府管制对汽车废气的影响；C高国民储蓄对经济增长的影响；D企业关于雇佣多少工人的决策.3.下列哪种表述是实证表述？AA社会面临着通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍；B中国应该减少外汇储备数量；C美联储应该降低货币增长率；D社会应该要求福利领取者去找工作.4.设想一个生产军用品和消费品的社会，我们把这些物品称为“大炮”和“黄油”.假想一个侵略成性的邻国削减了军事力量，结果鹰党和鸽党都等量减少了自己原来希望生产的大炮数量.用黄油产量的增加幅度来衡量，哪一个党会得到更大的“和平红利”呢？AA鹰党得到更大“和平红利”；B鸽党得到更大“和平红利”；C鹰党和鸽党获得相同“和平红利”；D无法确定.5.一个经济由Larry、Moe和Curly这三个工人组成.每个工人每天工作10小时，并可以提供两种服务：割草和洗汽车.在一小时内，Larry可以割一块草地或洗一辆汽车；Moe可以割一块草地或洗两辆汽车，而Curly可以割两块草地或洗一辆汽车.请问下列哪一种资源配置明显地是无效率的呢？CA三个工人把他们所有的时间都用于割草；B三个工人把他们所有的时间都用于洗汽车；C三个工人都分别把一半时间用于两种活动；D Larry分别把一半时间用于两种活动，而Moe只洗汽车，Curly只割草.6.以下哪个表述是关于要素市场上物品与劳务流向和货币流向的？BA Selena向店主支付1美元买了1夸脱牛奶；B Stuart在快餐店工作，每小时赚4.5美元；C Shanna花30美元理发；D Sally从顶峰工业公司购买了一套价值1万美元的家具.7.人们需要在清洁的环境和工业产量之间进行权衡取舍.现在假设工程师开发出了一种几乎没有污染的新的发电方法，对于以清洁环境和工业产量为两种物品的生产可能性边界图中，生产可能性边界会发生什么变化呢？B A生产可能性边界会向内移动；B生产可能性边界会向外移动；C生产可能性边界形状将变得内凹；D生产可能性边界形状将变为直线.8.下列哪种表述是规范表述？CA关税和进口配额通常降低了总体经济福利；B租金上限降低了可得到的住房数量和质量；C美国应该取消农业补贴；D弹性汇率和浮动汇率提供了一种有效的国际货币协定.第三章1.为什么经济学家反对限制各国之间贸易的政策?答：因为每个国家都会在不同的劳务或物品生产上具有比较优势.各国在生产上进行分工，专门生产自己具有比较优势的产品，可以使世界经济的总产量增加，同时相互间进行贸易，每个国家的消费者都可以消费更多的物品和劳务，所有的国家都可以实现更大的繁荣.2.美国和日本工人每人每年可以生产4辆汽车.一个美国工人每年可以生产10吨粮食.而一个日本工人每年可以生产5吨粮食.为了简化起见，假设每个国家有1亿工人.哪个国家在生产汽车上具有绝对优势？在生产粮食上呢？答：美国在生产粮食中占有绝对优势.美国和日本生产汽车的绝对能力是相同的.哪个国家在生产汽车上具有比较优势?在生产粮食上呢?A答：美国在生产粮食上有比较优势，日本在生产汽车上有比较优势.A美国生产粮食有比较优势，日本生产汽车有比较优势；B美国生产汽车有比较优势，日本生产粮食有比较优势；C美国生产粮食有比较优势，日本生产汽车有绝对优势；D美国生产汽车有绝对优势，日本生产粮食有比较优势.3.Pat和Kris是室友.他们把大部分时间用于学习(理所当然)，但也留出一些时间做他们喜爱的活动：做比萨饼和制作清凉饮料.Pat制作1加仑清凉饮料需要4小时，做1块比萨饼需要2小时.Kris制作1加仑清凉饮料需要6小时，做1块比萨饼需要4小时.A每个室友做1块比萨饼的机会成本是什么？谁在做比萨饼上有绝对优势？谁在做比萨饼上有比较优势?答：Pat做1块比萨饼的机会成本是1/2加仑清凉饮料.Kris制作1块比萨饼的机会成本是2/3加仑清凉饮料.Pat 在做比萨饼上既有绝对优势又有比较优势.B如果Pat和Kris互相交换食物，谁将用比萨饼换取清凉饮料?可能的交换比例是多少？B答：Pat将用比萨饼换清凉饮料.A Pat将用1块比萨饼交换Kris的1加仑清凉饮料；B Pat将用1块比萨饼交换Kris的7/12加仑清凉饮料；C Pat将用1加仑清凉饮料交换Kris的1/4块比萨饼；D Pat将用1块比萨饼交换Kris的1/7加仑清凉饮料.C比萨饼的价格可以用若干加仑清凉饮料来表示.能使两个室友状况都更好的比萨饼交易的最高价格是多少？最低价格是多少？解释原因.答：1块比萨饼的最高价格是2/3加仑清凉饮料，最低价格是1/2加仑清凉饮料.因为Pat在做比萨上有比较优势，并且机会成本是1/2加仑清凉饮料.如果两个室友之间实行贸易，他会选择生产比萨饼，并与Kris交换清凉饮料.如果1块比萨交换不到1/2加仑清凉饮料，Pat就宁可少生产1块比萨饼，而自己去生产1/2加仑清凉饮料.Kris 在生产清凉饮料上有比较优势，机会成本是3/2块比萨饼.在贸易中，他会选择生产清凉饮料并与pat交换比萨饼.对于克里斯而言，1加仑清凉饮料最少要换3/2块比萨饼，也就是说，1块比萨饼的最高价格是2/3加仑清凉饮料.如果1块比萨饼的价格高于2/3加仑清凉饮料，Kris的1加仑清凉饮料就换不到3/2块比萨饼.那他就宁可少生产1加仑饮料，自己去生产3/2块比萨饼.4.英格兰和苏格兰都生产烤饼和毛衣.假设一个英格兰工人每小时能生产50个烤饼或1件毛衣.假设一个苏格兰工人每小时能生产40个烤饼或2件毛衣.A在每种物品的生产上，哪个国家有绝对优势？哪一国有比较优势？C答：英格兰工人在生产烤饼上有绝对优势，苏格兰工人在生产毛衣上有绝对优势.1个英格兰工人生产1个烤饼的机会成本是1/50件毛衣，生产1件毛衣的机会成本是50个烤饼.1个苏格兰工人生产1个烤饼的机会成本是1/20件毛衣，生产1件毛衣的机会成本是20个烤饼.可见，英格兰工人在生产烤饼上有比较优势，苏格兰人在生产毛衣上有比较优势.A英格兰工人在生产毛衣上有绝对优势；B苏格兰工人在生产烤饼上有绝对优势；C英格兰工人在生产烤饼上有比较优势；D苏格兰工人在生产烤饼上有比较优势.B如果英格兰和苏格兰决定进行贸易，苏格兰将用哪种商品与英格兰交易？解释原因.答：苏格兰人将用毛衣与英格兰人交易.因为他们在生产毛衣上有比较优势.C如果一个苏格兰工人每小时只能生产一件毛衣，苏格兰仍然能从贸易中得到好处吗？英格兰仍然能从贸易中得到好处吗？解释原因.答：如果1个苏格兰人每小时只能生产1件毛衣，那么他们生产1件毛衣的机会成本是40个烤饼，仍低于英格兰人生产1件毛衣的机会成本(50个烤饼).所以，苏格兰人在生产毛衣上仍有比较优势.而此时，1个苏格兰人生产1个烤饼的机会成本是l／40件毛衣，仍高于1个英格兰人生产1个烤饼的机会成本，即英格兰人在生产烤饼上仍有比较优势.那么在贸易中，苏格兰人和英格兰人仍都能受益.5.一个巴西的普通工人可以用20分钟生产1盎司大豆,用60分钟生产1盎司咖啡;而一个秘鲁的普通工人可以用50分钟生产1盎司大豆,用75分钟生产1盎司咖啡.A在生产咖啡上有绝对优势？解释之.答：巴西的普通工人有绝对的优势，因为他生产1盎司咖啡用时（60分钟）比秘鲁的普通工人（75分钟）少.B谁在生产咖啡上有比较优势？解释之.答：秘鲁的普通工人具有比较优势.因为秘鲁工人生产每盎司咖啡的机会成本（75/50=1.5盎司的大豆）低于在巴西工人平均每盎司咖啡的机会成本（60/20=3大豆盎司）.C如果两国进行专业分工并相互贸易，谁将进口咖啡？解释之.答：巴西将从秘鲁进口咖啡，因为秘鲁在咖啡生产上有比较优势.D假设两国进行贸易，而且，进口咖啡的国家用2盎司大豆交换1盎司咖啡.解释为什么两国都将从这种贸易中获益.答：因为两国的机会成本都比原先下降了，生产时间节省了（巴西：60-40=20分钟；秘鲁：100-75=25分钟）6.假设加拿大有1000万工人，而且每个工人1年可生产2辆汽车或30蒲式耳小麦.那么，加拿大生产1蒲式耳小麦的机会成本是多少呢？CA2辆汽车；B1辆汽车；C1/15辆汽车；D无法确定.7.假设加拿大有1000万工人，而且每个工人1年可生产2辆汽车或30蒲式耳小麦.现在假设美国从加拿大购买1000万辆汽车，每辆汽车交换20蒲式耳小麦.如果加拿大消费1000万辆汽车，这种交易使加拿大可以消费多少小麦？BA15000蒲式耳小麦；B20000蒲式耳小麦；C30000蒲式耳小麦；D40000蒲式耳小麦.8.Maria每小时可以读20页经济学著作，也可以每小时读50页社会学著作.她每天学习5小时，那么Maria阅读100页社会学著作的机会成本是多少呢？BA读20页经济学著作；B读40页经济学著作；C读50页经济学著作；D读100页经济学著作.9.下表描述了Baseballia国两个城市的生产可能性如果这两个城市相互交易，那么两个城市之间贸易时白袜子的交易价格范围是多少?AA最高价格是2双红袜子，最低价格是1双红袜子；B最高价格是1双红袜子，最低价格是1/2双红袜子；C最高价格是3双红袜子，最低价格是1双红袜子；D最高价格是3双红袜子，最低价格是2/3双红袜子.10.下列表述哪个是正确？AA.“即使一国在所有物品上都有绝对优势，两国也能从贸易中得到好处.”B.“某些极有才能的人在做每一件事情时都有比较优势.”C.“如果某种贸易能给某人带来好处，那么，它就不会也给另一个人带来好处.D.“如果某种贸易对一个人是好事，那么它对另一个人也总是好事.”11.假定一个美国工人每年能生产100件衬衣或20台电脑，而一个中国工人每年能生产100件衬衣或10台电脑.A.画出这两个国家的生产可能性边界.假定没有贸易，每个国家的工人各用一半的时间生产两种物品，在你的图上标出这一点.答：两个国家的生产可能性边界如下图所示.如果没有贸易，一个美国工人把一半的时间用于生产每种物品，则能生产50件衬衣、10台电脑；同样，一个中国工人则能生产50件衬衣、5台电脑.生产可能性边界（图）B.如果这两个国家进行贸易，哪个国家将出口衬衣？举出一个具体的数字例子，并在你的图上标出.哪一个国家将从贸易中获益？解释原因.答：中国将出口衬衣.对美国而言，生产一台电脑的机会成本是5件衬衣，而生产一件衬衣的机会成本为1/5台电脑.对中国而言，生产一台电脑的机会成本是10件衬衣，而生产一件衬衣的机会成本为1/10台电脑.因此，美国在生产电脑上有比较优势，中国在生产衬衣上有比较优势，所以中国将出口衬衣.衬衣的价格在1/5到1/10台电脑之间.两个国家都会从贸易中获益.例如，衬衣的价格为1/8台电脑，换言之，中国出口8件衬衣换回1台电脑.中国专门生产衬衣（100件），并出口其中的8件，这样就有92件衬衣和换回的1台电脑.而没有贸易时，92件衬衣和1台电脑在中国是不可能得到的产出.美国专门生产电脑（20台）并向中国出口其中的1台换取8件衬衣.这样，美国最后就有19台电脑和8件衬衣，这是没有贸易时美国不可能得到的产出.由此可见，贸易使中国和美国所能消费的产品增加，两国都获益了.C.解释两国可以交易的电脑价格（用衬衣衡量）是多少.D答：一台电脑的价格将在5到10件衬衣之间.如果电脑价格低于5件衬衣，美国将不会出口，因为在美国一件衬衣的机会成本为1/5台电脑.如果电脑的价格高于10件衬衣，中国将不会进口，因为在中国一台电脑的机会成本是10件衬衣.A1件衬衫交换1/2台电脑；B1件衬衫交换1/12台电脑；C1台电脑交换4件衬衫；D1台电脑交换8件衬衫.D.假设中国的生产率赶上了美国，因此，一个中国工人每年可以生产100件衬衣或20台电脑.你预期这时的贸易形式会是什么样的.中国生产率的这种进步将如何影响两国居民的经济福利？答：此时，中美双方将同时生产两种商品，然后进行贸易，不过此时的贸易被称为水平贸易，即生产率大致相同的两个国家进行的贸易.而中国在提高生产率之前，两国进行的是垂直贸易.垂直贸易可以增进两国的福利，水平贸易同样能增进两国的福利.经常举的例子是，美国自己生产小汽车，但它还是进口日本的汽车.原因是两国生产的汽车在性能、耗油量及体积大小等方面有差异，通过进口国外的汽车可以满足美国人多样化的需求，因此会增进美国人的福利.总的来说，中国生产率的这种进步会提高两国居民的经济福利.12.下列表述正确还是错误？分别做出解释.AA.“即使一国在所有物品上都有绝对优势，两国也能从贸易中得到好处.”答：对.因为一国即使在生产所有的物品上都有绝对优势，它也不可能在所有物品上都有比较优势.相反，即使一国在所有物品的生产上都没有绝对优势，它也会在某些物品上具有比较优势.B.“某些极有才能的人在做每一件事情时都有比较优势.”答：错.一个人不可能同时在做两件事情上都拥有比较优势，因为如果用一件事情表示另一件事情的机会成本，那么这两件事情的机会成本互为倒数.C.“如果某种贸易能给某人带来好处，那么，它就不会也给另一个人带来好处.答：错.贸易所达到的是双赢或多赢局面.在贸易中，人们各自生产自己具有比较优势的产品，社会总产量增加，每个人的状况会变得更好.D.“如果某种贸易对一个人是好事，那么它对另一个人也总是好事.”答：错.双方的贸易价格必须位于两者之间的机会成本.E.“如果贸易能给某个国家带来好处，那么它也一定能给该国的每一个人带来好处.”答：错.贸易给某个国家带来好处的同时，可能损害该国内某些人的利益.如，假设一国在生产小麦上有比较优势，在生产汽车上有比较劣势，那么，出口小麦、进口汽车给这个国家带来好处，因为现在这个国家能够消费更多的商品.但是，贸易的出现，尤其是进口汽车，会损害国内汽车制造工人和厂商的利益.A即使一国在所有物品上都有绝对优势，两国也能从贸易中得到好处；B某些极有才能的人在做每一件事情时都有比较优势；C如果某种贸易能给某人带来好处，那么，它就不会也给另一个人带来好处；D如果贸易能给某个国家带来好处，那么它也一定能给该国的每一个人带来好处.13.下表描述了Baseballia国两个城市的生产可能性A.没有贸易，波士顿一双白袜子价格（用红袜子表示）是多少？芝加哥1双白袜子价格是多少?答：没有贸易时，波士顿1双白袜子价格是1双红袜子，芝加哥1双白袜子价格是2双红袜子.B.在每种颜色的袜子生产上，哪个城市有绝对优势？哪个城市有比较优势?答：波士顿在生产红、白袜子上都有绝对优势.波士顿在生产白袜子上有比较优势，芝加哥在生产红袜子上有比较优势.C.如果这两个城市相互交易，两个城市将分别出口哪种颜色的袜子?答：如果它们相互交易，波士顿将出口白袜子，而芝加哥出口红袜子.D.可以进行交易的价格范围是多少?答：白袜子的最高价格是2双红袜子，最低价格是1双红袜子.红袜子的最高价格是1双白袜子，最低价格是1／2双白袜子.第四章关键概念：1.竞争市场：指有许多买者和卖者，以致于每个人对市场价格的影响都微不足道的市场.具备四个条件：A市场上有大量的买者和卖者；B市场上每个厂商提供的商品都是同质的；C所有资源具有完全的流动性；D信息是完全的或充分的.2.需求量：指买者愿意而且能够购买的一种物品数量.3.需求定理：在其他条件不变的情况下，某种商品的需求量与其价格之间成反向变动，即需求量随着商品价格上升而减少，随着商品价格下降而增加.4.正常商品：指在其他条件相同时，收入增加引起需求量增加的商品.5.低档商品：指在其他条件不变的情况下，收入增加引起需求减少的商品.6.替代品：指一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求量增加的两种物品，或者说是指在效用上可以相互代替，满足消费者同一种欲望的商品.7.互补品：指一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求量减少的两种物品，或者说是指在效用上互相补充配合，从而满足消费者同一种欲望的商品.8.供给量：指卖者愿意而且能够出售的数量，或者说是生产者在一定时期内在各种可能的价格下愿意而且能够提供出售的该种商品数量.9.供给定理：指有关价格与供给量之关系的定理，即在其他条件相同时，一种物品价格上升时，该物品供给量就增加；当价格下降时，该物品供给量就减少.10.均衡：指价格达到使供给量等于需求量水平的状况，即在某个给定的价格水平下，生产者愿意提供的商品量恰好等于消费者愿意而且能够购买的商品量.11.供求定理：指任何一种物品价格的调整都会使该物品的供给与需求达到均衡的定理，即在其他条件不变的情况下，需求变动分别引起均衡价格和均衡数量的同方向变动，供给变动分别引起均衡价格的反方向变动和均衡数量的同方向变动.1.什么因素决定买者对一种物品的需求量?答：物品的价格、买者的收入水平、相关物品的价格、买者的偏好和对物品的价格预期.2.什么因素决定了卖者对一种物品的供给量?答：价格、投入价格、技术、预期决定了卖者对一种物品的供给量.3.啤酒与比萨饼是互补品，因为人们常常边吃比萨饼，边喝啤酒.当啤酒价格上升时，比萨饼市场的供给、需求、供给量、需求量以及价格会发生什么变动?答：因为啤酒和比萨饼是互补品，所以当啤酒价格上升而其他条件不变时，啤酒的需求会下降，比萨饼的需求也下降.而比萨饼的供给并没有什么原因使它变动，这样，比萨饼的需求曲线会向左移动，而供给曲线不变.达到市场均衡时的供给量、需求量、均衡价格都会下降.4.考虑DVD、电视和电影院门票市场.A对每一对物品，确定它们是互补品还是替代品·DVD和电视·DVD和电影票·电视和电影票答：DVD和电视机是互补品，因为不可能在没有电视的情况下看DVD.DVD和电影票是替代品，因为一部电影即可以在电影院看，也可以在家看.电视和电影票是替代品，原因与上面的类似.B假设技术进步降低了制造电视机的成本.答：技术进步降低了制造电视机的成本，使电视机的供给曲线向右移动.电视机的需求曲线不变.结果是电视机的均衡价格下降，均衡数量上升.5.过去20年间，技术进步降低了电脑芯片的成本.你认为这会对电脑市场产生怎样的影响？对电脑软件呢？对打字机呢?答：技术突破降低芯片成本，使电脑投入价格降低，电脑供给曲线向右下方移动，电脑的需求曲线并未改变.于是电脑市场的均衡价格下降，均衡数量增加.电脑与电脑软件是互补品.电脑市场均衡数量上升，软件的需求也会上升，需求曲线向右上方移动，而供给曲线没有改变.于是，软件市场的均衡价格上升，均衡数量增加.由于打字机也可以用来打字，它和电脑是替代品.电脑芯片成本降低使电脑价格降低，销售量上升，人们对打字机的需求会下降.打字机的价格下降，销售量下降.6.番茄酱是热狗的互补品(以及调味品).如果热狗价格上升，番茄酱市场会发生什么变动？番茄市场呢？番茄汁市场呢？橘子汁市场呢？。
曼昆宏观经济学复习提纲(学霸整理地)
宏观经济学复习提纲题型：1、单项选择题（1*20=20）2、名词解释（3*5=15）3、计算题（12*3=36）4、分析题（9+10+10或6+10+13.29）第一章宏观经济学的科学1、宏观经济学的研究对象（总体）：宏观经济学是对整体经济——包括收入的增长、价格的变动和失业率的研究。
2、研究内容（三变量、四大问题）：GDP、CPI、失业率（变量）失业、通货膨胀、经济增长、国际收支（问题）3、微观经济学与宏观经济学的学科区别（研究对象、研究问题、研究方法、中心理论）。
第二章宏观经济学的数据1、国内生产总值概念及计算规则：给定时期的一个经济体内生产的所有最终产品和服务的市场价值。
（P20）（1）GDP是市场价值.而非产量。
（2）GDP只计入本期生产的产品和劳务的价值.不包括已有产品的产权转让（3）GDP的计算包含了对上一年存货的处理（4）GDP指最终产品的价值而非中间产品的价值.最终产品价值由价值的增值之和构成2、国民收入核算中的五个总量（GDP/GNP.NNP/NDP、NI、PI、DPI）：（1）NNP=GNP-折旧；NDP=GDP-折旧（2）NI=NNP-企业间接税+政府对企业的补贴（转移支付）（3）PI=NI-公司未分配利润-企业所得税-社会保险税-净利息+政府对个人的转移支付+个人利息收入+股息（4）DPI=PI-个人所得税3、国民收入核算的基本方法（支出法）：GDP=C+I+G+NX4、名义GDP 与实际GDP 的换算（CPI\GDP 平减指数）：（1）实际GDP=报告期产量*基期价格=报告期名义GDP ×（基期价格/报告期价格）（2）消费物价指数：是物价总水平的一种衡量指标.也称零售物价指数和生活费用指数.表示固定一篮子消费品的费用相对于基年同样一篮子消费品的费用。
是反映消费品（包括服务）价格水平变动状况的一种价格指数.一般用加权平均法来编制。
（3）GDP 平减指数：又称为GDP 的隐含价格平减指数.等于名义GDP 和实际GDP 的比率.GDP 平减指数=名义GDP/实际GDP.反映了经济中物价总水平所发生的变动。
(完整word版)曼昆经济学原理复习大纲(超全)
宏观经济学：研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。
实证表述：试图描述世界是什么样子的观点（描述性，科学家）。
规范表述：试图描述世界应该是什么样子的观点（规范性，政策顾问）。
科学家试图去解释世界，政策顾问试图去改善世界。
经济学家意见分歧的原因：1.科学判断的不同（征税是根据收入还是消费）
第九章应用：国际贸易（重点）
世界价格：一种物品在世界市场上所通行的价格。
出口国分析：
当一国允许贸易并成为一种物品的出口者时，国内该物品生产者的状况变好了，而国内该物品消费者的状况变坏了。
从赢家收益超过了输家损失的意义上说，贸易使一国的经济福利增加了。
进口国分析：
当一国允许贸易并成为一种物品的进口国时，国内该物品消费者的状况变好了，而国内该物品生产者的状况变坏了。
需求量：买者愿意并且能够购买的一种物品的数量。
需求定理：认为在其他条件不变时，一种物品的价格上升，对该物品的需求量减少的观点。（其他条件：决定需求的非价格因素）
市场需求是个人需求之和。
需求曲线的移动（重点）：（需求增加需求减少）
a.收入
正常物品：在其他条件相同时，收入增加引起需求量增加的物品。
低档物品：在其他条件相同时，收入增加引起需求量减少的物品。
富有弹性：价格上升，总收益减少。
单位弹性：价格上升，总收益不变。
尽管线性需求曲线的斜率是不变的，但弹性并不是不变的。这是因为斜率是两个变量变动的比率，而弹性是两个变量变动的百分比的比率。
在价格低而数量高的各点上，需求曲线是缺乏弹性的；在价格高而数量低的各点上，需求曲线是富有弹性的。
需求收入弹性：衡量一种物品需求量对消费者收入变动反应程度的指标。（正常物品是正数，低档物品是负数）
曼昆版宏观经济学期末考试重点
单选20判断|名词解释（提过的名词解释）10计算（两大题 30分）细致分步给分公式论述 40分（2大题）有把握画图课后习题 ppt习题第23章1.国内生产总值（GDP）答：在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品和劳务的市场价值。
GDP包括有形的物品，也包括无形的劳务。
GDP 只包括现期生产的物品，不包括过去生产的物品。
GDP 衡量的生产价值局限于一个国家的地理范围之内，不管是由本国的国民还是住在本国的外国人生产。
通常是一年或一个季度（3个月）。
用支出法计算的国内生产总值等于消费、投资、政府支出和净出口之和。
列出 GDP 的四个组成部分。
各举一个例子。
答：GDP 的四个组成部分是消费（C ）、投资（ I ）、政府购买（G ）和净出口（ NX ）。
（1）消费是家庭用于物品与劳务的支出，如汤姆一家人在麦当劳吃午餐。
（2）投资是资本设备、存货、新住房和建筑物的购买，如通用汽车公司建立一个汽车厂。
（3）政府购买包括地方政府、州政府和联邦政府用于物品与劳务的支出，如海军购买了一艘潜艇。
（4）净出口等于外国人购买国内生产的物品与劳务（出口）减国内购买的外国物品与劳务（进口）。
国内企业卖给另一个国家的买者，如波音公司卖给中国航空公司飞机，增加了净出口。
2.名义 GDP和真实GDP怎样区分答：名义 GDP：用当年的价格来评价经济中的物品与劳务生产的价值。
它没有考虑通货膨胀因素。
由于通货膨胀等原因，价格可能会发生强烈变化，名义 GDP 并不能反映实际产量的变动。
它没有经过通货膨胀校正。
真实GDP：用不变的基年价格来评价经济中的物品与劳务生产的价值。
它经过通货膨胀校正。
3.GDP 平减指数（定义、计算）答：GDP 平减指数是名义的 GDP 和真实的 GDP 的比率，它是经济学家用来考察经济平均物价水平的一个衡量指标。
用公式表示为： GDP平减指数= （名义GDP/真实GDP）*100第24章1．消费物价指数CPI（计算、步骤、存在问题、（数据问题）怎样利用CPI进行货币的转换）答：指普通消费者购买的物品与劳务总费用的衡量指标。
曼昆《经济学原理(宏观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解
内容摘要
本书特别适用于参加研究生入学考试指定考研参考书目为曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》的考生， 也可供各大院校学习曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》的师生参考。曼昆的《经济学原理》是世界上最流 行的初级经济学教材，也被众多院校列为经济类专业考研重要参考书目。为了帮助学生更好地学习这本教材，我 们有针对性地编著了它的配套辅导用书（均提供免费下载，免费升级）：1．曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分 册）》（第6版）笔记和课后习题详解（含考研真题）[视频讲解]2．曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》 【教材精讲+考研真题解析】讲义与视频课程【35小时高清视频】3．曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》 （第6版）课后习题详解4．曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第5版）课后习题详解5．曼昆《经济学原 理（微观经济学分册）》配套题库【名校考研真题（视频讲解）+课后习题+章节练习+模拟试题】6．曼昆《经济 学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）笔记和课后习题详解（含考研真题）[视频讲解]7．曼昆《经济学原理 （宏观经济学分册）》【教材精讲+考研真题解析】讲义与视频课程【27小时高清视频】8．曼昆《经济学原理 （宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）课后习题详解9．曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第5版）课后习题 详解10．曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》配套题库【名校考研真题（视频讲解）+课后习题+章节练习+ 模拟试题】本书是曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）教材的配套e书，参考国外教材的英文答案 和相关资料对曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）教材每章的课后习题进行了详细的分析和解答， 并对个别知识点进行了扩展。课后习题答案久经修改，非常标准，特别适合应试作答和临考冲刺。另外，部分高 校，如武汉大学、深圳大学等，研究生入学考试部分真题就来自于该书课后习题，因此建议考生多加重视。
曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理
1Q4Why should policy makers think about incentives?Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to the policies they put in place. The text's example of seat belts shows that policy actions can have quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a very different type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knives in steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives.Q6what does the invisible hand of the marketplace do?The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and firms are all acting in their own self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole.2Q1How is economics like a science?Economics is like a science because economists use the scientific method. They devise theories, collect data, and then analyze these data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories about how the world works. Economists use theory and observation like other scientists, but they are limited in their ability to runcontrolled experiments. Instead, they must rely on natural experiments.Q5 Use a production possibilities frontier to describe the idea of “efficiency”? The idea of efficiency is that an outcome is efficient if the economy is getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available. In terms of the production possibilities frontier, an efficient point is a point on the frontier, such as point A in Figure 4. A point inside the frontier, such as point B, is inefficient since more of one good could be produced without reducing the production of another good. Q7What is the difference between a positive and a normative statement? Give an example of that.Positive statements are descriptive and make a claim about how the world is, while normative statements are prescriptive and make a claim about how the world ought to be. Here is an example. Positive: A rapid growth rate of money is the cause of inflation. Normative: The government should keep the growth rate of money low. 3Q1 Explain how absolute advantage and comparative advantage differ.Absolute advantage reflects a comparison of the productivity of one person, firm, or nation to that of another, while comparative advantage is based on the relative opportunity costs of the persons, firms, or nations. While a person, firm, or nation may have an absolute advantage in producing every good, they can't have a comparative advantage in every good.Q4Will a nation tend to export or import goods to Question2.A nation will export goods for which it has a comparative advantage because it has a smaller opportunity cost of producing those goods. As a result, citizens of all nations are able to consume quantities of goods that are outside their production possibilities frontiers.4Q5Propeye’s income declines, and as a result, he buys more spinach. Is spinach an inferior or a normal goods? What happens to Popeye’s demand curve for spinach? Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him. Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the decrease in his income. Q8 Dose a change in producers’ technology lead to a movement along the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the supply curve or a shift in the supply curve?A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads to a movement along the supply curve.Q9 Define the equilibrium of a market. Describe the forces that move a market towards its equilibrium.The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equalto quantity supplied. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below the equilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can raise their price without losing customers. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.Q11 Describe the role of prices in market economies.Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If the price is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.5Q2 List and explain the four determinants of the price elasticity of demand discussed in the chapter.The determinants of the price elasticity of demand include how available close substitutes are, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, how broadly defined the market is, and the time horizon. Luxury goods have greater price elastic ties than necessities, goods with close substitutes have greater elastic ties, goods in more narrowly defined markets have greater elastic ties, and the elasticity of demand is higher the longer the time horizon.Q4 On a supply-and-demand diagram, show equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers.Figure 1 presents a supply-and-demand diagram, showing equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers. Total revenue equals the equilibrium price times the equilibrium quantity, which is the area of the rectangle shown in the figure.Figure 16Q2Which causes a shortage of a good—a price ceiling or a price floor? Which causes a surplus?A shortage of a good arises when there is a binding price ceiling. A surplus of a good arises when there is a binding price floor.Q6How does a tax on a good affect the price paid by buyers, and the quantity sold?A tax on a good raises the price buyers pay, lowers the price sellers receive, and reduces the quantity sold.Q7What determines how the burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers? Why?The burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers depending on the elasticity of demand and supply. Elasticity represents the willingness of buyers or sellers to leave the market, which in turns depends on their alternatives. When a good is taxed, the side of the market with fewer good alternatives cannot easily leave the market and thus bears more of the burden of the tax.7Q1Explain how buyer’s willingness to pay, consumer’surplus, and the demand curve are related.Buyers' willingness to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and above the price, which equals each buyer's willingness to pay less the price of the good.Q2 Explain how seller’s costs, producer’s surplus, and the supply curve are related.Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price minus each sellers' costs.Figure 413Q2 Give an example of an opportunity cost that accountant might not count as a cost. Why would the accountant ignore the cost?An accountant would not count the owner’s opportunity cost of alternative employment as an accounting cost. An example is given in the text in which Helen runs a cookie business, but she could instead work as a computer programmer. Because she's working in her cookie factory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour as a computer programmer. The accountant ignores this opportunity cost because no money flow occurs. But the cost is relevant to Helen's decision to run the cookie factory.Q3What is marginal product, and what does it means if it is diminishing? Marginal product is the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input. Diminishing marginal product means that the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.Q8Defind economies of scale and explain why they might arise. Define diseconomiesof scale and explain why then might arise.Economies of scale exist when long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies of scale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of coordination problems inherent in a large organization.14Q2Draw the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price, explain how the firm chooses the level of output that maximizes profit. Figure 2 shows the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price (such as P*), the level of output that maximizes profit is the output where marginal cost equals price (Q*), as long as price is greater than average variable cost at that point (in the short run), or greater than average total cost (in the long run).Figure 2Q6 Does a firm’s price equal marginal cost in the short run, in the long run, or both? Explain.The firm's price equals the minimum of average total cost only in the long run.In the short run, price may be greater than average total cost, in which case the firm is making profits, or price may be less than average total cost, in which case the firm is making losses. But the situation is different in the long run. If firms are making profits, other firms will enter the industry, which will lower the price of the good. If firms are making losses, they will exit the industry, which will raise the price of the good. Entry or exit continues until firms are making neither profits nor losses. At that point, price equals average total cost. 15Q3Why is monopolist’s marginal revenue less than the price of its goods? Can marginal revenue be negative? Explain.A monopolist's marginal revenue is less than the price of its product because: (1) its demand curve is the market demand curve, so (2) to increase the amount sold, the monopolist must lower the price of its good for every unit it sells. (3) This cut in prices reduces revenue on the units it was already selling.A monopolist's marginal revenue can be negative because to get purchasers to buy an additional unit of the good, the firm must reduce its price on all units of the good. The fact that it sells a greater quantity increases revenue, but the decline in price decreases revenue. The overall effect depends on the elasticity of the demand curve. If the demand curve is inelastic, marginal revenue will be negative. Q4 Draw the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curve for a monopolist. Show the profit-maximizing level of output. Show the profit-maximizing price.Figure 1 shows the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curves for a monopolist. The intersection of the marginal-revenue and marginal-cost curves determines the profit-maximizing level of output, Q m. The demand curve then shows the profit-maximizing price, P m.Figure 116Q1If a group of sellers could form a cartel, what quantity and price would they try to set?If a group of sellers could form a cartel, they would try to set quantity and price like a monopolist. They would set quantity at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and set price at the corresponding point on the demand curve. Q5What is the prisoners’ dilemma and what does it have to do with oligopoly? The prisoners' dilemma is a game between two people or firms that illustrates why it is difficult for opponents to cooperate even when cooperation would make themall better off. Each person or firm has a great incentive to cheat on any cooperative agreement to make himself or itself better off.17Q2 Draw a diagram of the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. How is price related to average total cost? How is price related to marginal cost?In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1 and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is making profits because at quantity Q1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC). Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causing the demand curve to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR2. The result is a decline in quantity to Q2, at which point the price (P2) equals average total cost (ATC), so profits are now zero.Figure 223Q1 Explain why an economy’s income must equal its expenditure.An economy's income must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyerand a seller. Thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers.24Q2 Describe the three problems that make the consumer price index an imperfect measure of the cost of living.The three problems in the consumer price index as a measure of the cost of living are: (1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive; (2) the introduction of new goods, which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.25Q2List and describe four determinants of productivity.The four determinants of productivity are: (1) physical capital, which is the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services; (2) human capital, which consists of the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided by nature; and (4) technological knowledge, which is society’s understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services. Questions are chosen from problems and applications.Chapter 1: Q9By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores morequickly. If you divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than it would take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores. Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers. Then Spain and France can both benefit if Spanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine, and they exchange some wine for some clothes. Chapter 2: Q2a. Figure 6 shows a production possibilities frontier between guns and butter. It is bowed out because when most of the economy’s resources are being used to produce butter, the frontier is steep and when most of the economy’s resources are being used to produce guns, the frontier is very flat. When the economy is producing a lot of guns, workers and machines best suited to making butter are being used to make guns, so each unit of guns given up yields a large increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is flat. When the economy is producing a lot of butter, workers and machines best suited to making guns are being used to make butter, so each unit of guns given up yields a small increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is steep.b. Point A is impossible for the economy to achieve; it is outside theproduction possibilities frontier. Point B is feasible but inefficient because it’s inside the production possibilities frontier.Figure 6c. The Hawks might choose a point like H, with many guns and not much butter. The Doves might choose a point like D, with a lot of butter and few guns.d. If both Hawks and Doves reduced their desired quantity of guns by the same amount, the Hawks would get a bigger peace dividend because the production possibilities frontier is much steeper at point H than at point D. As a result, the reduction of a given number of guns, starting at point H, leads to a much larger increase in the quantity of butter produced than when starting at point D. Chapter 3: Q4a. Since a Canadian worker can make either two cars a year or 30 bushels of wheat, the opportunity cost of a car is 15 bushels of wheat. Similarly, the opportunity cost of a bushel of wheat is 1/15 of a car. The opportunity costs are the reciprocals of each other.b. See Figure 4. If all 10 million workers produce two cars each, they produce a total of 20 million cars, which is the vertical intercept of the productionpossibilities frontier. If all 10 million workers produce 30 bushels of wheat each, they produce a total of 300 million bushels, which is the horizontal intercept of the production possibilities frontier. Since the tradeoff between cars and wheat is always the same, the production possibilities frontier is a straight line.If Canada chooses to consume 10 million cars, it will need 5 million workers devoted to car production. That leaves 5 million workers to produce wheat, who will produce a total of 150 million bushels (5 million workers times 30 bushels per worker). This is shown as point A on Figure 4.c. If the United States buys 10 million cars from Canada and Canada continues to consume 10 million cars, then Canada will need to produce a total of 20 million cars. So Canada will be producing at the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. But if Canada gets 20 bushels of wheat per car, it will be able to consume 200 million bushels of wheat, along with the 10 million cars. This is shown as point B in the figure. Canada should accept the deal because it gets the same number of cars and 50 million more bushes of wheat.Figure 4Chapter 4: Q1a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. Thiscan be seen in Figure 6 as a shift to the left in the supply curve for oranges. The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.b. People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so demand for Caribbean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer people travel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are more pleasant. The result, as shown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of Caribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figure shows.Figure 6a Figure 7bc. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected. Since much oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8. The result is a rise in the equilibrium price of gasoline. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating a gas-guzzling automobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will not find Cadillacs as attractive. In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them. The result is that the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shownin Figure 9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.Figure 8c Figure 9cChapter 5: Q2a. For business travelers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(2,000 - 1,900)/1,950]/[(250 - 200)/225] = 0.05/0.22 = 0.23. For vacationers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(800 - 600)/700] / [(250 - 200)/225] = 0.29/0.22 = 1.32.b. The price elasticity of demand for vacationers is higher than the elasticity for business travelers because vacationers can choose more easily a different mode of transportation (like driving or taking the train). Business travelers are less likely to do so since time is more important to them and their schedules are less adaptable.Chapter 6: Q2a. The imposition of a binding price floor in the cheese market is shown in Figure3. In the absence of the price floor, the price would be P1and the quantity would be Q1. With the floor set at P f, which is greater than P1, the quantity demandedis Q2, while quantity supplied is Q3, so there is a surplus of cheese in the amount Q– Q2.3b. The farmers’ complaint that their total revenue has declined is correct if demand is elastic. With elastic demand, the percentage decline in quantity would exceed the percentage rise in price, so total revenue would decline.c. If the government purchases all the surplus cheese at the price floor, producers benefit and taxpayers lose. Producers would produce quantity Q3 of cheese, and their total revenue would increase substantially. But consumers would buy only quantity Q2 of cheese, so they are in the same position as before. Taxpayers lose because they would be financing the purchase of the surplus cheese through higher taxes.Figure 3aChapter 7: Q8a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases. The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A toA +B +C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G –B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Since consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.Figure 14A Figure 15bb. Since adding machines are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that people substitute computers for adding machines, shifting the demand for adding machines to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of adding machines. Consumer surplus in the adding-machine market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Adding machine producers are sad about technological advance in computers because their producer surplus declines.c. Since software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The result is an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B, a net change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richest men, since his company produces a lot of software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.Figure 16Chapter 13: Q4a. The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:Hours Fish FixedCost VariableCostTotalCostMarginalProduct0$10$0$10---11010515 102181010208324101525642810203045301025252b. Figure 7 graphs the fisherman's production function. The production function becomes flatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginal product.Figure 7b Figure 8cc. The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing.Figure 8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It slopes up because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time?each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish.Chapter 14: Q9a. Figure 9 illustrates the situation in the U.S. textile industry. With no international trade, the market is in long-run equilibrium. Supply intersects demand at quantity Q1 and price $30, with a typical firm producing output q1.Figure 9b. The effect of imports at $25 is that the market supply curve follows the old supply curve up to a price of $25, then becomes horizontal at that price. As a result, demand exceeds domestic supply, so the country imports textiles from othercountries. The typical domestic firm now reduces its output from q1to q2, incurringlosses, since the large fixed costs imply that average total cost will be much higher than the price.c. In the long run, domestic firms will be unable to compete with foreign firms because their costs are too high. All the domestic firms will exit the industryand other countries will supply enough to satisfy the entire domestic demand.Chapter 15: Q4a. Figure 5 illustrates the market for groceries when there are many competing supermarkets with constant marginal cost. Output is Q C, price is P C, consumer surplus is area A, producer surplus is zero, and total surplus is area A.Figure 5aFigure 6bb. If the supermarkets merge, Figure 6 illustrates the new situation. Quantity declines from Q C to Q M and price rises to P M. Area A in Figure 5 is equal to areaB +C +D +E +F in Figure 6. Consumer surplus is now area B + C, producer surplusis area D + E, and total surplus is area B + C + D + E. Consumers transfer the amount of area D + E to producers and the deadweight loss is area F.Chapter 16: Q2a. OPEC members were trying to reach an agreement to cut production so they could raise the price.b. They were unable to agree on cutting production because each country has an incentive to cheat on any agreement. The turmoil is a decline in the price of oil because of increased production.c. OPEC would like Norway and Britain to join their cartel so they could act like a monopoly.Chapter 23: Q1a. Consumption increases because a refrigerator is a good purchased by a household. Investment increases because a house is an investment good.Consumption increases because a car is a good purchased by a household, but investment decreases because the car in Ford’s inventory had been counted as an investment good until it was sold.Consumption increases because pizza is a good purchased by a household. Government purchases increase because the government spent money to provide a goodto the public.Consumption increases because the bottle is a good purchased by a household, but net exports decrease because the bottle was imported.Investment increases because new structures and equipment were built.Chapter 24: Q4a. Since the increase in cost was considered a quality improvement, there was no increase registered in the CPI.b. The argument in favor of this is that consumers are getting a better good than before, so the price increase equals the improvement in quality. The problem is that the increased cost might exceed the value of the improvement in air quality, so consumers are worse off. In this case, it would be better for the CPI to at least partially reflect the higher cost.Chapter 25: Q4The opportunity cost of investing in capital is the loss of consumption that results from redirecting resources towards investment. Over-investment in capital is possible because of diminishing marginal returns. A country can "over-invest" in capital if people would prefer to have higher consumption spending and less future growth. The opportunity cost of investing in human capital is also the loss of consumption that is needed to provide the resources for investment. A country could "over-invest" in human capital if people were too highly educated for the。
曼昆《经济学原理(宏观经济学分册)》(第6版)复习全书曼昆《经济学原理(宏观经济学分册)》(第6版)
曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）模拟试题及详解（一）一、名词解释1．国内生产总值答：国内生产总值（GDP）是指经济社会（即一国或一地区）在一定时期内运用生产要素所生产的全部最终产品（物品和劳务）的市场价值。
GDP是一国范围内生产的最终产品的市场价值，因此是一个地域概念，而与此相联系的国民生产总值（GNP）则是一个国民概念，乃指某国国民所拥有的全部生产要素在一定时期内所生产的最终产品的市场价值。
GDP一般通过支出法和收入法两种方法进行核算。
用支出法计算的国内生产总值等于消费、投资、政府购买和净出口之和；用收入法计算的国内生产总值等于工资、利息、租金、利润、间接税、企业转移支付和折旧之和。
2．费雪效应答：费雪效应指名义利率对通货膨胀率所进行的一对一的调整。
费雪效应是美国经济学家费雪提出的，用来阐述名义利率与真实利率和预期的通货膨胀率之间的关系。
这种关系用费雪方程式表示为：i rπ=+（其中i代表名义利率，r代表真实利率，π代表通货膨胀率）。
由于货币在长期中是中性的，货币增长的变动不会影响真实利率。
由于真实利率不受影响，所以名义利率必然根据通货膨胀的变动进行一对一的调整。
根据费雪方程式，通货膨胀率上升1%引起名义利率上升1%。
3．预算盈余答：预算盈余指预算中存在财政收入大于财政支出的情况。
预算盈余是一种预算不平衡的状态，不过它与预算赤字的不平衡是完全不同的两种状态。
盈余表示财政宽松，赤字表示财政困难。
严格地讲，预算应是平衡的，不仅在计划中是平衡的，而且执行中和执行后也应是平衡的。
但在某些时候，适当地使财政收入的安排大于财政支出是可以的。
这时，就会出现预算盈余。
一般情况下，政府得到的税收收入用T表示，政府用于物品与劳务的支出用G 表示。
如果T大于G，政府的预算盈余就是（T G）。
4．古典总供给曲线答：古典总供给曲线又称为长期总供给曲线。
按照古典学派的说法，在长期当中，价格和货币工资具有伸缩性，因此，经济的就业水平就会处在充分就业的状态上。
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曼昆《经济学原理（宏观）》期末复习提纲第24-25章• 掌握消费物价指数（CPI ）与生产物价指数（PPI ）的计算方法；通货膨胀：指经济中物价总水平的上升消费物价指数（CPI ）：普通消费者购买的物品与劳务总费用的衡量指标。
每年一篮子物品与劳务的价格要除以基年一篮子物品与劳务的价格，然后把这个比率乘以100，所得出的数字就是消费物价指数。
通货膨胀率：从前一个时期以来物价总水平变动的百分比第二年通胀率= 生产物价指数（PPI ）：企业购买的一篮子物品与劳务的费用的衡量指标。
由于企业最终要把它们的费用以更高消费价格的形式转移给消费者，所以生产物价指数变动将领先于消费物价指数，因此可以预测消费物价指数的变动。
• 理解CPI 是高估还是低估生活费用？为什么？替代倾向。
一篮子的数量权重不变，但实际上便宜物品一直在替代昂贵物品，CPI 高估了从某一年到下一年生活费用的增加。
新产品的引进。
新产品的出现并不能在一篮子物品中反映出来，所以物价指数不能反映公众享受到的福利。
无法衡量的质量变动。
物品质量变动不能在货币价值中反映出来，物价指数不能反映生活质量的变动。
因此，CPI 高估了真实的通货膨胀。
• 了解CPI 与GDP 平减指数的差异；消费物价指数与GDP 平减指数的变动并不完全一致，因为前者只指消费者的支出，后者指所有的商品和劳务，进口影响消费物价指数而不影响GDP 平减指数；且两者的权重不同，GDP 平减指数一直随GDP 构成的变动而自动地改变物品与劳务的组合，而消费物价指数用固定的一篮子物品。
指数化：当一美元购买力根据法律或合约自动按照通货膨胀校正时被称为通货膨胀的指数化。
• 掌握生产率的含义以及决定生产率的各种要素；生产率：一个工人每小时工作时间所生产的物品与劳务的数量。
生产率的决定因素：物质资本、人力资本、自然资源和技术知识物质资本：用于生产物品与劳务的设备与建筑物存量人力资本：工人通过教育、培训和经验而获得的知识与技能自然资源：由自然界提供的用于生产物品与劳务的投入，如土地、河流和矿藏。
CPICPI -CPI 第一年第一年第二年技术知识：社会对生产物品与劳务的最好方法的了解。
•理解“一个国家的生活水平取决于生产物品和劳务的能力”的原理。
一个经济的国内生产总值（GDP）同时衡量经济中所有人赚到的总收入和经济中物品与劳务产量的总支出。
一个经济的收入是该经济的产出。
一个国家只有生产出大量物品与劳务，它才能享有更高的生活水平。
第26-27章•了解金融市场的类型与主要参与者；金融体系：经济中促使一个人的储蓄与另一个人的投资相匹配的一组机构金融机构分为两种类型——金融市场和金融中介机构金融市场：储蓄者可以通过它直接向借款人提供资金的金融机构。
两种最重要的金融市场是债券市场和股票市场。
债券市场：专门交易企业债券和政府债券的市场债券：一种债务证明书，规定借款人对债券持有人负有债务责任的证明。
债券的三个特点：1)期限——债券到期之前的时间长度。
债券的利率部分取决于它的期限，长期债券风险高、利率高。
2)信用风险——借款人不能支付某些利息或本金的可能性，这种不能支付成为拖欠。
3)税收待遇——税法对待债券所赚到的利息的方式股票市场：专门买卖股票的市场股票：代表企业的所有权，也代表对企业所获得利润的索取权。
与债券相比，股票既提供高风险，又提供潜在的高收益。
股票市场上股票交易的价格是由其供求状况决定的。
由于股票代表公司所有权，所以，股票的需求（以及其价格）反映了人们对公司未来盈利性的预期。
股票指数：计算一组股票价格的平均数，可用于监视整个股票价格水平。
企业筹资出售股票为股本筹资；出售债券为债务筹资。
金融中介机构：储蓄者可以间接地向借款者提供资金的金融机构，它们是借贷双方的中介和桥梁。
两种最重要的金融中介机构——银行和共同基金。
银行：吸收储蓄者的存款贷放给借款人，赚取存贷款利差。
银行可以给存款人提供支票，作为交换媒介进行交易。
共同基金：是一个向公众出售股份，并用收入来购买各种股票、债券、或者它们的某种组合的机构。
共同基金持有人接受这种资产组合相关的所有风险与收益。
如果资产组合价值上升，持股人受益；反之则损失。
共同基金的优点：可以使钱不多的人也能进行多元化投资，降低风险；可以使普通人享有专业资金管理者的服务。
•理解国民收入帐户恒等式以及储蓄和投资的含义（它适用于每个家庭和企业吗？）；重要的恒等式Y=C+I+G+NX封闭经济（不与其他经济交易的经济）的净出口等于零，所以Y=C+I+G对此等式移项，得Y-C-G=I等式左端是在消费和政府购买之后留下的总收入，称为国民储蓄（简称储蓄），所以该式又可以表达为S=I 储蓄等于投资也可以是S=Y-C-G或者S=（Y-T-C）+（T-G）储蓄因此等于私人储蓄与公共储蓄之和私人储蓄（Y-T-C）是家庭在支付了税收和消费之后剩下的收入量公共储蓄（T-G）是政府在支付其花费后剩下来的税收收入量，政府税收大于支出为预算盈余，反之则为预算赤字。
该等式表明通过金融市场可以在整体上实现社会的储蓄等于投资。
储蓄等于投资的机制：个人存款银行或买股票的储蓄未必等于另一个人购买厂房设备的投资，但是，投资者可以通过金融机构借到不足的资金，这就能在总量上实现投资等于储蓄。
•理解可贷资金市场的供给（储蓄）和需求（投资）及其均衡；可贷资金市场：假定存在这样一个市场，所有的储蓄都进入这个市场，所有的投资都借自这个市场。
这个市场的利率既是储蓄的收益，又是借款的成本。
可贷资金：人们选择储蓄并贷出不用于自己消费的所有收入。
可贷资金市场的供给与需求：供给来自那些有额外收入，并想储蓄和贷出的人。
其方式可以是直接的买债券，也可以是间接的存款。
需求来自希望借款进行投资的家庭和企业，包括抵押贷款购置住房或购买设备建立工厂。
可贷资金的供求取决于实际利率。
·挤出：由于政府借款所引起的投资减少•能够利用供求曲线分析各类政策（譬如，存款利息政策）对可贷资金市场均衡的影响；•掌握用现值来衡量货币的时间价值，掌握风险的概念并区分特有风险、总风险。
金融学：研究在一定时期内，如何配置资源和应对风险，作出决策的学科。
现值：用现行利率带来一定量未来货币所需要的现在货币量。
现值的概念说明：接受现在一定量货币比接受未来等量货币更为可取；不同时点上的货币价值的比较要转换成现值进行。
如果一个项目的现值超过成本，企业就应该投资这个项目。
货币的时间价值是按照复利计算的，其公式为FV=PV（1+r）t如果将未来的货币转换成现在的货币，其公式为PV=FV/（1+r）t风险厌恶：对坏事的厌恶大于对可比的好事的喜欢，边际效用递减多元化：通过用大量不相关的小风险代替一种风险来减少风险。
特有风险：只影响一个经济主体的风险总风险：同时影响所有经济主体的风险股票有价证券的风险随股票数量的增加而大大降低，但完全消除风险是不可能的。
多元化可以消除特有风险——与某公司相关的不确定性，但是不能消除总风险——与影响所有公司的整个经济相关的不确定性。
投入股票越多，风险和收益就越大。
第28章•理解政府是如何统计劳动力与失业指标的；劳动力（成年人）=就业人数+失业人数失业率=失业人数/（就业人数+失业人数）劳动力参工率=劳动力/成年人口失业指标并没有反映所有的失业者，特别是那些没有工作，找不到工作失去信心的工人，没有反映在失业统计中。
失业大多是短期的，而在任何一个时间所观察到的大多数失业是长期的。
经济中大部分失业问题是由少数长期没有工作的工人造成的。
•注意区分自然失业、周期性失业以及摩擦性失业、结构性失业等概念；正常失业率就是自然失业，它为劳动力市场的不完善所造成，可以分成摩擦性失业、求职性失业、结构性失业、技术性失业、季节性失业和古典性失业。
周期性失业：与自然失业率背离的失业，它为总需求不足所造成。
摩擦性失业：由于工人找到最适于自己嗜好和技能的工作需要时间而引起的失业。
解释较短的失业持续时间。
摩擦性失业不可避免，因为经济在发展，产业结构在调整，劳动力也要随之在不同产业之间转移，这个转移的过程就是摩擦性失业。
失业保障：当工人失业时为他们提供部分收入保护的政府计划。
这在一定程度上提高了摩擦性失业，因为工人缺乏足够的就业刺激。
结构性失业：由于某些劳动市场上可得到的工作岗位数量不足以为每个想工作的人提供工作而引起的失业。
解释较长的失业持续时间。
当工资由于某些原因高于使供求均衡的水平时，就产生了这种失业。
高于均衡工资的三个可能原因：最低工资法、工会和效率工资。
工会：与雇主就工资和工作条件进行谈判的工人协会。
工会通过集体谈判和罢工，将工资提高得超过均衡水平，从而使就业的局内人得到好处，没有就业的局外人承受损失。
工会的存在既有提高工资，造成资源配置低效率的一面；也有保护工人利益，形成乐观有效的工人队伍的一面。
•了解最低工资法是如何造成古典性失业的；•了解效率工资理论。
效率工资：企业为了提高工人生产率而支付的高于均衡水平的工资。
效率工资高于均衡水平，它在增加企业成本的同时，也提高了效率；而且高效率的收益大于工资成本的上升。
效率工资有利于工人的健康，降低工人的流动性，提高工人的努力程度，可以选择高素质的工人。
第29章•理解货币的含义和货币的三项职能；货币：经济中人们经常用于向其他人购买物品与劳务的一组资产。
货币的三种职能：交换媒介、计价单位和价值储藏。
交换媒介：当买者在购买物品与劳务时给予卖者的东西计价单位：人们用来表示价格和记录债务的标准价值储藏：人们可以用来把现在的购买力转变为未来的购买力的东西流动性：一种资产可以兑换为经济中交换媒介的容易程度。
货币是最具流动性的资产。
商品货币：以有内在价值的商品为形式的货币。
（黄金、香烟）法定货币：没有内在价值、由政府法令而作为通货使用的货币。
（纸币美元）美国经济中的货币主要有现金和支票。
信用卡不包括在货币量的所有衡量中，结算卡上的账户余额包括在货币量的衡量中。
现金：公众手中持有的纸币钞票和铸币活期存款：储户可以随时开支票的银行账户余额•理解货币的创造过程与乘数效应，并能计算货币乘数与货币供给量；准备金：银行得到但没有贷出去的存款。
准备率：银行作为准备金持有的存款比例。
美联储规定银行持有的准备金量的最低水平，称为法定准备金率。
银行可以持有高于法定最低量的准备金，称为超额准备金。
货币乘数：银行体系用1美元准备金所产生的货币量。
是准备率的倒数M = 1/R，所以银行创造多少货币量取决于准备率。
•了解美联储管理货币供给的三个主要工具：公开市场活动、准备金率、贴现率。
中央银行：为了监督银行体系和调节经济中货币量而设计的机构。
公开市场活动：美联储买卖美国政府债券。
是最常用的货币政策工具。
中央银行高价买进国债，收益率下降，货币供给量增加，利率下降；反之中央银行低价卖出国债，利率上升，货币供给量减少。