Lecture_7_Chapter_7_Motivation_
motivation 课程大纲
Dimensions of Motivation in Language LearningJeff TennantWEFLA 2004Universidad de Holguín“Oscar Lucero Moya”Course Overview IDefining motivationMotivation as an individual difference variable in second language acquisition (SLA)Some theories of motivation in psychologyCourse Overview IIRobert Gardner’s socio-educational modelDebates on the expansion of the modelEmpirical research studiesApproaches to motivating our studentsWhat is motivation?Brainstorming activity:What does the word “motivation” mean to you?Describe a situation in which you feel very motivated.Describe a situation in which you do not feel motivated.Dörnyei’s “10 Commandments” ISet a personal example with your own behavior.Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.Present the tasks properly.Develop a good relationship with the learners.Increase the learners’ linguistic self-confidence.Dörnyei’s “10 Commandments” IIMake the language classes interestingPromote learner autonomyPersonalise the learning processIncrease learners’ goal-orientednessFamiliarize learners with the target language cultureWHICH OF THESE ARE MOST IMPORTANT TO YOU AND WHY?Defining MotivationVast and complex concept referring to what makes people do what they doNot an easy concept to defineWays of defining it have evolved along with theories of human behavior and mindDefinition from Madsen (1959):“By motivation, psychologists mean that which gives impetus to behavior byarousing, sustaining, and directing it toward the attainment of goals.”Earlier theories of motivation IDrive theory (Hull, 1952):physiological needs which create drives; people are motivated to satisfythose drivesReinforcement theory (Skinner, 1953):behaviorist psychology: stimulus-response, behavior controlled byreinforcementsLocke & Latham (1994: 13): “based on the premise that human action could be understood without reference to consciousness. The premise iswrong…”Earlier theories of motivation IIHumanistic psychology (Maslow): satisfaction of basic needs:PhysiologicalSafetyLoveEsteemself-actualizationCurrent dominant paradigmsCognitive revolution:Chomsky’s review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior contributed to a declineof behaviorist theories and the development of cognitive theories Cognitive and social theories:People viewed as autonomous, thinking beings with minds, who are opento influences from their environment and social context, but are not fullydetermined by those influences.Language Learning MotivationThe most influential approach to motivation in language learning: R.C. Gardner Individual difference variable reflecting affective dimension of learningMotivation:Desire + Effort + Attitude, directed toward a GoalOrientations:Integrative orientationLearning an L2 to communicate with the people who speak it, discovertheir culture, etc.Instrumental orientationLearning a language for a practical purpose, such as to obtainemployment or get by while travelingMotivation and orientationsClément & Kruidenier (1983) also add:Travel orientationFriendship orientationOxford and Shearin (1994): many examples of orientations that they confuse with motivations:Do businessMake friendsIntellectual stimulationPersonal challengeShowing off to friendsAiding world peaceLearn a private code that parents wouldn’t knowTheories in Motivational PsychologyExpectancy-value theoryGoal theorySelf-determination theoryExpectancy-Value Theory IA dominant cognitive approach in recent research on motivational psychology Focus on motivation as:A person’s expectancy of success in a taskThe value the person attributes to success in the taskThree theories of expectancy of successAttribution theorySelf-efficacy theorySef-worth theoryExpectancy-Value Theory IIAttribution theory (Bernard Weiner)Causal attributions of past successes and failures, which will affect future effortsPeople can attribute success to:AbilityEffortTask difficultyLuckOther factors.Attribution of failure to lack of effort can be less demotivating thanattributing it to lack of abilityExpectancy-Value Theory IIISelf-efficacy theory“people’s judgement of their capabilities to carry out certain specific tasks”(Dörnyei, 2001a: 22)Four factors in self-efficacy according to Bandura (1993)Previous performanceVicarious learning (by observing models)Verbal encouragement by othersPhysiological reactionsExpectancy-Value Theory IVSelf-worth theory (Covington)People are motivated to maintain a sense of self-worth (i.e. to feel goodabout themselves)This can lead them to avoid making an effort so that unsatisfactoryperformance can be attributed to lack of effort rather than lack of abilityExpectancy-Value Theory VValue (or valence) component of expectancy-value theories:“Does a person want to do the task?Elements that define the intensity of the motivation4 componentsAttainment value: importance to the person of mastering the skill or task Intrinsic value: interest, esthetic appreciation, enjoymentExtrinsic utility value: relation to goals, how it improves the person’squality of lifeCost: negative component: expended effort and time, anxiety, fear offailureGoal Theories IGoals replace the notion of needs of earlier theoriesVariables in goal setting theory:Specificity of goalDifficulty of goalGoal commitmentGoal Theories IIMain findings of goal theory research (Locke, 1996), quoted in Dörnyei (20001a: 26):The more difficult the goal, the greater the achievementThe more specific or explicit the goal, the more precisely performance isregulatedGoals that are both specific and difficult lead to the highest performance Commitment to goals is most critical when goals are specific and difficult High commitment to goals is attained when (a) the individual is convinced that the goal is important; and (b) the individual is convinced that the goal is attainable.Goal Theories IIIGoal orientation theoryMastery orientationFocus on learning, mastering content: “task-involvement goals”Performance orientationDemonstrate ability, get good grades, do better than others: “ego-involvement goals”Self-determination theory IDistinction between intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of motivationIntrinsic:To experience pleasure, satisfy curiosityExtrinsic:Means to an end, receive awards, avoid punishmentAmotivation:Lack of regulation: “there is no point”; “I don’t know why I’m doing this”feelingSelf-determination theory IIContinuum of different types of extrinsic regulation (Vallerand, Deci & Ryan, Noels et al.)External regulation (or extrinsic): least self-determined: doing somethingdue to external pressuresIntrojected regulation: doing something because you think you should: obeya rule, conform to an external expectationIdentified regulation: doing something because you recognize its personal importance (e.g. hobby)Integrated regulation: doing something because it is considered part ofone’s self-identityMotivation as an individual difference variable in SLASome individual difference variables that have been studied:AgeAptitudeCognitive styleStrategy useAttitudes and MotivationThe role of age in SLAThe Critical Period HypothesisIs there an age after which native-like proficiency in an L2 in no longerattainable?Sometimes called “sensitive period”Research findings mixed: “yes and no”Before age 7, native-like proficiency quite certain7 to 14: more variation in degree of accentednessAfter age 14, native-like proficiency sometimes considered impossible, but some succeedNo biological evidence for critical periodAccess to Universal Grammar (UG) in SLAResearch related to role of age focuses now on learning mechanisms involved:Do L2 learners have access to Universal Grammar (specialized cognitive structures for language)?Issue still the subject of hot debateSome research supports hypothesis of UG accessOther research points to use of general learning mechanisms: e.g. gender in FrenchAptitudeDifferences in natural ability to learn an L2Partly related to general intelligence, partly distinctHas been shown to play an important role in language learning achievement Aptitude is focused on less nowadays in L2 education: preference to think in terms of what can be changedComponents of language learning aptitudePhonemic coding abilityAbility to identify sounds, establish sound-symbol linksGrammatical sensitivityAwareness of grammatical patterns, structuresInductive language learning abilityAbility to infer form-meaning links from contextRote learning abilityAbility to form and remember associations; plays role in vocabulary learningCognitive styleThe way people approach mental tasksOften seen as contrast between field dependence and field independence Field independent learners:Can focus on specific parts of what is being learned, without beingdistracted by overall pictureField dependent learners:More oriented to overall picture with less focus on smaller parts of itRole of cognitive styleIs one cognitive style better than the other for language learning? It depends on what aspects of learning we are considering…Field independent: better at analytical tasks involving grammatical accuracy;stronger on accuracy than fluencyField dependent: better at synthesis, broader picture, general communicative skills, even if not with perfect accuracy; stronger on fluency than accuracyStrategy useLanguage learning strategies: practices that aid language learningRebecca Oxford’s (1990) classification:Direct strategiesCognitive, memory, compensationIndirect strategiesMetacognitive, affective, socialLanguage learning strategiesCognitive strategies: repeating, translating, taking notes, summarizingMemory strategies: associating, using keywords, physical response or sensationCompensation strategies: using clues, switching to L1, using gestureLanguage learning strategiesMetacognitive strategies: organizing, self-monitoring, overviewing and linking already known materialAffective strategies: making positive statements, using relaxation, discussing feelings with other peopleSocial strategies: asking for correction, cooperating with peers, developing cultural understandingA study of strategy useUWO French 021 studentsMemory and cognitive strategies linked to achievement (grades) in the course Memory strategies were least used -- training in them could be helpfulStudents thought strategies could benefit them and should be integrated in curriculumThe “Good language learner” 11.Has an effective personal learning style or positive learning strategies2.Has an active approach to the learning task3.Has a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language and empathywith its speakers4.Has technical know-how about how to tackle a language5.Has strategies of experimentation and planning with the object of developingthe language into an ordered system and revising this system progressivelyThe “Good language learner” 21.Is constantly searching for meaning.2.Is willing to practise.3.Is willing to use the language in real communication.4.Has self-monitoring ability and critical sensitivity to language use.5.Is able to develop the target language more and more as a separatereference system and to learn to think in it.Gardner’s socio-educational modelLanguage learning is different from learning another subject matterNot just learning facts, but acquiring behaviour, ways of thinking and expressing oneself, that are those of another groupA central concept contributing to language learning success: the integrativemotiveImportance of attitudes:"an attitude is an evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object,inferred on the basis of the individual's beliefs or opinions about thereferent” (Gardner, 1985: 9)Gardner’s AMTB ISurvey instrument, questionnaire: the Attitudes / Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)Validated in dozens of studies, the only one to have such convincing proof of its validity and statistical reliabilitySeveral questions for each trait studied, e.g. for motivational intensity:I actively think about what I have learned in my French class: a) veryfrequently (3); b) hardly ever (1), c) once in a while (2)A shorter version, the mini-AMTB: one question per traitGardner’s AMTB IIMotivation (mini-AMTB items)Desire: My desire to learn French is: Weak <-> StrongMotivational intensity: I would characterize how hard I work at learningFrench as: Very little <-> Very muchAttitudes toward learning the language: My attitude toward learning French is: Unfavourable <-> FavourableGardner’s AMTB IIIIntegrativeness (mini-AMTB items)Integrative orientation: If I were to rate my feelings about learning French in order to interact with Francophones, I would have to say they are: Weak <-> StrongAttitudes toward the target language group: My attitudes towardsFrancophones is: Favourable <-> UnfavourableInterest in foreign languages: My interest in languages other than French and English is: Very Low <-> Very HighGardner’s AMTB IVAttitudes toward the learning situation (mini-AMTB items)Attitudes toward the instructor: My attitude toward my French professor is: Favourable <-> UnfavourableAttitudes toward the course: My attitude toward my French classes is:Favourable <-> UnfavourableInstrumental orientation (mini-AMTB item):If I were to rate my feelings about learning French for practical purposessuch as to improve my occupational opportunities, I would say that theyare: Weak <-> StrongGardner’s AMTB VAnxiety (mini-AMTB items)French course anxiety: My anxiety level in my French classes is: Very Low <-> Very HighFrench use anxiety: My anxiety in speaking French outside of class is: Very Low <-> Very HighIntegrative motiveThe Integrative motive is composed of:IntegrativenessAttitudes toward the learning situationMotivationMotivation affects the success of learningAttitudes have an indirect effect on learning: their effects are mediated by motivationDebates on the expansion of the model ICrookes & Schmidt (1991): “Reopening the research agenda”, Oxford & Shearin (1994), Dörnyei (1994), criticisms of GardnerHis theory has dominated the field too muchHis approach to motivation doesn’t reflect teachers’ concernsHis theory is limited to the affective dimension from a social psychological approach, without considering other perspective from educationalpsychologyDebates on the expansion of the model IIGardner’s position:Some criticisms based on misinterpretations of his theory (e.g. the mistaken belief that the opposition between integrative and instrumental motivation isa central part of his model)Need to carry out empirical investigations to validate expanded theory« On with the challenge! »Empirical research studiesTremblay & Gardner (1995)Gardner, Tremblay Masgoret (1997): full empirical modelGardner at al. (2004): trait, state, changesGardner & Tennant: expanded mini-AMTBTremblay & Gardner (1995)Incorporation of new concepts in a causal model including socio-educational model elements:Goal-setting theory, Expectancy-value theoryStudy of students in French-language secondary schoolSome results:Language attitudes -> motivated behaviourGoal setting -> motivated behaviorAdaptive attributions -> self-efficiency -> motivated behaviourGardner, Tremblay & Masgoret (1997) I“Towards a full model of second language learning: An empirical investigation” 102 university students in intro FrenchComprehensive questionnaire including AMTB items, aptitude, field dependence/independence, self-confidenceGardner, Tremblay & Masgoret (1997) IIResults show links between:Attitudes and motivationAptitude and achievementMotivation and achievementMotivation and self-confidenceAchievement and self-confidenceStrategy use and achievement (negative correlation)Approaches to motivating our studentsWith all we know (and don’t know) about language learning motivation, can we language teachers motivate our students?We saw a number of suggestions in Zoltán Dörnyei’s “10 commandments’While these haven’t been demonstrated empirically to have definite effects on motivation, they are good tips to tryWilliams and Burden’s suggestions1.Recognize the complexity of motivation2.Be aware of both initiating and sustaining motivation3.Discuss with learners why they are carrying out activities4.Involve learners in decisions related to learning the language5.Involve learners in setting language learning goals6.Recognise people as individualsWilliams and Burden’s suggestions 21.Build up individuals’ beliefs in themselves2.Develop internal beliefs3.Help to move towards a mastery-oriented style4.Enhance intrinsic motivation5.Build up a supportive learning environment6.Give feedback that is informationalDörnyei’s Motivational Strategies ICreating the basic motivational conditions:Demonstrate and talk about your own enthusiasm for the course material, and how it affects you personallyTake the students’ learning very seriouslyDevelop a personal relationship with your studentsCreate a pleasant and supportive atmosphere in the classroomPromote the development of group cohesivenessDörnyei’s Motivational Strategies IIGenerating initial motivation:Raise the learners’ intrinsic interest in the L2 learning processPromote ‘integrative’ values by encouraging a positive and open-mindeddisposition towards the L2 and its speakers, and towards foreignness ingeneralPromote the students’ awareness of the instrumental values associatedwith the knowledge of an L2Increase the students’ expectancy of success in particular tasks and inlearning in generalIncrease your students’ goal-orientedness by formulating explicit classgoals accepted by themDörnyei’s Motivational Strategies IIIMaintaining and protecting motivation:Make learning more stimulating and enjoyable by breaking the monotony of classroom eventsPresent and administer tasks in a motivating wayUse goal-setting methods in your classroomBuild your learners’ confidence by providing regular encouragementHelp diminish language anxiety by removing or reducing the anxiety-producing elements in the learning environmentBuild your learners’ confidence in their learning abilities by teaching them various learner strategiesDörnyei’s Motivational Strategies IVEncouraging positive self-evaluation:Promote effort attributions in your studentsProvide students with positive information feedbackIncrease learner satisfactionOffer rewards in a motivational mannerUse grades in a motivating manner, reducing as much as possible theirdemotivating impactConclusionHave our ideas about motivation changed since the brainstorming at the beginning?。
英语视听说motivating
MOTIVATING LEARNERSFrom The Essentials of Language Teaching/essentialsA project of the National Capital Language Resource Center©2003-2007Learning to communicate in another language takes a long time. It is one of the most challenging tasks your students are likely to undertake, and they can easily become discouraged and bored with it. This section presents techniques that language teachers can use to keep their students interested and motivated by helping them understand the language acquisition process, connect language learning with their larger educational and life goals, and succeed as language learners.A self-evaluation worksheet, attached at the end of this document, allows instructors to assess their current and potential motivation techniques. A supervisor observation worksheet enables supervisors to support instructors' development of such techniques. Section ContentsUnderstanding language acquisitionPromoting engagement in language learningAchieving success with learning strategiesResourcesWorksheetsInstructor self-evaluation worksheetSupervisor observation worksheetThe material in this section is based on “Research and language learning: A tour of the horizon” by Ken Sheppard and “Teaching learning strategies to language students” by Anna Uhl Chamot from Modules for the Professional Preparation of Teaching Assistants in Foreign Languages (Grace Stovall Burkart, Ed.; Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1998).Understanding Language AcquisitionTo become engaged learners, students need to understand that learning a language is not the same as learning about a language. When students think of the language as a school subject like any other, they may learn a great deal about its vocabulary, grammar, and sentence and discourse structure, but the language will not become a true medium of communication for them and won't engage them very deeply. Students need to understand that learning a language means becoming able to use it to comprehend, communicate, and think—as they do in their first language.Students also need to recognize that language learning takes place in stages. Interpretive skills (listening, reading) develop much more quickly than expressive skills (speaking, writing), and the ability that students covet most—the ability to speak the second language fluently—requires the longest period of growth.All language learners have to work through a sequence of "approximate" versions called interlanguages (ILs), each of which represents a level of understanding of the target language. Understanding the features of ILs can help teachers and learners understand and monitor the language learning process.Uniqueness: ILs vary significantly from learner to learner in the early stages of language learning. Learners impose rules of their own on the oral and written input they receive. Each learner does this differently, combining emerging understanding of the rules of the new language with ideas derived from the first language and other information that comes from their individual situations and backgrounds.Systematicity: As learners begin to develop proficiency in a language, they make errors in systematic ways. For example, once students learn the inflections for a single class of verbs, they may apply them to all classes indiscriminately. These errors are based on systematic assumptions, or false rules, about the language. When students become aware of this aspect of their language skill development, they often appreciate and even ask for overt error correction from the instructor.Fossilization: Some false rules become more firmly imprinted on the IL than others and are harder for learners to overcome. Fossilization results when these false rules become permanent features of a learner's use of the language.Convergence: As learners' rules come to approximate more closely those of the language they are learning, convergence sets in. This means that learners who come from different native language backgrounds make similar assumptions and formulate similar hypotheses about the rules of the new language, and therefore make similar errors. Instructors can help students understand the process of language skill development in several ways.(a) Focus on interlanguage as a natural part of language learning; remind themthat they learned their first language this way.(b) Point out that the systematic nature of interlanguage can help studentsunderstand why they make errors. They can often predict when they will makeerrors and what types of errors they will make.(c) Keep the overall focus of the classroom on communication, not errorcorrection. Use overt correction only in structured output activities. (SeePlanning a Lesson for more on structured output.)(d) Teach students that mistakes are learning opportunities. When their errorsinterfere with their ability to communicate, they must develop strategies forhandling the misunderstanding that results.If you maintain the attitude that mistakes are a natural part of learning, you will create a supportive environment where students are willing to try to use the language even though their mastery of forms is imperfect.Promoting Engagement in Language LearningLanguage teachers promote or discourage students' engagement by the ways they define successful language learners. When the successful language learner is one who can pass tests and make good grades, learning about the language is all that is required and success is defined by mastery of rules and forms. When the successful language learner is one who has the ability to use the language to accomplish communication goals, success is defined as making the language one's own.To promote engagement in language learning:•Encourage students to use the language spontaneously to communicate ideas, feelings, and opinions•Identify informal out-of-class language learning experiences•Ask students to evaluate their progress in terms of increases in their functional proficiencyStudents' motivation for learning a language increases when they see connections between what they do in the classroom and what they hope to do with the language in the future. Their attention increases when classroom activities are relevant to their other interests.To make these connections, begin by having students list the ways they may use the language in future. Have them include both the ways they plan to use it and other ways that might arise. Ask them to be as specific as possible. For each way of using language, ask them to list specific communication tasks that they will need to be able to do. Use these purposes and tasks as the basis for task-oriented classroom communication activities.Some lower level students will respond that they don't plan to use the language—that they are taking the course to fulfill a university language requirement. Encourage these students to develop an imaginary scenario for themselves in which they have some reason for using the language. In doing this, some students may think of ways in which they really might use it, and others will come to understand that purpose is an integral part of language learning.Sample Ways of Using a Language•When traveling in a country where it is spokenTasks: ask for directions (and understand responses), purchase tickets and bookhotel rooms, read signs and informational materials•To study at a university in a country where it is spokenTasks: understand lectures, take notes, read academic materials, talk with otherstudents (social and academic talk)•To become knowledgeable about the history and culture of a country where it is spokenTasks: read about history and culture, understand plays, movies, and otherperformances, interview people from the country•To provide legal assistance to native speakers who are immigrants to this countryTasks: gather personal statistical information, explain legal requirements, explain social and cultural expectations, describe procedures, understand and answerquestions.Another way of making language instruction relevant and interesting to students is to find out what topics they are studying and draw materials for reading and discussion from those fields. However, remember that reading and discussion do not always have to be about serious issues or academic topics. Students enjoy talking about movies and television programs, vacation plans, famous people, and other popular culture topics.Finally, don't be afraid to drop a topic if students' interest begins to fade. Ask them to suggest alternatives. When students know that they have some control over what they do in the language classroom, they take ownership as engaged learners.Achieving Success with Learning StrategiesStudents learning a language have two kinds of knowledge working for them:•Their knowledge of their first language•Their awareness of learning strategies, the mechanisms they use, consciously or unconsciously, to manage the absorption of new materialStudents differ as language learners in part because of differences in ability, motivation, or effort, but a major difference lies in their knowledge about and skill in using "how to learn" techniques, that is, learning strategies. Classroom research demonstrates the role of learning strategies in effective language learning:•Good learners are able to identify the best strategy for a specific task; poor learners have difficulty choosing the best strategy for a specific task •Good learners are flexible in their approach and adopt a different strategy if the first one doesn't work; poor learners have a limited variety of strategies in theirrepertoires and stay with the first strategy they have chosen even when it doesn't work•Good learners have confidence in their learning ability; poor learners lack confidence in their learning ability•Good learners expect to succeed, fulfill their expectation, and become more motivated; poor learners: expect to do poorly, fulfill their expectation, and losemotivationLearning strategies instruction shows students that their success or lack of it in the language classroom is due to the way they go about learning rather than to forces beyond their control. Most students can learn how to use strategies more effectively; when they do so, they become more self reliant and better able to learn independently. They begin to take more responsibility for their own learning, and their motivation increases because they have increased confidence in their learning ability and specific techniques for successful language learning.Instructors can tap into students' knowledge about how languages work and how learning happens—their metacognition—to help them direct and monitor the language learning process in two ways:•By encouraging them to recognize their own thinking processes, developing self-knowledge that leads to self-regulation: planning how to proceed with a learning task, monitoring one's own performance on an ongoing basis, and evaluatinglearning and self as learner upon task completion. Students with greatermetacognitive awareness understand the similarity between the current learning task and previous ones, know the strategies required for successful learning, and anticipate success as a result of knowing how to learn.•By describing specific learning strategies, demonstrating their application to designated learning tasks, and having students practice using them. In order tocontinue to be successful with learning tasks, students need to be aware of thestrategies that led to their success and recognize the value of using them again.By devoting class time to learning strategies, teachers reiterate their importanceand value.To teach language learning strategies effectively, instructors should do several things:•Build on strategies students already use by finding out their current strategiesand making students aware of the range of strategies used by their classmates •Integrate strategy instruction with regular lessons, rather than teaching thestrategies separately from language learning activities•Be explicit: name the strategy, tell students why and how it will help them, anddemonstrate its use•Provide choice by letting students decide which strategies work best for them •Guide students in transferring a familiar strategy to new problems•Plan continuous instruction in language learning strategies throughout the course•Use the target language as much as possible for strategies instruction(See Planning a Lesson for information on integrating strategy instruction into a language lesson.)Learning Strategies for Language LearnersLearning strategies researchers have generated many lists of strategies reported by students. Those listed here are ones that teachers can teach and that students have found useful in learning a language.METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIESSTRATEGY DESCRIPTIONOrganize / Plan •Set goals•Plan how to accomplish the task •Plan the task or content sequenceManage Your Own Learning •Determine how you learn best •Arrange conditions that help you learn •Seek opportunities for practice •Focus your attention on the taskMonitor While working on a task:•Check your progress on the task.•Check your comprehension as you use the language. Are you understanding?•Check your production as you use the language.Are you making sense?Evaluate After completing a task:•Assess how well you have accomplished the learning task.•Assess how well you have applied the strategies.•Decide how effective the strategies were in helping you accomplish the task.TASK-BASED STRATEGIES STRATEGY DESCRIPTIONUSE WHAT YOU KNOWUse Background Knowledge •Think about and use what you already know to help you do the task.•Make associations.Make Inferences •Use context and what you know to figure out meaning.•Read and listen between the lines.Make Predictions•Anticipate information to come.•Make logical guesses about what will happen.Personalize•Relate new concepts to your own life, that is, toyour experiences, knowledge, beliefs, and feelings.Transfer / Use Cognates •Apply your linguistic knowledge of other languages (including your native language) to the target language.•Recognize cognates.Substitute / Paraphrase•Think of a similar word or descriptive phrase forwords you do not know in the target language.USE YOUR IMAGINATIONUse Imagery•Use or create an image to understand and/orrepresent information.Use Real Objects / Role Play •Act out and/or imagine yourself in different roles in the target language.•Manipulate real objects as you use the target language.USE YOUR ORGANIZATIONAL SKILLSFind/Apply Patterns •Apply a rule.•Make a rule.•Sound out and apply letter/sound rules.Group/Classify•Relate or categorize words or ideas according toattributes.Use Graphic Organizers / Take Notes •Use or create visual representations (such as Venn diagrams, time lines, and charts) of importantrelationships between concepts.•Write down important words and ideas.Summarize•Create a mental, oral, or written summary ofinformation.Use Selective Attention•Focus on specific information, structures, keywords, phrases, or ideas.TASK-BASED STRATEGIES STRATEGY DESCRIPTIONUSE A VARIETY OF RESOURCESAccess Information Sources •Use the dictionary, the internet, and other reference materials.•Seek out and use sources of information.•Follow a model•Ask questionsCooperate•Work with others to complete tasks, buildconfidence, and give and receive feedback.Talk Yourself Through It (Self-Talk)•Use your inner resources. Reduce your anxiety by reminding yourself of your progress, the resources you have available, and your goals.ResourcesBialystok, E. (1990). Communication strategies: A psychological analysis of second language use. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Chamot, A. U. (1993). Student responses to learning strategy instruction in the foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 26(3), 308-321.Chamot, A. U., Barnhardt, S., El-Dinary, P. B., Carbonaro, G., & Robbins, J. (1993).Methods for teaching learning strategies in foreign language instruction and informalassessment of language skills. Final report submitted to Center for InternationalEducation, U.S. Department of Education. Available from ERIC Clearinghouseon Languages and Linguistics, ED 365 157.Chamot, A. U., & Küpper, L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction.Foreign Language Annals, 22(1), 13-24.Chamot, A. U., & O'Malley, J. M. (1994). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Derry, S. J. (1990). Learning strategies for acquiring useful knowledge. In B. F. Jones & L.Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp. 347-379). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Gagné, E. D., Yekovich, C. W., & Yekovich, F. R. (1993). The cognitive psychology of school learning (2nd ed.). New York: Harper Collins.Gass, S. M., & Selinker, L. (1994). Second language acquisition: An introductory course.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Harley, B., Allen, P., Cummins, J., & Swain, M. (Eds.). (1990). The development of second language proficiency. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Hosenfeld, C., Arnold, V., Kirchofer, J., Laciura, J., & Wilson, L. (1981). Second language reading: A curricular sequence for teaching reading strategies. Foreign LanguageAnnals, 14(5), 415-422.Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. London: Longman.O'Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition.New York: Cambridge University Press.O'Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., & Küpper, L. (1989). Listening comprehension strategies in second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 10(4), 418-437.Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.Oxford, R., & Cohen, A. (1992). Language learning strategies: Critical issues of concept and classification. Applied Language Learning, 3, 1-35.Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1985). Reciprocal teaching: Activities to promote "reading with your mind." In T. L. Harris & E. J. Cooper (Eds.), Reading, thinking, and concept development: Strategies for the classroom (pp. 147-160). New York: TheCollege Board.Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1986). Interactive teaching to promote independent learning from text. The Reading Teacher, 39(2), 771-777.Paris, S. G., & Winograd, P. (1990). How metacognition can promote academic learning and instruction. In B. F. Jones & L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp. 15-51). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Pressley, M., & Harris, K. (1990). What we really know about strategy instruction.Educational Leadership, 48(1), 31-34.Rost, M., & Ross, S. (1991). Learner use of strategies in interaction: Typology and teachability. Language Learning, 41(2), 235-273.Thompson, I., & Rubin, J. (1995). How to be a more successful language learner (2nd ed.).Boston: Heinle & Heinle.Vann, R. J., & Abraham, R. G. (1990). Strategies of unsuccessful language learners.TESOL Quarterly, 24, 177-198.Wenden, A. (1987). How to be a successful learner: Insights and prescriptions from L2 learners. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Wenden, A., & Rubin, J. (Eds.). (1987). Learner strategies in language learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Zimmerman, B. J., & Pons, M. M. (1986). Development of a structured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated learning strategies. American Educational Research Journal, 23(3), 614-628.Use this worksheet to think about how you help learners become motivated and ways you can encourage them to become more engaged in language learning.1. I define a successful language learner as one who can:2. Ways I treat students’ interlanguages as problems to be corrected:3. Ways I treat students’ interlanguages as steps in a developmental process:4. My students’ goals for learning the language usually are:5. Ways I ask (or could ask) my students to connect language learning with their goals and interests:6. Learning strategies I have seen my students use:7. Learning strategies that could help my students, and ways to introduce them:8. I have the following concerns or reservations about learning strategy instruction:Use this worksheet when observing a teacher’s classroom performance to provide feedback on teaching behaviors. Whenever possible, give specific examples.1. What is the teacher’s definition of a successful language learner? How was that apparent in the class?2. How did the teacher respond when students’ interlanguages became evident?3. How did the teacher and/or the students connect classroom activities with larger goals and interests?4. What learning strategies did the instructor teach or model?5. What learning strategies did students use on their own?6. How would you characterize students’ overall approach to and attitude about language learning?。
人力资源管理(英语)-教学大纲
Human Resource ManagementCourse Code：050232BCourse Name：Human Resource ManagementPeriods：32Credits：2Name(s) of academic staff：Wei Hua-yingPreparatory Courses：Learning outcomes(1)Define the roles and activities of a company's human resource managementfunction.(2)Discuss how to strategically plan for the human resources needed to meetorganizational goals and objectives.(3)Define the process of job analysis and discuss its importance as a foundationfor human resource management practice.(4)Compare and contrast methods used for selection and placement of humanresources.(5)Describe the steps required to analyze, develop, implement, and evaluate anemployee training program.(6)Identify and explain the issues involved in establishing compensationsystems.(7)Identify how new technology, such as digital and social media, is influencinghuman resource management.(8)Discuss what companies should do to compete in the global marketplace.(9)Identify the importance of the process of human resource managementfunctions in small businesses and entrepreneurial firms.Course DescriptionThis course is an introduction to the human resource management (HRM) function and related elements and activities to examine the role of the human resource professional as a strategic partner in managing today’s organizations. Key functions such as recruitment, selection, development, performance management, appraisal, retention, compensation, and labor relations are examined. Implications of the legal and global environments are examined and current issues such as employee engagement and employee health and safety are analyzed. Emphasis is placed on the modern day importance of HRM at the corporate level as well as the importance ofHRM in small businesses and entrepreneurial firms.●Mode of deliveryLecture and Tutorial.●Content outline of the subject and learning time per topicLecture OutlineChapter 1 Introduction to Human Resource Management （1）What Is Human Resource Management?（2）The Trends Shaping Human Resource Management （3）Today’s New Human Resource Management（4）The New Human Resource Manager（5）The Plan of This Book（6）Chapter Contents Overview（7）The Topics Are InterrelatedChapter 2 Equal Opportunity and the Law（1）Equal Opportunity Laws Enacted From 1964 to 1991（2）The Laws Enacted from 1991 to the Present（3）Defenses Against Discrimination Allegations（4）The EEOC Enforcement Process（5）Diversity ManagementChapter 3 Human Resource Management Strategy and Analysis（1）The Strategic Management Process（2）Types of Strategies（3）Strategic Human Resource Management（4）HR Metrics, and Benchmarking, and Data Analytics（5）High-Performance Work Systems（6）Employee Engagement Guide for Managers: Employee Engagement and Performance.Chapter 4Job Analysis and the Talent Management Process（1）The Talent Management Process（2）The Basics of Job Analysis（3）Methods for Collecting Job Analysis Information（4）Writing Job Descriptions（5）Writing Job Specifications（6）Employee Engagement Guide for Managers（7）Using Competencies ModelsChapter 5 Personnel Planning and Recruiting（1）Workforce Planning and Forecasting（2）Why Effective Recruiting Is Important（3）Internal Sources of Candidates（4）Employee Engagement Guide for Managers（5）Outside Sources of Candidates（6）Recruiting a More Diverse Workforce（7）Developing and Using Application FormsChapter 6Employee Testing and Selection（1）Why Employee Selection Is Important（2）The Basics of Testing and Selecting Employees（3）Types of Tests（4）Work Samples and Simulations（5）Background Investigations and Other Selection MethodsChapter 7Interviewing Candidates（1）Basic Types of Interviews（2）Avoiding Errors That Can Undermine an Interview’s Usefulness （3）How to Design and Conduct the Effective Interview（4）Employee Engagement Guide for Managers（5）Developing and Extending the Job OfferChapter 8Training and Developing Employees（1）Orienting and Onboarding New Employees（2）Employee Engagement Guide for Managers: Onboarding at Toyota （3）Overview of the Training Process（4）Implementing the Training Program（5）Implementing Management Development Programs（6）Managing Organizational Change Programs（7）Evaluating the Training EffortChapter 9Performance Management and Appraisal（1）Basics of Performance Appraisal（2）Techniques for Appraising Performance（3）Dealing with Rater Error Appraisal Problems（4）Managing the Appraisal Interview（5）Employee Engagement Guide for Managers（6）Performance ManagementChapter 10Managing Careers and Retention（1）Career Management（2）Employee Engagement Guide for Managers（3）Managing Employee Turnover and Retention（4）Employee Life-Cycle Career Management（5）Managing DismissalsChapter 11Establishing Strategic Pay Plans（1）Basic Factors in Determining Pay Rates（2）Job Evaluation Methods（3）How to Create A Market-Competitive Pay Plan（4）Pricing Managerial and Professional Jobs（5）Contemporary Topics in Compensation（6）Employee Engagement Guide For ManagersChapter 12Pay for Performance and Financial Incentives（1）Money’s Role in Motivation（2）Individual Employee Incentive and Recognition Programs（3）Incentives for Salespeople（4）Incentives for Managers and Executives（5）Team and Organization-Wide Incentive Plans（6）Employee Engagement Guide for ManagersChapter 13Benefits and Services（1）Introduction: The Benefits Picture Today（2）Pay for Time Not Worked（3）Insurance Benefits（4）Retirement Benefits（5）Personal Services and Family-Friendly Benefits（6）Flexible Benefits Programs（7）Employee Engagement Guide For ManagersChapter 14Building Positive Employee Relations（1）What is Employee Relations?（2）Employee Relations Programs For Bu ilding And Maintaining Positive Employee Relations（3）The Ethical Organization（4）Managing Employee Discipline（5）Employee Engagement Guide For ManagersChapter 15Labor Relations and Collective Bargaining（1）The Labor Movement（2）Unions And The Law（3）The Union Drive and Election（4）The Collective Bargaining Process（5）Dealing With Disputes And Grievances（6）The Union Movement Today And TomorrowChapter 16Safety, Health, and Risk Management（1）Introduction: Safety and the Manager（2）Manger’s Briefing on Occupational Safety Law（3）What Causes Accidents?（4）How to Prevent Accidents（5）Employee Engagement Guide for Managers（6）Workplace Health Hazards: Problems and Remedies（7）Occupational Security and Risk ManagementChapter 17Managing Global Human Resources（1）The Manager’s Global Challenge（2）Adapting Human Resource Activities to Intercountry Differences （3）Staffing the Global Organization（4）Training and Maintaining Employees Abroad（5）Employee Engagement Guide for Managers（6）Managing HR Locally: How to Put into Practice a Global HR SystemChapter 18Managing Human Resources in Small and Entrepreneurial Firms （1）The Small Business Challenge（2）Using Internet and Government Tools to Support the HR Effort（3）Leveraging Small Size with Familiarity, Flexibility, Fairness and Informality（4）Using Professional Employer Organizations（5）Managing HR Systems, Procedures, and Paperwork●Assessment：Final Examination 60%; Attendance 20%; Group Assignment 20%.●ReferencesMain references:Gary Dessler (2016) Human Resource Management, 15th Edition, London: Pearson。
无老师7天句子翻译-推荐下载
1.【In fact, various emotional states give rise to certain patterns of electrical activity in the facial muscles and in the brain.】事实上，多种的情感状况会在面部肌肉及大脑里产生某种形式的脑电活动。
2. 【Some mountains were formed as a result of these plates crashing into each other and forcing up the rock at the plate margins.】一些山脉是由于板块相互碰撞并且板块边缘向上施压形成的。
3. 【Animal dung enriches the soil by providing nutrients for plant growth. 】动物的粪便通过向土壤提供营养物来促进植物生长。
4. 【For example, in 1875 one biologist pointed out the diversity of butterflies in the Amazon when he mentioned that about 700 species were found within an hour's walk, whereas the total number found on the British islands did not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supported only 321.】例如，在1987年一位生物学家指出了亚马逊河蝴蝶的多样性，他提到在一小时的步行中就发现700多种蝴蝶，然而在英国的岛屿上发现的不超过66种并且在欧洲也仅仅有321种。
5. 【Even though the fine arts in the twentieth century often treat materials in new ways, the basic difference in attitude of artists in relation to their materials in the fine arts and the applied arts remains relatively constant.】即使20世纪的美术学通常用新的方法来看待原料，但是艺术家在美术及应用美术中对材料态度上的基本不同相对不变6. 【The author presents two theories for a historical phenomenon.】作者针对这个历史现象陈述了两种理论。
激励._Motivation
paths towards them, by a conscious or unconscious process of
5
calculation.
A Stroll Down Needs Lane…
BASIC NEEDS CAFE
FIRSห้องสมุดไป่ตู้ LIFE INSURANCE Co.
BRIGHT PROSPECTS SOCIAL CLUB
Motivation
Lecture 5: Motivation
Kavin S. Kanagasabai, B.A., M.A., M.Phil., MBA., NLP Coach & Practitioner
1
Learning Objectives
• At the end of this session, you should be able to:
• Managers should allow workers greater latitude, and create an organization to stimulate the workers. 11
Douglas McGregor – Theory X, Theory Y
12
Herzberg – Motivator-Hygiene Theory
a) Receiving praise from the manager. b) A family party. c) An artist forgetting to eat. d) A man washed up on a desert island. e) A pay increase. f) Joining a local drama group. g) Being awarded a Knighthood. h) Buying a house.
motivation理论讲义
Strength is focus on job design Influential on reward systems
Case Study
A loan company, Purple Loans, invested in Special Air Service (SAS) military style training to improve the motivation of staff. The company hoped, in particular, to improve team-working and communication, and that this would, in turn, result in increased sales. At the end of the training, one of the staff members said she felt that, if she were to set her mind to any task, she would be able to do it. The training made her feel more confident and motivated to achieve. Question: Using the previous content theories how can this increased motivation be explained?
Process Theories
Equity theory (Adams, 1963; 1965) Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) Goal-setting theory (Locke, 1968; 1975)
leading and motivating
Safe work, fringe benefits, job security
Basic salary
Discussion
Low-paid service workers represent a motivational problem for many companies. Consider the ill-trained and poorly motivated X-ray machine operators trying to detect weapons in airports. How might these people be motivated to reduce boredom and increase their vigilance, according to Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs?
Experiment
Participation and Attention
II. Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs
Suggests that people rank their needs into five general categories. Once they achieve a given category of needs, they become motivated to reach the next category.
A simple model of motivation
How do we understand theories on motivation?
Content Theories
• What do people need?
• How do people select behavior during a process of achieving something they concern?
语言学教程Chapter Seven
language and culture, Language and society,
and language and cross-cultural communication.
2
7.1 language and culture What is culture? Broadly speaking, it means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language. In a narrow sense, it refers to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs. 7.1.1 The relationship between L & C There exists a close relationship between language and culture, generally, a relation of part to whole, for L is part of C. Language is an indispensible carrier of culture. The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in L. Culture finds a better representation through language use. Language and culture correlate with each other at different levels of linguistic structure.
词汇学motivation的定义
词汇学motivation的定义
Motivation 在词汇学中通常指词汇的动机或激励。
它指的是一个人学习和使用词汇的原因和动力。
词汇动机可以是内在的，也可以是外在的。
内在词汇动机是指个人对学习和使用词汇的兴趣和愿望，例如对语言、文化或阅读的热爱。
外在词汇动机是指外部因素，例如通过考试、工作需要或与他人交流的需要来学习和使用词汇。
词汇动机对于有效学习和记忆词汇至关重要。
具有强烈词汇动机的人更有可能投入时间和精力来学习新词汇，并在实际使用中运用它们。
Lecture+7+Herman+Melville
sinking of the Nantucket ship in 1820 By a large sperm whale Owen Chase----a survivor Chase----a
Narrative of the Most Extraordinary and Distressing Shipwreck of the Whale-Ship WhaleEssex.
Ishmael Queequeg Ahab Starbuck Moby Dick
Lecture 7 Herman Melville
Melville
and Emersonian Transcendentalism:
" 'No! in thunder.' This, according to Melville, thunder.' is what the true writer, the great writer, says. With his own great "No!" Melville set himself No!" against the optimism of Emerson and the Transcendentalist, challenged conformity, and rejected the American mind in the 1800s." --1800s." American Literature, Macmillan, 1987. p189
Hawthorne' Hawthorne's comment on Melville
"He can neither believe, nor be
跨国公司管理双语课件第七章
The Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory
The Maslow Theory
Maslow’s theory rests on a number of basic assumptions:
– Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higherlevel needs become motivators
The Basic Motivation Process
Unsatisfied need
Drive toward goal to satisfy need
Attainment of goal (need satisfaction)
Adapted from Figure Figure 12–1: The Basic Motivation Process © 2006 Prentice Hall
Process Theories of Motivation
Theories that explain work motivation by how
employee behavior is initiated, redirected, and
halted.
© 2006 Prentice Hall
11-5
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-3
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Nature of Motivation
The Universalist Assumption
The first assumption is that the motivation process is universal, that all people are motivated to pursue goals they value—what the work-motivation theorists call goals with “high valence” or “preference”
Lecture 7 subjunctive mood
• "I wish I were faster."
– (I am not faster. This is a wish in my mind.)
subjunctive mood
• What used to be expressed by means of the formally indistinctive subjunctive mood is now chiefly expressed by means of modal auxiliaries, past tense forms, past perfect forms, etc. • Our trimmed subjunctive mood falls into two major types: the be-subjunctive and the weresubjunctive. The be-subjunctive is further divided into the formulaic subjunctive and the mandative (of, like or pertaining to commands or leadership) subjunctive.
Other uses of be-subjunctive
• The be-subjunctive is also found, especially in formal English, in an adverbial clause of condition, concession, etc. typically introduced by if, though (although, even though), whatever, whether, lest, etc.:
Lecture 7 句序调整翻译082.
金缕衣 杜秋娘
劝君莫惜金缕衣，劝君惜取少年时。 花开堪折直须折，莫待无花空折枝。
Spare not, my friend, the gold-embroidered gown, Miss not, the years of youth--- enjoy them now. Come, pluck the flower while the plucking is good, Wait not until you pluck the empty bough.
Background Knowledge and Explanation
杜秋娘，本为金陵女子；生卒年不详，唐代金陵（今南京 市）女子，能歌善舞。杜牧有《杜秋娘诗》述其事。 诠释该诗的故事：一个年轻人在一条花径上，要选择摘下 一朵最大最美的花，但条件是不许回头。年轻人走啊走的， 见一朵不错的，想伸手摘下，回心一想，前面也许有更大 更美的吧。往前走果然又见一朵属意的，想伸手摘下时， 又希望前面有更大更美的，于是再往前走。如此周而复始， 结果走尽花径，空手而归。 “花开堪折直须折，莫待无花空折枝”，“花”是生命中 所有珍贵的事物：生命中的感情、时光、理想、自由、精 力、健康、金钱……这一切都是生命的宝藏。
ix. Omission of redundant words 冗词 赘语的省略
1 ） Part-time job hunters who have worked at a job will receive preference over those who have not. 寻找兼职，有工作经验者优先聘用。 2） There was no snow, the leaves were gone from the trees, the grass was dead. 没有下雪，但叶落草枯。 3） There was still the faith that ordinary men are greater than the powers of nature or the mechanisms of man’s hands and will master them all in the end. 仍然具有这种信念，普通的人要比自然的力量或人类造出来的机器更 伟大，而且最终会控制它们。
7.3 第七章 第三节 讲稿
Unit 7 Organization and Motivation 组织与激励7.3 Organization and motivation: LectureGood afternoon, class. Welcome to study Unit 7 Organization and motivation part 3 "5 ways to motivate staff in a small business".But before we listen to the lecture. I would like you to think about motivation. What do you know about motivation? What is motivation and how can you motivate yourself or others? Now you can spend about 2 minutes to think about these questions and give your answer. （图片 7.3-1）Motivation: What It Is and How It WorksScientists define motivation as your general willingness to do something. It is the set of psychological forces that compel you to take action.The author Steven Pressfield has a great line about the core of motivation, that is at some point, the pain of not doing it becomes greater than the pain of doing it. （图片7.3-2）In other words, at some point, it is easier to change than to stay the same. It is easier to take action and feel insecure at the gym than to sit still and experience self-loathing on the couch. It is easier to feel awkward while making the sales call than to feel disappointed about your dwindling bank account.Every choice has a price, but when we are motivated, it is easier to bear the inconvenience of action than the pain of remaining the same. Somehow we cross a mental threshold—usually after weeks of procrastination and in the face of an impending deadline—and it becomes more painful to not do the work than to actually do it.Now for the important question: What can we do to make it more likely that we cross this mental threshold and feel motivated on a consistent basis? Do you have some good ideas?Now I would like to share with you some common misconceptions about motivation.One of the most surprising things about motivation is that it often comes after starting a new behavior, not before. We have this common misconception that motivation arrives as a result of passively consuming a motivational video or reading an inspirational book. However, active inspiration can be a far more powerful motivator.Motivation is often the result of action, not the cause of it. Getting started, even in very small ways, is a form of active inspiration that naturally produces momentum. You don't need much motivation once you've started a behavior. Nearly all of the1friction in a task is at the beginning. After you start, progress occurs more naturally. In other words, it is often easier to finish a task than it was to start it in the first place. Thus, one of the keys to getting motivated is to make it easy to start.Now another term I want to share with you is Fortune 500. （图片 7.3-3）The Fortune 500 is an annual list compiled and published by Fortune magazine that ranks 500 of the largest United States corporations by total revenue for their respective fiscal years. The list includes publicly held companies, along with privately held companies for which revenues are publicly available. The concept of the Fortune 500 was created by Edgar P. Smith, a Fortune editor, and the first list was published in 1955. The Fortune 500 is more commonly used than its subset Fortune 100 or wider list Fortune 1000.U.S. Census Bureau （图片 7.3-4）It is a principal agency of the U.S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureau’s primary mission is conducting the U.S. Census every ten years, which allocates the seats of the U.S. House of Representatives to the states based on their population. The Bureau’s various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and it helps states, local communities, and businesses make informed decisions. The information provided by the census informs decisions on where to build and maintain schools, hospitals, transportation infrastructure, and police and fire departments.Bersin& Associates（图片7.3-5）It is a leading provider of research-based membership programs and advisory services in the human resources, talent and learning market. It was acquired by Deloitte Consulting LLP and it is now known as Bersin by Deloitte. This acquisition gives Bersin growth capital, expanded management depth, and ability to leverage and work with Deloitte to help solve challenges to HR, learning, and talent management.Society of Human Resource Management (SHRM)（图片7.3-6）SHRM is the world’s largest HR professional society, representing 285,000 members in more than 165 countries. For nearly seven decades, the Society has been the leading provider of resources serving the needs of HR professionals and advancing the practice of human resource management. SHRM has more than 575 affiliated chapters within the United States and subsidiary offices in China, India and United Arab Emirates.Some new words2cough up v.It means give reluctantly. For example I'll have to cough up $10,000 a year for tuition.retention n.It means the act of retaining something. For example, The Citizens' Forum supported special powers for Quebec but also argued for the retention of a strong central government.perk. nIt means an incidental benefit awarded for certain types of employment.turn over n.It means the ratio of the number of workers that had to be replaced in a given time period to the average number of workers.lackluster adj.It means lacking brilliance or vitality.shenanigan n.It means reckless or malicious behavior that causes discomfort or annoyance in others. For example, Another business shenanigan was exposed in the newspaper today.micromanage v.It means to control (a business or project) with excessive attention to minor details. For example, many people fear that metrics are being used to micromanage or criticize them.Now after we have learned the background notes and related new words, we can now listen to the lecture and finish the exercises related.3。
MotivationWhatisit动机是什么
Motivation—What is it?Jay Gould 11/24/03Motivation literally means: “that which produces motion.”It is often used interchangeably with the term drive. Drives have been thought of as internal states of tension that motivate behavior to reduce the tension.Motivation deals with the problem of variation in behavioral responsiveness to constant external stimuli.Motivation thus represents the variables other than external stimuli that control behavior.In other words, motivation is the general name for the fact that an organism’s acts are partly determined in direction and strength by its own nature, i.e., its enduring structure, or traits, and its momentary internal state.Motivations/drives may be defined as: Hypothetical physiological processes that sensitize the organism to certain sets of stimuli, and that energize certain sets of responses, in order to attain certain goals, also called incentives, which may be either primary/intrinsic or secondary/learned. (This is my operational definition.)Example: If a man developed a hunger drive, he would become sensitized to food stimuli, such as deer, and he would have hunting behaviors energized, in order to obtain the goal of nutrients.Since goals are associated with needs, the function of motivations, or drives, is to satisfy the needs of the organism.Motivations are essential for survival. They are the means by which the organism’s needs are translated into behavioral acts.Properties of motives/drives:1) Activate and direct behavior;2) Lead to persistent behavior and reduce irrelevant behavior;3) Are multi-factorially determined by both internal and external stimuli as well as by heredity and experiential factors;4) Interact with experience such that previously neutral stimuli may, by association, acquire motivational properties, and appropriate goal-directed/achieving behaviors are elicited under different circumstances (hence learning and motivation are related);5) Possess an affective component, in that they often lead to the activation/expression of emotions, which in turn are a powerful means by which incentives/goals do their motivating (hence motivation and emotion are interrelated)—motives, in fact, are said to be emotionally charged states that anticipate goal objects (McClelland).Hull’s Drive Theory: Postulated that all learning depends on the reduction of basic drives—drive reduction, and that current behavior is thus a product of drive reduction in the past, i.e., what worked (similar to hedonism: we live our lives to seek pleasure & avoid pain). Note: Rewarding brain stimulation is associated, surprisingly, with areas of the brain related to drive induction, not drive reduction. To resolve this paradox, it has been proposed that perhaps it is not drive reduction, but rather an anticipatory cue stimulus to a consummatory or procurement response that is reinforcing, and/or that the consummatory or procurement (or avoidance/escape) response itself is reinforcing (i.e., the activation of brainstem mechanisms for species-typical behavior). As examples, are not the stimuli and behaviors associated with the hunger and sexual drives rewarding in and of themselves?Maintenance of a satisfactory internal environment is the basis of many of the needs of an organism.Examples: 1) The organism must maintain an adequate blood-sugar level in order to satisfy its energy needs. Thus, it possesses the drive to eat, or hunger motivation.2) The organism must also maintain an adequate water balance for its metabolic processes to take place. Thus, it possesses the drive to drink, or thirst motivation.3) Another example would be the need for temperature regulation.Homeostasis is the term that refers to the maintenance of the organism’s internal environment within the rather narrow limits conducive to normal functioning.It is also defined as the maintenance of equilibrium or a steady state in the internal environment.Its literal meaning comes from the Greek word stasis meaning standing and the Latin word homeo meaning same, thus: standing the same. The term was coined by Walter Cannon, an American psychologist.While many of an organism’s motivations are associated with its homeostatic needs, all are not.Examples: Drive to have sex, i.e., reproduction motivation. Another example might be the drive to explore, i.e., exploration motivation. In addition to biological needs, there are also motivations/drives associated with social needs, e.g., for achievement and recognition, belongingness and love, order and play; as well as cognitive needs, e.g., for knowledge and understanding (hence exploration), order and beauty (hence appreciation of the arts), and self-actualization (defined as the realization of one’s full potential).Homeostatic regulatory systems consist of at least 4 components: and are comparable to mechanical thermostat systems, and to the servomechanism system responsible for the maintenance of posture.1) The system variable, which is the condition monitored.2) “Set-point” mechanisms, which generate values representingthe balance to be maintained by the system in the face ofinternal or external fluctuations.3) Sensory mechanisms, which monitor conditions in the internaland external environment.4) Effector/correctional mechanisms, which initiate behavioraland/or physiological control processes to reduce discrepancies from the set point, or set range, through negative feedback.A more complete and modern definition of homeostasis would be: The tendency of the internal state to remain stable within adaptive levels, i.e., a set range, due to automatic, negative-feedback, physiological mechanisms, as well as behavioral mechanisms, that not only react to current needs, but that also anticipate future needs.Example: Hunting for food before blood glucose level drops too low.A homeostatic drive or process is one that tends to keep some variable near a certain set point, or level, or within a set-range.As noted earlier, many goal-directed behaviors are not initiated by biological deficits. When they are, we refer to it as deficiency motivation.On the other hand, as for example in the case of sex, motivated behavior may also be initiated by other physiological processes, e.g., hormone cycles, as well as by cognitive processes.Three kinds of biological theories have historically been proposed to explain motivated behavior:1) Local theories, also called peripheral theories, postulated thatthe mechanisms underlying motivated behavior are to be found in structures outside the central nervous system, e.g., thestomach contracting and stretching.2) Central theories proposed that the mechanisms which regulatemotivated behavior are located within the central nervoussystem, e.g., glucoreceptors for monitoring glucose levels.3) General, or mixed, theories, which suggested that motivatedbehavior is controlled by both peripheral and centralmechanisms (these mechanisms not being mutually exclusive). The general, or mixed, theories are supported by contemporary data. The central mechanisms of motivated behavior appear to be localized in the hypothalamus and the limbic system, which also play critical roles in emotion and visceral regulation (these three are interrelated). In place of the older conception that neural activity in restricted hypothalamic centers control various motivated behaviors, such as eating, drinking, and sex; we now have the more contemporary understanding that complex neural circuits, i.e., diffusely distributed systems/networks of localized structures, which involve the hypothalamus, limbic system, and other nervous system structures, control the execution of integrated patterns of behaviors that are involved in the expression of motivation, or drive, as well as their affective component, emotion.。
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Overview
Effective managers lead in ways that motivate people High-performing people help organisations achieve goals The following theories of motivation are considered
Herzberg
For motivation and job satisfaction to be high
motivator needs must be met hygiene needs must be addressed
High monetary rewards with little support or recognition are not enough Intrinsic motivation is related to motivator needs, and extrinsic motivation is related to hygiene needs Management implication: jobs should be designed so that they are intrinsically motivating
Extrinsically motivated behaviour
Behaviour that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment
The source of the motivation is the consequences of the behaviour and not the behaviour itself
Lecture to accompany Waddell, Jones, & George: Contemporary Management (2nd edn)
7-4
The nature of motivation (cont.)
Intrinsically motivated behaviour
Need for achievement
A strong need to perform challenging tasks well and meet personal standards for excellence
Need for affiliation
A concern for good interpersonal relations, being liked and getting along
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Lecture to accompany Waddell, Jones, & George: Contemporary Management (2nd edn)
7-9
McClelland’s needs for achievement, affiliation and power
Lecture to accompany Waddell, Jones, & George: Contemporary Management (2nd edn) 7-6
The motivation equation
Lecture to accompany Waddell, Jones, & George: Contemporary Management (2nd edn)
Behaviour that is performed for its own sake The source of the motivation that comes from actually
engaging in the behaviour The sense of accomplishment and achievement derived from doing the work itself
Managers must determine what needs a worker wants satisfied and ensure that a person receives the outcomes when performing well
Lecture to accompany Waddell, Jones, & George: Contemporary Management (2nd edn) 7-8
Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction; satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction
Lecture to accompany Waddell, Jones, & George: Contemporary Management (2nd edn) 7-11
7-7
Need theories
Need
A requirement for survival and wellbeing
Need theories
Theories of motivation that focus on what needs people are trying to satisfy at work and what outcomes will satisfy those needs Basic premise is that people are motivated to obtain outcomes at work to satisfy their needs
Lecture to accompany Waddell, Jones, & George: Contemporary Management (2nd edn) 7-3
The nature of motivation
Motivation
The psychological forces that determine the direction of a person’s behaviour in an organisation, a person’s level of effort and a person’s level of persistence Motivation explains why people behave the way they do in organisations
Herzberg’s (two factor) motivation-hygiene theory
Focuses on outcomes that can lead to (1) higher motivation and job satisfaction, and (2) those outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction
Need for power
Extent to which an individual desires to control or influence others
Lecture to accompany Waddell, Jones, & George: Contemporary Management (2nd edn) 7-10
Lecture to accompany Waddell, Jones, & George: Contemporary Management (2nd edn)
7-12
Vroom’s expectancy theory
Expectancy: a person’s perception about the extent to which effort (input) results in a certain level of performance Motivation will be high when workers believe
Chapter 7 Managing motivation
Lecture to accompany Waddell, Jones, & George: Contemporary Management (2nd edn)
7-1
Learning objectives
After studying the chapter, you should be able to: Explain what motivation is and why managers need to be concerned about it Describe from the perspectives of expectancy theory and equity theory what managers should do to have a highly motivated workforce Explain how needs and goals motivate people and what kinds of goals are especially likely to result in high performance Identify the motivation lessons that managers can learn from reinforcement theory (or operant conditioning) and social learning theory Explain why and how managers can use pay as a major motivational tool