英文文章一般写讲义法(杂志主编讲)
英语写作讲义
写作八讲（book 2）第一讲：topic sentence and supporting sentences主题句和推展句How to write a topic sentence?Since the controlling idea or purpose must be stated clearly and precisely enough to indicate what the paragraph includes, your topic sentence must be: 1）specific instead of general 2）precise instead of vague (主题句要明确清晰不要笼统，要准确无误不要含糊不清)Compare the following two sentences and decide which is better.Astronauts must be very capable.√Astronauts must be scientists as well as expert test pilots.College students will be assured good jobs on graduation.√College students tend to get better jobs than those who haven’t a college diploma.People living in apartment never talk to each other.√People living in apartment seldom talk to each other.Countryside is much better than a city.√Countryside is a better place to live than a city in several aspects.Global warming is caused by a build-up of gases in the earth’s atmosphere.√Global warming is, to some extent, caused by a build-up of gases in the earth’s atmosphere.Write a paragraph about “television commercials”. Fashion an effective topic sentence and support it with details.Sample:The same television commercials repeat again and again in one evening. Perhaps the following two factors can account for this. The first reason is simply a matter of economics. It must make sure that as many people as possible will see it. Thus, more consumers will be attracted and a bigger profit may be gained. Another reason for repeating the commercials so often is the belief that repetition helps to imprint the message on the mind. Some feel that repetition—even to the point of irritation—is supposed to make people remember the product.第二讲：Unity in the Paragraph 段落的整体一致性A paragraph is unified when all the sentences in the paragraph are focused on one central thought or on a single topic. When you write a paragraph, be sure that each sentence contributes to the theme, and any irrelevant information is excluded.Read the following paragraphs and analyze: Which of the sentences doesn’t contribute to the topic?1. Riding a bicycle has a lot of advantages over driving a car. First, it is a physic al exercise to ride a bicycle. In contrast, sitting in the car, one tends to gain weight. Besides, it is much more economical to ride a bike than drive a car. The only fee a bike-rider has to pay is the annual tax. However, the annual fees for a car are costly. Most important of all, it is beneficial to the environment to ride a bicycle because the bike doesn’t consume petrol; it is a pollution-free transport. In contrast, the exhaust released by the car is harmful to the environment. Scientists should find a way to reduce its damage to the environment.key: Scientists should find a way to reduce its damage to the environment.2. Science and technology are developing rapidly with each passing day. At the same time, college are much higher than ever before. How to finance your college education had become amatter of concern for many. Y ou can deal with it in many ways. Y ou can get all of the money from your parents. Y ou can apply for a loan especially set up for college students. Y ou can also acquire the money completely by yourself, doing a full-time job in summer or winter holiday. In addition, you can ask your parents for most of it and earn the rest in your spare time in college, by doing a part-time job.key: Science and technology are developing rapidly with each passing day. At the same time, Write a paragraph on the topic of How to Solve the Problem of Heavy Traffic. Eliminate the irrelevant idea from the outline below. Then write the paragraph in a problem-solution pattern. situation: urban traffic, increasingly crowded, traffic jams, delay, traffic accidents, careless drivingsolution: more roads, speed up the flow of traffic, more public bus routesresult: take up much land, house shortage, inconvenience第三讲：Working toward coherence （I）段落的连贯性——过渡词/短语Coherence in a paragraph refers to the way the sentences are arranged and to their relationship to one another. When a paragraph is coherent, the sentences are arranged in a clear and logical order, the transitions are smooth and natural, and ideas flow smoothly and gracefully from one sentence to the next. As a result, the reader finds it easy to follow the writer’s train of thought.Generally, there are two devices that will help you achieve coherence in your writing: 1）transitional words and phrases that show specific kinds of relationships 2）the repetition of or reference to key terms. (一般来说，有两种方式使段落具有连贯性：一是过渡词和词组，二是对关键事物词语进行重复表达或指代。
2023届高考英语应用文写作练习指导之短文投稿 讲义
高考英语写作备考：应用文写作之短文投稿讲义题目你校英文报正在开展征文活动，主题为“我最喜爱的课外活动”。
请你写一篇短文投稿，内容包括：1. 最喜爱的课后活动；2.喜爱的原因。
题目分析在介绍类文章里，分享个人的喜好是最基本的写作能力体现。
面对这种类型的主题，可以从以下三个方面展开写作构思：首先是主题选择。
无论是你最喜欢的书籍或地点，还是你最喜欢的活动或兴趣爱好，都建议在考试前提前做好对应的准备，避免在考场上临时选择。
其次是主题展开。
在你给出自己的选择后，要展开介绍这个选择平时在你的日常生活里是如何进行的，也就是你具体做了些什么。
这部分内容往往不会出现在题目的要求里，需要写作的篇幅也不需要很长，但是写出来会让文章更加自然完整。
最后是主题意义。
所谓“喜爱的原因”，实际上就是这个选择对于你发挥了什么重要的影响，为你带来了哪些积极的改变。
这部分的写作就是硬实力“动词短语”的体现了，当然，我们可以通过提前准备一些适用性强的表述来应对不同的主题。
我们来一起看看这次的范文可以帮助你积累哪些内容。
主题的选择和展开Among the colorful after-school activities in our school, I like dancing best. I have been in a school dance club since t he first week I came studying here.在我们学校丰富多彩的课余活动中，我最喜欢跳舞。
从我入学的第一个星期开始，我就参加了学校的舞蹈社团。
文章的第一段就交代了前两个方面：主题选择和主题展开。
在这部分里，最核心的内容其实就是“I like dancing best 我最喜欢跳舞”这四个字。
但是题目要求是征文投稿，写作的口吻自然要正式一些，所以我们要把这个核心内容进行扩充。
首先的扩充思路是限定范围。
比较级是在两方面之间进行比较，而只要提到最高级，一定要限定范围，你的表述才具有合理性。
英语写作讲义
英语基础写作讲义前言写作是检测英语表达应用水平的重要手段，综合考查词汇、语法基本语言运用技能。
同时也考查分析解决问题的实际能力。
以我们现有的知识和能力，只要思路得当，优化配置好自己的资源,在提高基础知识的同时，提高现有知识的利用率。
一．写作一般要求各类文体，如记叙、说明、议论，应用文等，在内容和形式上都有类似的要求。
下面是对作文的一般要求:1、形式：书写工整+结构清晰2、内容：切合主题语言准确句式灵活词汇灵活主题方面，点题要扣题，行文要围绕主题，不能“神散”。
语言方面，语法结构和用词搭配要准确。
语法结构方面的错误直接关系到档次分数。
句式方面，形式要灵活，长短句交替。
不必追求长句子。
在准确的前提下进行灵活表达。
词汇方面，一定要多样，高级，避免使用高频低级词汇。
如good, think, in my opinion, for example, first, second等。
受汉语影响和对英语词汇语法结构掌握的不熟练，同学们经常犯一些考试中影响档次分数的错误。
快速矫正方法：将相当于新概念第二册难度的汉语译文回译成英语，再对照英语原文检查自己的错误。
二、写作步骤考试中，写作按下面几个步骤完成：●仔细审题：判断作文类型，选用配套词汇、结构功能句和行文结构。
●细化提纲：整理思路，列出试卷提纲的细节，如例子，解决方案等。
●扩展成文：边写边注意基本语法结构的准确性，保证句子结构的多样化。
我们应按照步骤来练习。
如果有时间，可以快速检查最主要的语法项目，减少大的失分。
（列出检查项目）。
全文写完后，按照要求快速检查每一句的语法。
平日可进行汉译英练习。
基础弱的同学可选择新概念第二、三册的译文，翻译成英语（无需理会生僻的人名、地名等专有名词），然后对照英语原文检查自己的翻译是否正确。
限定时间30分钟，每周1篇文章。
三、英语写作注意事项（一）避免低级错误，提高语言表达的准确性1、词汇问题1）搭配错误Low price而不是cheap price.2) 虚假同义词问题有很多英语单词被当作同义词来处理，实际上这些同义词并非真正同义词。
学术英语写作讲义
学术英语写作讲义Lecture 11.1Features on the lexical level（词汇层⾯）(1) The analysis didn’t yield any new results. (Informal)The analysis yielded no results. (Formal)(2) These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, etc. (Informal)These semiconductors can be used in robots, and CD players. (Formal)1.1.2Nominalization（名词化）(1)[Everyday English]If a potential is applied to gas at low pressure, ionization of the molecules will result. [Academic English]The application of a potential to gas at low pressure will result in ionization of the molecules.(2)[Everyday English]The progress of the work will depend on how modern the equipment is.[Academic English]The progress of the work will depend on the modernization ofthe equipment.1.1.3Hedging（模糊语）(1)On the evidence of the findings presented in Figure 1, it would appear that students in Hong Kong generally have little need to speak in English outside the classroom.(2) Weismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.1.1.4 Use of single verbs （使⽤单⼀动词）(1)The material amenities of life have gone up in Western society.( increased )(2)A primary education system was set up throughout Ireland as early as 1831.(establish)其他如look into（investigate）;get rid of（eliminate）1.2.1⼤量使⽤被动语态(1) Any container can be filled by these as they diffuse and spread out to fill them. The atoms or molecules of gases move very rapidly and are widely spaced..(2) Using a simplified input-output (I-O) framework, the aggregate economic output of the non-energy sector (Yt) can be formulated as the sum of value-added in the non-energy sector (Vane,t) and inter-industry payments for energy and transport services.1.2.2客观语⾔（1）I chose this method because it is less complex. (personal)This method is chosen because it is less complex.（2）The conclusions are appalling and account, to a large extent, for the terrible morbidity and mortality statistics of this community.Text 2This paper presents the findings of an analysis of teamwork development. The group selected for this assignment (the survey team) is a small team of four people working in a small department of Advance Tours. The performance of the team and the team members’attitudes to their team were measured using two questionnaires developed by Cacioppe (1998). An analysis of the findings is then presented and recommendations are made as to what measures can be employed to improve the overall teamwork and performance of the team.客观语⾔，句⼦改写Lecture 2Being brief and concisee.g. (1a) Preliminary observations on the effect of Zn element on anticorrosion（防腐蚀）of zinc plating layer (镀锌层) (wordy)(1b) Effect of Zn on anticorrosion of zinc plating layer (concise)e.g.《中国近代纸币史》中⼏个学术问题的探讨(2a)Discussion on Several Academic problems in the Book The Modern History of Chinese Pa per Money(wordy)(2b)Several Questions in Modern History of Chinese Banknotes(concise)2.3 Keywords(1)Functions of keywordsKeywords of a research paper are the most frequently used words and the most important words and phrases of the paper. They are representative of the theme of the paper. As it mainly functions for easiness of retrieval, “keywords”is also variously called “indexing terms”(索引词), “keywords index”, “keywords and phrases”.(2)Form and number of keywords◇Keywords of research paper appear in the form of nouns, not verbs, For example, “investigation”is used instead of “investigate”.◇In general, the number of keywords ranges from 2 to 8. The normal limited number of keywords is four to six in one paper ◇As usual, keywords are chosen from the “title”and/or “abstract”, where the key terms of words and phrases are usually contained(3)Location of keywordsThough keywords can be either above or below the abstract of a paper, they are yet, in most cases, placed below the abstract. They are in lowercase except abbreviations.(4)Methods of spacing keywordsThere are three methods of spacing keywords:using comma ,semicolon ;larger partitionFull stop could not be used to space keywords.如：（1）“software component,(;) UML, (;) rational database”.2.4Common scientific foundation elements in Acknowledgements.1.⾼技术研究发展计划资助项⽬（863计划）（No.）National High Technology Research and Development Program of China (863 Program) (No.)2．⾃然科学基⾦（⾯上项⽬：重点项⽬：重⼤项⽬：）No.National Natural Science Foundation of China (General Program; Key Program; Major Program)3.教育部博⼠点基⾦资助项⽬（No.）Ph.D Programs Foundation of Ministry of Education of China.4重点基础研究发展规划项⽬（973计划）（No.）The Major State Basic Research Development Program of China (973 program)5. “⼗⼀五”攻关项⽬National Key Technologies R & D Program of China during the 11th Five Year Plan Period (No.)Lecture 3Descriptive Abstract(1) This paper presents an analysis of the principles of magnetic refrigeration with application to air-conditioning. A comparison with conventional evaporation-condensation gas cycle device is presented. Conclusions concerning the applicability of magnetic refrigeration to air conditioning are made.(2) The purpose of this project is to measure environmental equity in Salem, Oregon, with an aim to contribute to a growing body of literature concerned with the unequal distribution of environmental hazards .The project analyzes important previous studies and then conducts an investigation that centers around a series of GIS (Geographic Information System) maps that reveal correlations between environmental hazards and demographics(统计学), such as race and income level. The results will be revealed and discussed.(3) The Postmodern Appeal of complementary and Alternative medicines (CAM) to Australian Consumers: A Review of the LiteratureThe increasing popularity of complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) amongst health consumers and orthodox service providers in Australia is well documented. However, understandings about the reasons for increasing consumer use of CAM in Australia and elsewhere are poorly developed and invite further research.This paper presents the results of a systematic literature review on reasons for CAM use by the Australian population. There are four main themes: 1) criticism of conventional medicine, 2)attraction to the holistic model（整体模型）of health, 3) treatment options for chronic and terminal illness, and 4) lifestyle factors which are identified and explored through social change theory, namely, globalization and post-modernization(4) Mechanism of Angiogenesis(⾎管⽣成) and Arteriogenesis （动脉⽣成）Endothelial（⽪细胞）and smooth music cells interact with each other to form new blood vessels. In this review, the cellular and molecular mechanisms（细胞分⼦机制）underlying the formation of endothelium-lined channels (angiogenesis) and their maturation via recruitment of smooth muscle cells (arteriogenesis) during physiological and pathological（病理学的）conditions are summarized, alongside with possible therapeutic applications. Informative AbstractThe major components of an informative abstract:(1)PurposeThe purpose of the study introduces the reason, the origin, the importance and significance of the study in question, including the premise, purpose and tasks and scope of the research. The purpose section of an informative abstract might also contain the hypothesis of the experiment.(2)MethodologyResearch methods present the methods or techniques of the research, including the model, theory, conditions, objects,sampling method, sample size，materials, technology, means, equipment, procedures (study design (e.g., survey), data collection and analysis.(3)ResultResults report the results of the study, including data, identified relationship, observation results, effectiveness and performance achieved.(4)ConclusionsConclusions comment on the main contribution or value of the research paper. It includes an analysis, comparison, evaluation of the research results (e.g. interpret the results as supporting or not supporting the theory or hypotheses), new issues raised, further studies of the future, assumptions, inspirations, recommendations and forecasts.当今绝⼤部分的科技期刊和会议论⽂都要求作者提供信息性摘要）:信息性摘要主要报道论⽂的研究⽬的、研究法、研究结果与结论。
英语写作讲义
英语写作序列讲座第一单元段落简介1．1段落段落是构成文章的一组句子。
段落必须表达完整的意思：或描写事物（describe something），或争论某事（argue about something），或对某事提出疑问（question something），或要求什么（demand something），或给事物下定义（define something），或驳斥某观点（reject something）。
1．2典型段落的构成一个典型的段落通常由三部分组成：（1）主题句（the topic sentence）；（2）说明或支持主题的推展句（supporting sentences）；（3）结论句（the concluding sentence）（有些段落没有该部分）。
示范段落1-1We all know that cigarette smoking is a dangerous habit because it causes health problems．Doctors say it can be a direct cause of cancer of the lungs and throat and can also contribute to cancer of other organs．In addition，it can bring about other health problems such as heart and lung diseases．It is clearly identified as one of the chief causes of death in our society．1．3示范段落分析这是一个典型的段落，可概括提纲如下：主题句：We all know that cigarette smoking is a dangerous habit，because it causes health problems．推展句：1．Doctors say it can be a direc cause of cancer of the lungs and throat and can also contribute to cancer of other organs．2．It can bring about other health problems such as heart and lung diseases．结论句：It is clearly identified as one of the chief causes of death in our society．从以上提纲可见，主题句提出了一个问题：What kind of health problems does cigarette smoking cause？随后的两个推展句回答了这个问题，结论句总结了推展句并再一次强调主题句。
英文有限元方法Finite element method讲义 (1)
MSc in Mechanical Engineering Design MSc in Structural Engineering LECTURER: Dr. K. DAVEY(P/C10)Week LectureThursday(11.00am)SB/C53LectureFriday(2.00pm)Mill/B19Tut/Example/Seminar/Lecture ClassFriday(3.00pm)Mill/B192nd Sem. Lab.Wed(9am)Friday(11am)GB/B7DeadlineforReports1 DiscreteSystems DiscreteSystems DiscreteSystems2 Discrete Systems. Discrete Systems. Tutorials/Example I.Meshing I.Deadline 3 Discrete Systems Discrete Systems Tutorials/Example IIStart4 Discrete Systems. Discrete Systems. DiscreteSystems.5 Continuous Systems Continuous Systems Tutorials/Example II. Mini Project6 Continuous Systems Continuous Systems Tutorials/Example7 Continuous Systems Continuous Systems Special elements8 Special elements Special elements Tutorials/Example III.Composite IIDeadline *9 Special elements Special elements Tutorials/Example10 Vibration Analysis Vibration Analysis Vibration Analysis III Deadline11 Vibration Analysis Vibration Analysis Tutorials/Example12 VibrationAnalysis Tutorials/Example Tutorials/Example13 Examination Period Examination Period14 Examination Period Examination Period15 Examination Period Examination Period*Week 9 is after the Easter vacation Assignment I submission (Box in GB by 3pm on the next workingday following the lab.) Assignment II and III submissions (Box in GB by 3pm on Wed.)CONTENTS OF LECTURE COURSEPrinciple of virtual work; minimum potential energy.Discrete spring systems, stiffness matrices, properties.Discretisation of a continuous system.Elements, shape functions; integration (Gauss-Legendre).Assembly of element equations and application of boundary conditions.Beams, rods and shafts.Variational calculus; Hamilton’s principleMass matrices (lumped and consistent)Modal shapes and time-steppingLarge deformation and special elements.ASSESSMENT: May examination (70%); Short Lab – Holed Plate (5%); Long Lab – Compositebeam (10%); Mini Project – Notched component (15%).COURSE BOOKSBuchanan, G R (1995), Schaum’s Outline Series: Finite Element Analysis, McGraw-Hill.Hughes, T J R (2000), The Finite Element Method, Dover.Astley, R. J., (1992), Finite Elements in Solids and Structures: An Introduction, Chapman &HallZienkiewicz, O.C. and Morgan, K., (2000), Finite Elements and Approximation, DoverZienkiewicz, O C and Taylor, R L, (2000), The Finite Element Method: Solid Mechanics,Butterworth-Heinemann.IntroductionThe finite element method (FEM) is a numerical technique that can be applied to solve a range of physical problems. The method involves the discretisation of the body (domain) of interest into subregions, which are known as elements. This enables a continuum problem to be described by a finite system of equations. In the field of solid mechanics the FEM is undoubtedly the solver of choice and its use has revolutionised design and analysis approaches. Many commercial FE codes are available for many types of analyses such as stress analysis, fluid flow, electromagnetism, etc. In fact if a physical phenomena can be described by differential or integral equations, then the FE approach can be used. Many universities, research centres and commercial software houses are involved in writing software. The differences between using and creating code are outlined below:(A) To create FE software1. Confirm nature of physical problem: solid mechanics; fluid dynamics; electromagnetic; heat transfer; 1-D, 2-D, 3-D; Linear; non-linear; etc.2. Describe mathematically: governing equations; loading conditions.3. Derive element equations: convert governing equations into algebraic form; select trial functions; prepare integrals for numerical evaluation.4. Assembly and solve: assemble system of equations; application of loads; solution of equations.5. Compute:6. Process output: select type of data; generate related data; display meaningfully and attractively.(B) To use FE software1. Define a specific problem: geometry; physical properties; loads.2. Input data to program: geometry of domain, mesh generation; physical properties; loads-interior and boundary.3. Compute:4. Process output: select type of data; generate related data; display meaningfully and attractively.DISCRETE SYSTEMSSTATICSThe finite element involves the transformation of a continuous system (infinite degrees of freedom) into a discrete system (finite degrees of freedom). It is instructive therefore to examine the behaviour of simple discrete systems and associated variational methods as this provides real insight and understanding into the more complicated systems arising from the finite element method.Work and Strain energyFLuxConsider a metal bar of uniform cross section, A , fixed at one end (unrestrained laterally) and subjected to an axial force, F , at the other.Small deflection theory is assumed to apply unless otherwise stated.The work done, W , by the applied force F is .a ()∫′′=uau d u F WIt is worth mentioning at this early stage that it is not always possible to express work in this manner for various reasons associated with reversibility and irreversibility. (To be discussed later)The work done, W , by the internal forces, denoted strain energy , is se22200se ku 21u L EA 2121EAL d EAL d AL W ==ε=ε′ε′=ε′σ=∫∫εεwhere ε=u L and stiffness k EA L=.The principle of virtual workThe principle of virtual work states that the variation in strain energy is equal to the variation in the work done by applied forces , i.e.()u F u u d u F du d W u ku u ku 21du d ku 21W u0a 22se δ=δ⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛′′=δ=δ=δ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛=⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛δ=δ∫()0u F ku =δ−⇒Note that use has been made of the relationship δf dfduu =δ where f is an arbitrary functional of u . In general displacement u is a function of position (x say) and it is understood that ()x u δ means a change in ()u x with xfixed. Appreciate that varies with from zero to ()'u F 'u ()u F F = in the above integral.Bearing in mind that δ is an arbitrary variation; then this equation is satisfied if and only if F , which is as expected. Before going on to apply the principle of virtual work to a continuous system it is worth investigating discrete systems further. This is because the finite element formulation involves the transformation of a continuous system into a discrete one. u ku =Spring systemsConsider a single spring with stiffness independent of deflection. Then, 2F21u1F1u2k()()⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−=−=2121212se u u k k k k u u 21u u k 21W()()()⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−δδ=δ−δ−=δ21211212se u u k k k k u u u u u u k W()⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛δδ=δ+δ=δ21212211a F F u u u F u F W , where ()111u F F = and ()222u F F =.Note here that use has been made of the relationship δ∂∂δ∂∂δf f u u f u u =+1122, where f is an arbitrary functional of and . Observe that in this case is a functional of 1u u 2W se u u u 2121=−, so()()(121212*********se se u u u u k u u ku 21du d u du dW W δ−δ−=−δ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛=δ=δ).The principle of virtual work provides,()()()()0F u u k u F u u k u 0W W 21221121a se =−−δ+−−−δ⇒=δ−δand since δ and δ are arbitrary we have. u 1u 2F ku ku 11=−2u 2 F ku k 21=−+represented in matrix form,u F K u u k k k k F F 2121=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛=where K is known as the stiffness matrix . Note that this matrix is singular (det K k k =−=220) andsymmetric (K K T=). The symmetry is a result of the fact that a unit deflection at node 1 results in a force at node 2 which is the same in magnitude at node 1 if node 2 is moved by the same amount.Could also have arrived at equation above via()⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⇒=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−−⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛δδ=δ−δ2121211121a se u u k k k k F F 0u u k k k k F F u u W WBoundary conditionsWith the finite element method the application of displacement constraint boundary conditions is performed after the equations are assembled. It is an interest to examine the implications of applying and not applying the displacement boundary constraints prior to applying the principle of virtual work. Consider then the single spring element above but fixed at node 1, i.e. 0u 1=. Ignoring the constraint initially gives()212se u u k 21W −=, ()()1212se u u u u k W δ−δ−=δ and 2211a u F u F W δ+δ=δ.The principle of virtual work gives 2211ku ku ku F −=−= and 2212ku ku ku F =+−=, on applicationof the constraint. Note that is the force required at node 1 to prevent the node moving and is the reaction force.21ku F −=21ku F =−Applying the constraint straightaway gives 22se ku 21W =, 22se u ku W δ=δ and 22a u F W δ=δ. The principle of virtual work gives with no information about the reaction force at node 1.22ku F =Exam Standard Question:The spring-mass system depicted in the Figure consists of three massless springs, which are attached to fixed boundaries by means of pin-joints at nodes 1, 3 and 5. The springs are connected to a rigid bar by means of pin-joints at nodes 2 and 4. The rigid bar is free to rotate about pivot A. Nodes 2 and 4 are distances and below pivot A, respectively. Each spring has the same stiffness k. Node 2 is subjected to an external horizontal force F 2/l 4/l 2. All deflections can be assumed to be small.(i) Write expressions for the extension of each spring in terms of the displacement of node 2.(ii) In terms of the degrees of freedom at node 2, write expressions for the total strain energy W of the spring-mass system. In addition, specify the variation in work done se a W δ resulting from the application of the force.2F (iii) Use Use the principle of virtual work to find a relationship between the magnitude of and the horizontal components of displacement at node 2.2F (iv) Use the principle of virtual work to show that the net vertical force imposed by the springs on the rigid-bar at node 2 is zero.Solution:(i) Directional vectors for springs are: 2112e 21e 23e +=, 2132e 21e 23e +−= and 145e e =. Extensions for bottom springs are: 221212u 23u e =⋅=δ, 223232u 23u e −=⋅=δ.Note that 2u u 24=, so 2u245−=δ.(ii)()2222222245232212se ku 87u 212323k 21k 21W =⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛+⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛−+⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛=δ+δ+δ=, 222u F W δ=δ(iii) 2222a 22se ku 47F u F W u ku 47W =⇒δ=δ=δ=δ(iv) Need additional displacement degree of freedom at node 2. Let 22122e v e u u += and note that2221212v 21u 23u e +=⋅=δ and 2223232v 21u 23u e +−=⋅=δ.()⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+−+⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+=δ+δ=222222232212se v 21u 23v 21u 23k 21k 21W ⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛δ+δ−⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+−+⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛δ+δ⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+=δ22222222se v 21u 23v 21u 23v 21u 23v 21u 23k W Setting and gives0v 2=0u 2=δ2vert 222222se v F v 0v 21u 23v 21u 23k W δ=δ=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛δ⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛−+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛δ⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛=δ hence . 0F vert 2=Method of Minimum PotentialConsider the expression,()()F u u u TT 21212121c se K 21F F u u u u k k k k u u 21W W P −=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛−⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−=−=where W F and can be considered as a work term with independent of . u F u c =+1122F i u iThe approach of minimising P is known as the method of minimum potential .Note that,()()u F 0F -u u =F u u u +u u K K K K 21W W P T T T T c se =⇒=δδ−δδ=δ−δ=δwhere use has been made of the fact that δδu u =u u T TK K as a result of K 's symmetry.It is useful at this stage to consider the minimisation of an arbitrary functional ()u P where()()3T T O H 21P P u u u u u δ+δδ+∇δ=δand the gradient ∇=P P u i i ∂∂, and the Hessian matrix coefficients H P u u ij i j=∂∂∂2.A stationary point requires that ∇=, i.e.P 0∂∂Pu i=0.Moreover, a minimum point requires that δδu u TH >0 for all δu ≠0 and matrices that possess this property are known as positive definite .Setting P W W K se c T=−=−12u u u F T provides ∇=−=P K u F 0 and H K =.It is a simple matter to check that with u 10= (to prevent rigid body movement) that K is positive definite and this is a property commonly associated with FE stiffness matrices.Exam Standard Question:The spring system depicted in the Figure consists of four massless unstretched springs, which are attached to fixed boundaries by means of pin-joints at nodes 1 to 4. The springs are connected to a slider at node 5. Theslider is constrained to move in a frictionless channel whose axis is to the horizontal. Each spring has the same stiffness k. The slider is subjected to an external force F 0453 whose direction is along the axis of the frictionless channel.(i)The deflection of node 5 can be represented by the vector 25155v u e e u +=, where and areunit orthogonal vectors which are shown in the Figure. Write the components of deflection and in terms of , where is the magnitude of , i.e. e 1e 25u 5v 5U 5U 5u 25U 5u =. Show that the extensions of eachspring, in terms of , are: 5U ()22/31U 515+=δ, ()22/31U 525−=δ, and2/U 54535−=δ−=δ.(ii) In terms of k and write expressions for the total strain energy W of the spring-mass system. Inaddition, specify the variation in work done 5U se a W δ resulting from the application of the force . 5F (iii) Use the principal of virtual work to find a relationship between the magnitude of and thedisplacement at node 5.5F 5U (iv) Use the principal of virtual work to determine an expression for the force imposed by the frictionless channel on the slider.(v)Form a potential energy function for the spring system. Assume here that nodes 1, 3 and 4 are fixed and node 5 is restricted to move in the channel. Use this function to determine the reaction force at node 2.Solution:(i) Directional vectors for springs and channel are: ()2115e e 321e +=, ()2125e e 321e +−=, 135e e −=, 45e e = and (21c 5e e 21e +=). Deflection c 555e U u =, so 2U v u 555==. Extensions springs are: ()3122U u e 551515+=⋅=δ, ()3122U u e 552525−=⋅=δ, 2Uu e 553535−=⋅=δand 2Uu e 554545=⋅=δ(ii)()()()252522245235225215se kU U 83131k 8121k 21W =⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛+−++=δ+δ+δ+δ=, 55a U F W δ=δ(iii)5555a 55se kU 2F U F W U kU 2W =⇒δ=δ=δ=δ(iv) Need additional displacement degree of freedom at node 3. A unit vector perpendicular to the channel is(21p 5e e 21e +−=) and let p 55c 555e V e U u += and note that()()3122V3122U u e 5551515−++=⋅=δ and ()()3122V3122U u e 5552525++−=⋅=δ, 2V 2U u e 5553535+−=⋅=δ and 2V 2U u e 5554545−=⋅=δ()()()()()()()()⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛−+++−+−++=δ+δ+δ+δ=255255255245235225215se V U 831V 31U 31V 31U k 8121k 21W ()()()()()555se V 0V 831313131kU 81W δ=δ−+−+−+=δ, where variation is onlyconsidered and is set to zero. Principle of virtual work .5V δ3V 0F V F V 0W p 55p 55se =⇒δ=δ=δ(v)()3122U u e 551515+=⋅=δ, ()()5552525V 3122Uu u e −−=−⋅=δ, where 2522e V u =. ()()()223333223232233245235225215V F U F U V 3122U 3122U k 21V F U F k 21P −−⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛+⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−+⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡+=−−δ+δ+δ+δ=and ()0F V 3122U k V P 2232=−⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−−=∂∂, which on setting 0V 2= gives ()⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−=3122U k F 32.The reaction is .2F −System AssemblyConsider the following three-spring system 2F 21u 1F 1u 2kF 3F 4u 3u 4k 1k2334()()()234322322121se u u k 21u u k 21u u k 21W −+−+−=,()()()()()()343432323212121se u u u u k u u u u k u u u u k W δ−δ−+δ−δ−+δ−δ−=δ,44332211a u F u F u F u F W δ+δ+δ+δ=δ,and δδ implies that,W W se a −=0u F K u u u u k k 0k k k k 00k k k k 00k k F FF F 43213333222211114321=⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎢⎢⎣⎡−−+−−+−−=⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛=where again it is apparent that K is symmetric but also it is banded, i.e. the non-zero coefficients are located around the principal diagonal. This is a property commonly associated with assembled FE stiffness matrices and depends on node connectivity. Note also that the summation of coefficients in individual rows or columns gives zero. The matrix is singular and 0K det =.Note that element stiffness matrices are: , and where on examination of K it is apparent how these are assembled to form K .⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−1111k k k k ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−2222k k k k ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−3333k k k kIf a boundary constraint is imposed then row one is removed to give:0u 1=u F K u u u k k 0k k k k 0k k k F F F 432333322221432=⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎢⎣⎡−−+−−+=⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛=. If however a boundary constraint (say) is imposed then row one is again removed but a somewhatdifferent answer is obtained: 1u 1=u F K u u u k k 0k k k k 0k k k F F k F 4323333222214312=⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎢⎣⎡−−+−−+=⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛+=)Direct FormulationIt is possible to formulate the stiffness matrix directly by moving one node and keeping the others fixed and noting the reactions.The above system can be solved for u , once possible rigid body motion is prevented, by setting u (say) to give 10=⇒=⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎢⎣⎡−−+−−+=⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛=u F K u u u k k 0k k k k 0k k k F F F 432333322221432⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎢⎣⎡−−+−−+=⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛−4321333322221432F F F k k 0k k k k 0k k k u u uThe inverse stiffness matrix, K −1, is known as the flexibility matrix and, for this example at least, can be assembled directly by noting the system response to prescribed forces.In practice K −1is never calculated and the system K u F = is solved using a modern numerical linear system solver.It is a simple matter to confirm thatu u K 21u u u u k k 0k k k k 00k k k k 00k k u u u u 21W T 4321333322221111T4321se =⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎢⎢⎣⎡−−+−−+−−⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛= with F u T4321T4321a F F F F u u u u W δ=⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛δδδδ=δThus,()u F F u u K 0K W W Ta se =⇒=−δ=δ−δExample:k1F 2u23k2u3F321With use a direct method to find the assembled stiffness and flexibility matrices.0u 1=Solution:The equations of interest are of the form: 3232222u k u k F += and 3332323u k u k F +=.Consider and equilibrium at nodes 2 and 3. At node 2, 0u 3=()2212u k k F += and at node 3,.223u k F −=Consider and equilibrium at nodes 2 and 3. At node 2, 0u 2=322u k F −= and at node 3, . 323u k F =Thus: , , 2122k k k +=223k k −=232k k −= and 233k k =.For flexibility the equations of interest are of the form: 3232222F c F c u += and . 3332323F c F c u +=Consider and equilibrium at nodes 2 and 3. At node 2, 0F 3=122k F u = and at node 3,1223k F u u ==.Consider and equilibrium at nodes 2 and 3. At node 2, 0F 2=122k F u = and at node 3,()2133k 1k 1F u +=.Thus: 122k 1c =, 123k 1c =, 132k 1c = and 2133k 1k 1c +=.Can check that ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡=⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡+⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−+1001k 1k 1k 1k 1k 1k k k k k 2111122221 as required,It should be noted that the direct determination requires boundary constraints to be applied to ensure that the flexibility matrix exists, which requires the stiffness to be non-singular. However, the stiffness matrix always exists, so boundary conditions need not be applied prior to constructing the stiffness matrix with the direct approach.Large deformation theory for spring elementsThus far small deflection theory has been applied where the strains are measured using the Cauchy strainxu11∂∂=ε. A conjugate stress can be obtained by differentiating with respect the expression for strain energy density (energy per unit volume) 11ε211E 21ε=ω, i.e. 111111E ε=ε∂ω∂=σ, where E is Young’s Modulusand is the Cauchy stress (sometimes referred to as the Euler stress). 11σIn the case of large deformation theory we will restrict our attention to hyperelastic materials which are materials that possess an expression for strain energy density Ω (say) that is analytical in strain.The strain used in large deformation theory is Green’s strain (see Appendix II) which for a uniformly loadeduniaxial bar is 211x u 21x u E ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂+∂∂=.An expression for strain energy density (energy per unit volume) 211EE 21=Ω and the derived stress is 111111EE E S =∂Ω∂=, where E is Young’s Modulus and is known as the 211S nd Piola-Kirchoff stress . 2F21u1F1u2kBar subject to longitudinal deformationConsider a bar of length L and cross sectional area A represented by a spring element and subject to nodal forces and . 1F 2FThe strain energy is∫∫∫∫⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂+∂∂==Ω=Ω=212121x x 22x x 211x x V se dx x u 21x u EA 21dx E EA 21dx A dV WConsider further a linear displacement field of the form ()21u L x u L x L x u ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛−= and note thatL u u xu 12−=∂∂. ()()221212x x 221212se u u L 21u u L EA 21dx L u u 21L u u EA 21W 21⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−=⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛−+−=∫ ()()()⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−+−=4122312212se u u L 41u u L 1u u k 21W()()()(12312221212se u u u u L 21u u L 23u u k W δ−δ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−+−=δ) and 2211a u F u F W δ+δ=δ.The principle of virtual work gives()()()⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−+−−=3122212121u u L 21u u L 23u u k F and()()(⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−+−=3122212122u u L 21u u L 23u u k F ), represented in matrix form as()()()()()⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎢⎢⎣⎡⎥⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎢⎣⎡−+−−−−−−−+−+⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛21121212121221u u L 3u u 1L 3u u 1L 3u u 1L 3u u 1L 2u u k 3k k k k F Fwhich is of the form[]u F G L K K += where is called the geometrical stiffness matrix and is the usual linear stiffnessmatrix. G K L KA common approximation used, depending on the magnitude of L /u u 12−, is⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−+⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛2121u u 1111L 2P 3k k k k F F where ()12u u k P −=.The fact that is non-linear (even in its approximate form) means that iterative solution procedures are required to be employed to determine the unknown displacements. G KNote that the approximate form is arrived at using the following strain energy expression()()⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−=312212se u u L 1u u k 21WExample:The strain energies for the springs in the above system (fixed at node 1) are k 1 F 2u 23k 2u3F321⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡+=1322211seL u u k 21W and ()()⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−=323222322se u u L 1u u k 21WUse the principle of virtual work to obtain the assembled linear and geometrical stiffness matrices.()()()3322a 2322322322122212se1sese u F u F W u u u u L 23u u k u L 2u 3u k W W W δ+δ=δ=δ−δ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−+δ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡+=δ+δ=δThus ()(⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−−⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡+=2232232122212u u L 23u u k L 2u 3u k F ) and ()()⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−=22322323u u L 23u u k F⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡αα−α−α+α+⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−+=⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛32222212222132u u k k k k k F F where 1211L 2u k 3=α and ()23222u u L 2k 3−=α.Note that the element stiffness matrices are[][]111k K α+= and ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡αα−α−α+⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−=222222222k k k k Kand it is evident how these should be assembled to form the assembled linear and geometrical stiffness matrices.2v21u 1v1u 2kxBar subject to longitudinal and lateral deflectionConsider a bar of length L and cross sectional area A represented by a spring element and subject to longitudinal and lateral displacements u and v, respectively.The normal strain is 2211x v 21x u 21x u E ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂+∂∂= and the associated strain energy∫∫∫∫⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂+∂∂==Ω=Ω=212121x x 22x x 211x x V se dx x v 21x u 21x u EA 21dx E EA 21dx A dV W ∫⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂≈21x x 232se dx x v x u x u x u EA 21WConsider further a linear displacement field of the form ()21u L x u L x L x u ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛−= and()21v L x v L x L x v ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛−=, and note thatL u u x u 12−=∂∂ and L v v x v 12−=∂∂. ()()()()⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−+−+−=L v v u u L u u u u L EA 21W 21212312212se()()()()()()()1212121221221212se v v L v v u u k u u L 2v v L 2u u 3u u k W δ−δ⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−+δ−δ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−+−=δ2v 22h 21v 11h 1a v F u F v F u F W δ+δ+δ+δ=δ and the principle of virtual work gives()()()⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−+−−=L 2v v L 2u u 3u u k F 21221212h1and ()()⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−−=L v v u u k F 1212v1 ()()()⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−+−+−=L 2v v L 2u u 3u u k F 21221212h2and ()()⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡−−=L v v u u k F 1212v2()()⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎢⎢⎣⎡−−−−−+⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎢⎢⎣⎡−−−+⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎢⎢⎣⎡−−=⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝⎛22111212v 2h 2v 1h 1v u v u 101005.105.1101005.105.1Lu u k 1010000010100000L2v v k 0000010100000101k F F F FExam Standard Question:The spring system depicted in the Figure consists of two massless springs of equal length , which are attached to fixed boundaries by means of pin-joints at nodes 1 and 2. The springs are connected to a slider atnode 3. The slider is constrained to move in a frictionless channel whose axis is 45 to the horizontal. Each spring has the same stiffness . The slider is subjected to an external force F 1L =0L /EA k =3 whose direction is along the axis of the frictionless channel.FigureAssume the springs have strain density ⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂=Ω232x v x u x u x u E 21.(i) Write expressions for the longitudinal and lateral displacements for each spring at node 3 in terms of thedisplacement along the channel at node 3.(ii) In terms of displacement along the channel at node 3, write expressions for the total strain energy W of thespring-mass system. In addition, specify the variation in work done se a W δ resulting from the application of the force .3F (iii) Use the principle of virtual work to find a relationship between the magnitude of and the displacementalong the channel at node 3. 3FSolution:(i) Directional vectors for springs and channel are: ()2113e e 321e +=and ()2123e e 321e +−= and (21c 3e e 21e +=). Perpendicular vectors are: ()2113e 3e 21e +−=⊥and ()2123e 3e 21e +=⊥Deflection c 333e U u =, so 2U v u 333==.Longitudinal displacement: ()3122U u e 331313+=⋅=δ, ()3122U u e 332323−=⋅=δ.Lateral displacement: ()3122U u e 331313+−=⋅=δ⊥⊥, ()3122U u e 332323+=⋅=δ⊥⊥(ii) The strain energy density for element 1 is ⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛δ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛δ+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛δ+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛δ=Ω⊥21313313213L L L L E 21 The strain energy density for element 2 is ⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎟⎠⎞⎜⎜⎝⎛δ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛δ+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛δ+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛δ=Ω⊥22323323223L L L L E 21 The total strain energy with substitution of 1L = gives()()()()[]()()()()[][]3322312232332322321313313213se U Uk 21k 21k 21W α+α=δδ+δ+δ+δδ+δ+δ=⊥⊥where and are constants determined on collecting up terms on substitution of and .1α2α231313,,δδδ⊥⊥δ2333a U F W δ=δ.(iii) The principle of virtual work gives⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡α+α=⇒δ=δ=δ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡α+α=δ32133332323231se U 23kU F U F W U U 23U k WPin-jointed structuresThe example above is a pin-jointed structure. A reasonable good approximation reported in the literature for strain energy density, commonly used with pin-jointed structures, is⎥⎥⎦⎤⎢⎢⎣⎡⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂+⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂=Ω22x v x u x u E 21This arises from strain-energy approximation 211x v 21x u E ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂+∂∂=. Can be used when 22x v x u ⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂<<⎟⎠⎞⎜⎝⎛∂∂.。
高考英语作文复习：话题作文——文学艺术讲义
高考英语作文复习---话题作文距离高考还有一段时间，不少有经验的老师都会提醒考生，愈是临近高考，能否咬紧牙关、学会自我调节，态度是否主动积极，安排是否科学合理，能不能保持良好的心态、以饱满的情绪迎接挑战，其效果往往大不一样。
以下是本人从事10多年教学经验总结出的以下学习资料，希望可以帮助大家提高答题的正确率，希望对你有所帮助，有志者事竟成！养成良好的答题习惯，是决定高考英语成败的决定性因素之一。
做题前，要认真阅读题目要求、题干和选项，并对答案内容作出合理预测;答题时，切忌跟着感觉走，最好按照题目序号来做，不会的或存在疑问的，要做好标记，要善于发现，找到题目的题眼所在，规范答题，书写工整;答题完毕时，要认真检查，查漏补缺，纠正错误。
总之，在最后的复习阶段，学生们不要加大练习量。
在这个时候，学生要尽快找到适合自己的答题方式，最重要的是以平常心去面对考试。
英语最后的复习要树立信心，考试的时候遇到难题要想“别人也难”，遇到容易的则要想“细心审题”。
越到最后，考生越要回归基础，单词最好再梳理一遍，这样有利于提高阅读理解的效率。
另附高考复习方法和考前30天冲刺复习方法。
【作文书写总纲】高中作文虽大约在100-120词左右，但也需要在书写前安排好文章结构，理清书写思路后再下笔写作，才能保证逻辑清楚，承接自然，首尾呼应。
称为“五确定”，一般可以按照以下几步：1、确定文章体裁。
是书信，还是议论文、说明文等。
即使是书信，也需要按照不同的书信类别进行分析准备，例如是否要写自我介绍；是否需要寒暄；是否需要时间落款2、确定文章段落。
一般段落在3-5段比较合适，段落太多会有冗余繁杂之感。
但有些文章也可以两段，例如通知或者是演讲稿，也可以满足要求。
3、确当各段内容和段落之间的过渡。
第一段往往起到引出话题的作用，安排2-3句话较为合适；二段为主要内容，在分层和衔接上要求较高，文章的主要句子主要在这里体现；三段一般为呼应和总结，安排2-3句话，这样的结构较为紧密完整，主次分明，逻辑清楚。
新东方雅思写作讲义
新东方雅思写作讲义Last revision on 21 December 2020雅思写作完全攻略Total Solution of IELTS Writing俞伟国－2009－雅思考试作文部分题型课时安排：Marking SystemEssay WritingIntroductionBodyConclusionStructureReport Writing近年雅思考试中国大陆考区作文部分得分情况(From Mat Clark)Band4 or below: 15%-20% Band5: 60% Band6: 15%-20% Band7: <5% Band8 or above: RareKey Language Features in Marking SystemTask Response:1. No evidence of digression/irrelevant content2. Adequate Words3. Position + Supporting Ideas + DevelopmentCoherence and Cohesion1.Logical overall structure2.Topic Sentence3.Cohesive devicesLexical Resource1.Accurateness2.Authentic Vocabulary (Less-common Vocabulary)3.VarietyGrammatical Range and Accuracy1.Accuratenessplex Sentence3.Variety欢迎光临俞老师的BLOG:Chapter One－Essay Writing第一章. 议论文完全攻略____________________________________________________________________________ _______________________Part One－Introduction－闪亮开篇－－Version －Structure of Introduction1. Background Information(1). Lead-in Sentence (Introduce the subject of the topic)(2). Public Opinion2. Statement (State your position)1．主体背景（Background Information）(1) In the last century, the first man walking on the moon said: “It is a big step for mankind”. However, some people think it ma de______________________________, when________________________________________________________________for the first time, he _____________________________________________________ that it was a great step for mankind. Nowadays, however, some people believe that it actually_____________________________________________________Language Skill: Paraphrase方法之一－具体化 (笼统概念－缩小范围)(2) Food can be produced much more cheaply today because of improved fertilizers and better machinery. However, some people think the methods used to do this may have negative effects on local communities and be dangerous to human health.Nowadays people can _______________ food far more ________________________________________ more _______________ fertilizers and machinery. Nevertheless, some people hold the methods used may____________________________________________________________________________ ________________________Language Skill: Paraphrase 方法之二－单词转换（优先考虑三大词类：）Paraphrase方法之三－句型转换（方法1 ）(方法2 )(3) Many people say teachers should only teach students academic subjects；Others say teachers should also take the responsibility of teaching students to judge what is right and wrong.Some people hold the opinion that___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________While some argue that____________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________Language Skill: 句型转换 (方法3 )(4) Some people believe that air travel should be prohibited as it uses up fuel resources and causes pollution. Do you agree or disagree with the statement You should use your own experience to supportyour argument.According to some __________, air travel should be_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________Language Skill: Paraphrase思路顺序：单词转换>句型转换>具体化(5Some people propose that___________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________Language Skill:句型转换(方法4 )(6). In modern society, there are more and more old people, do you think its benefits outweigh its disadvantages____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________Language Skill:信息量偏少的Topic Introduction写作对策追根溯源法－ Factor(s) [因]－Phenomenon (Subject) [果]2. 总论点(Statement)Topic－If children behave badly, should their parents accept responsibility and also be punishedAverage Example：In my opinion, the parents should not be punished.Decent Example：In my opinion, the parents should not be punished except that (unless) they are those who purposefully teach the child to behave badly.Topic－Some people think that it is beneficial for students to go to private secondary schools. But others feel that it has negative effects on them. Discuss the both viewpoints From my point of view, it is an ideal choice to send children to private middle schools______________________________Exercise1: Topic－Should college students be allowed to get married________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Language Skill:句型转换 (方法5 ) Exercise2: Topic－Should college students be encouraged to take up part-time jobs________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Language Skill:句型转换 (方法6 )3. Report－Introduction写作对策Today, the phenomenon that_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________has aroused growing concern.In my opinion, a lot of factors contribute to the problem and in this article, I would like to_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________*This phenomenon, as far as I am concerned, can be attributed to the following causes, whichcould be regarded as the apple of discord.Structure of Report Introduction1. Lead-in Sentence (Paraphrase the first sentence in the topic)2. Plan A: Essay StatementPlan B: Linking SentenceExercise1:Exercise2: Topic－Pressure on the school and university students is increasing andstudents are pushed to studyExercise3: Topic－欢迎光临俞老师的BLOG:Part Two－Body－中流砥柱－－Version －分论点的要求：1.字数要求：One complex sentence preferred. Around 20 words. 2. 分论点四项基本原则：(1). 内容原则：分论点应该体现为一种_____________________________并且与总论点为_________________关系。
第20讲 书面表达之感谢信(讲义)(原卷版)_1
►第20讲书面表达之感谢信（讲义）【复习目标】1.精选写作话题，紧扣核心目标。
2.提升语言质量。
3. 强化高效训练。
【网络构建】【考情分析】感谢信命题规律【名师解难】邀请信一定要将活动的时间、地点、内容写清楚，用词须准确、简洁，写作过程中不要遗漏要点，可以遵循以下写作套路。
第一段，简要说明活动并邀请对方，含：（1)问候；（2)自我介绍；（3)写信背景；（4)写信目的。
第二段，具体介绍邀请的原因，含：（1)活动的时间、地点及参与人员；（2)活动的主题、方式、组成部分；（3)活动的意义。
第三段，期待对方接受邀请，并表示感谢，含：（1)希望对方能来；（2)感谢对方读信；（3)期待回复。
感谢信【突破策略】感谢信是用于致谢他人的馈赠、款待、帮助、以及对慰问信和祝贺信的回复。
信件不适宜过长，只需写明感谢他人的理由，信文要感情真挚，措辞得体。
感谢信一般分为三个部分：第一段：表达感谢之情并说明原因；第二段：细述并赞赏对方给与的帮助；第三段：再次阐述谢意并表达回报愿望。
感谢信的写作指导1.有序组织要点首先，应当友善地对对方的生活表示关心；其次，应明确陈述写信的目的,即致谢；然后，应肯定对方的帮助恰当好处；最后，应对对方给予的帮助再次表示感谢并表示良好的祝愿。
2.灵活把握时态感谢信的正文中的时态灵活多变。
通常，在提到对方曾经所给予的帮助时，应用过去时态；在提到对方邀请信，是前几年中考英语书面表达常考的一种文体。
根据邀请信的性质可将其分为普通邀请信和正式邀请信。
普通邀请信对内容和格式的要求都不高，只要说明活动的内容、时间、地点等即可。
正式邀请信的措辞要正式，语气要热情有礼，内容要讲明活动的情况。
邀请信的末尾都要表示出希望对方参加或出席的愿望。
的帮助所产生的实际效果时，可以使用现在完成时态；在涉及到现状时，应用一般现在时；在表达祝愿或希望时，使用一般将来时态。
3.运用规范的语言感谢信有其自身的特色语言，在行文的每一个环节也有一些常用句型。
如何撰写英文文章-Nature主编授课课件(1)
Since you cannot be with every reader to explain what you mean…
It is vital that your manuscript is written in a clear and concise manner, so the reader does not feel the need to ask what you mean.
—Edwin Schlossberg
Laurie Goodman, PhD —Goodman Writing & Editing Lgoodman@
Research in China
The amount of scientific research in China is growing at an amazing pace. The quality of research in China is the highest it has been— and it continues to advance in many fields more rapidly than anywhere else in the world. The number of Chinese research papers published in the most prestigious research journals must also continue to increase.
• Referees get frustrated
– Even the fairest of referees will give a more negative review.
• Referees’ comments are off track
英语论文写作课讲义
Contents of the Academic Writing CourseLesson 1: Course IntroductionLesson 2-3: Features of Academic WritingLesson 4：Taking Notes and OutliningLesson 5：Writing AbstractLesson 6：Writing IntroductionLesson 7：Writing ConclusionLesson 8：Avoiding PlagiarismLesson 9：Citing SourcesLesson 10: ParaphrasingLesson 11: SummarizingLesson 12: ReportingLesson 13-14: DocumentationLesson 15: ProofreadingLesson 16: Oral DefendingLesson 1: Course Introduction1. Academic Writing requires you to:To evaluate or interpret or in some other way add to and participate in what you writeTo consider the why and how of the topic you choose.To develop a point of view toward your material, take a stand, express some original thought.To analyze, interpret, evaluate the information you gather, and then to draw conclusions from it. 2. Qualities a research paper has:It is defined by a clear audience, a clear purpose and a clear structure.It is a work that shows your originality.It acknowledges all sources you have used.3. Four steps to write an academic essaya. Choosing and narrowing a topicb. Doing the research and readingc. Planning and writing various draftsd. Proof-reading and editingHow to choose a topic?Decide on your research direction:A. Literature is prose, written or oral, including fiction and non-fiction, drama and poetry. Research in literature can be a study of a particular author, a work, or a literary trend.It can also include comparative research of different writers, books, or literary criticisms.B. Translation is the interpreting of the meaning of a text and the subsequent production of an equivalent text that communicates the same message in another language.Research in translation can be an evaluation of the translation of a particular work or an author.It can also include research on a particular translator and his/her translations.It may also include research on translation techniques and theories.C. Linguistics is the study of language.Sub-areas:Phonetics/ Phonology 语音Syntax 句法Semantics 语义学Pragmatics 语用学Language and Socio-CultureLanguage learning and teachingSelecting a General TopicLiterature : which novel or play? which author?Translation : which source text or writer? which translator?Linguistics : which sub-area?Culture: which aspect?The Rule of the Thumb:your interest;your audience’s interest;your knowledge;availability of ample references;freshnessReading and ThinkingAn essay usually draws on common knowledge from a limited or personal point of view.A research paper is based on a thorough review of various sources and document the sources of information.Narrowing down the Scope of TopicNarrowing your topic should be depends on the purpose and length of your research paper. E.g. “An Analysis of Happy Marriages of Three Women in Emma”An Analysis of Emma;An Analysis of Three Women in Emma;An Analysis of Happy Marriages of Three Women in EmmaFormulating the Final TopicCriteria for the final topic:(1) It should be meaningful and serious;(2) It should be within the range of your abilities;(3) It should have sufficient materials available;(4) It can be treated objectivelyL2-3 Features of AWComplexityWritten language is lexically more dense: more noun-based phrases, more nominalizations, and more lexical variation.Written language is grammatically more complex: more subordinate clauses, more "that/to" complement clauses, more long sequences of prepositional phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives.Formality1) Try to use full forms, avoid contractions. e. g. Don’t should be do not2) Use single-word verbs, avoid phrasal verbs wherever possible because phrasal verbs are generally more colloquial and informal than single word verbs. e.g. instead of using “bring up”we use “raise”3) Use standard or formal words and expressions, avoid informal or nonstandard words and expressions such as colloquialism, slang, and taboo words and expressions.e. g. Informal words formal wordsleave departquit resigntired fatiguedflunk faillab laboratory4) Use concrete words and expressions, avoid vague or imprecise terms. Words like thing, bit should be banned.e.g. Several things must be borne in mind when evaluating EFL textbooks.Improved: Several points must be considered when evaluating EFL textbooks.Objectivity1) Avoid the first person pronoun “I”and the second person pronoun “you”. Always use the third person references, like “the writer, the present author, or this author”.e.g. Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago."Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."2) When expressing an opinion or belief, try to use impersonal constructions.e.g. you can see--- it can be seen thatI believe --- it is commonly believed thatI hear --- it is saidConciseness1)Find the most direct way to express the idea. Use as few words as possible.2)Avoid repetition of ideas.3)Concentrate on the topic. Anything that is irrelevant and unnecessary, no matter how well written, should be deleted.4). Be precise and specific---reduce unnecessary words5. Hedging: tentative language1)It is often believed that academic writing is factual, simply to convey facts and information. However it is now recognized that an important feature of academic writing is the concept of cautious language, often called "hedging" or "vague language".2)Use affirmative structures only when there is complete certainty.e.g. It is true that…it has been proved that…3) Use tentative structures if there is no complete certainty. Modal verbs, adverbs, and other expressions often help to achieve this purpose.e.g. It is commonly accepted that…There is evidence to suggest that ….The author tends to believe that….Languages used in hedging:Introductory verbs e.g. seem, tend, appearCertain lexical verbs e.g. assume, suggestCertain modal verbs e.g. will, must, wouldAdverbs of frequency e.g. often, sometimesModal adverbs e.g. certainly, definitelyModal adjectives e.g. certain, definite, clear, probableModal nouns e.g. assumption, possibilityThat clauses e.g. It could be the case that…To-clause + adjective e.g. It may be possible to obtain.ResponsibilityIn academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make.You are also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any source texts you use. Examples&ExercisesL4. Taking Notes and OutliningTaking Notes- three principlesKnow what kind of ideas you need to recordDon't write down too muchLabel your notes intelligentlyWays of taking notes1) Keeping your notes on separate cards keeps you from relying too heavily on one source, it is also a flexible way of recording information because they can be easily sorted.2) On each card identify the source by a short name, and note the page number; give each listing a simple descriptive heading.3) Compare your notes to your outline regularly to determine where you have accumulated enough support and where you still need to find more.3. Main Components for Effective Outline1). Parallelism: Each heading and subheading should preserve parallel structure. If the first heading is a verb, the second heading should be a verb.e.g.3.1 Chinglish in pronunciation3.2 Chinglish in words and expressions3.3 Chinglish in word order3.4 Chinglish in grammar3.5 Chinglish in conventionCoordination : All the information contained in Heading 1 should have the same significance as the information contained in Heading 2. The same goes for the subheadings (which should be less significant than the headings)Subordination: The information in the headings should be more general, while the information in the subheadings should be more specific.e.g.Chapter Three Questionnaire or Investigation of English Majors in Independent College and Results Analysis3.1 Chinglish in pronunciation3.2 Chinglish in words and expressions3.2.1 Unnecessary words3.2.2 Misused words3.2.3 Incorrect subjects3.3 Chinglish in word order3.4 Chinglish in grammar3.5 Chinglish in conventionForms of an Outline: The most important rule for outlining form is to be consistent! An outline usually uses topic structure. A topic outline uses words or phrases for all entries and uses no punctuation after entries.E.g. Chapter Two Shakespeare’s Early life in Stratford2.1. Shakespeare's family2.1.1. Shakespeare's father2.1.2. Shakespeare's mother2.2. Shakespeare's marriage2.2.1. Life of Anne Hathaway2.2.2. Reference in Shakespeare's PoemsL5 Writing AbstractsFeatures of an Abstract:Brevity: to covey in as few words as possible the essential information contained in the paper you have written.Objectiveness: to state objectively your own ideas and main points in the paper.Integrity: to confine the abstract to a single paragraph with limited words (within 200-300) and necessary elements of information.Concentration: to omit such elements of information as figures, tables, or literature references in a summary or abstract, to avoid repeating the unnecessary elements that conventionally appear in other sections of the paper.Consistency: to be consistent with the other parts of the whole paper, and never to include what has not been mentioned in the paper.Completeness: to include what you have done and what you have achieved within the scope of the topic, such as the research theories, research methods, investigations and results and conclusions, and to differentiate your paper work from others by stressing this paper‟s contribution.2. Typical Organization of an abstract:Part One: Introduction---to define the context, the argument, the purpose of the present studyPart Two: Contents of the study --- to outline the main participants, the methods and the procedures of the study.Part Three: Results, findings and conclusion --- to present the most important results and related findings, and give suggestions of further study.3. Example of an abstractThe focus of this research is in the area of... Such a study is important in order to.... The research approach adopted in this dissertation includes... The findings from this research provide evidence that…The main conclusions drawn from this study are... This dissertation recommends that…Keywords: a, b, c, d, e4. How to choose key words:a. high frequency in the thesisb. focus of the thesisRequirements:a. noun formb. 3-5 words with semicolons in the middlec. without capitalization of the first wordd. under the Abstract textL6 Writing Introduction1. Purposes of introductionTo show your reader what you are doing in your writing(establish the context of the research)To explain why you are doing it (state the purpose of the essay)To explain how you are doing it (briefly explain your rationale and approach and the possible outcomes your study can reveal)2. Parts of an introductionEstablish a research territoryIndicate a gapOccupy the gap3. Languages of each part:Establish a research territory:The increasing interest in ... has heightened the need for ....Of particular interest and complexity are ....Recently, there has been growing interest in ....(2) Indicate a gap:The research has tended to focus on ...,rather than on ....These studies have emphasized ...,as opposed to ....Although considerable research has been devoted to ... , rather less attention has been paid 33to ....(3) Occupy the gap:The purpose / intention of this paper is to ...The primary goal / aim of this research is to ...The overall objective of this study is…This paper reports on the results obtained ....This study was designed to ...3. Frequently asked questions:How long should an introduction be?How detailed should an introduction be?Why is it so hard to write an introduction?What is an introduction for? Is it a summary?What should I put in my introduction?How many paragraphs should I write for the introduction?In a word,You can't write a good introduction until you know what the body of the paper says.Consider writing the introductory sections after you have completed the rest of the paper, rather than before.L7. Writing Conclusion1. Structure:1)Link to previous paragraph: Begin with a sentence that refers to the main subject that was discussed in the body in the essay. Make sure that this sentence also links to the preceding paragraph, or uses words such as In conclusion to signal that these are your final words on the subject.2)Brief summary: you may give a brief summary of your argument and identify the main reasons/causes/factors that relate to the question you have been asked to address. If there are two or more parts to the question, be sure to include responses to each part in your conclusion.3)Reinforce the thesis statement: it is a good idea to add a sentence or two to reinforce the thesis statement which was used in your introduction. This shows the reader that you have done what you said you would do and gives a sense of unity to the essay.4)Recommendations/speculations on future action: Additional elements that may be added include recommendations for future action and speculations on future trends. Generally, although a short pithy quote can sometimes be used to spice up your conclusion, the conclusion should be in your own words. Try to avoid direct quotations, or references to other sources.e.g.It is generally/widely accepted/argued/held/believed/that…In conclusion/it can/may be said that…An important direction for further work might be to study …Further studies should focus on the practical use of …A further experiment should be conducted with …[ a new research method] in order to generalize the effect of …Lesson 8 Avoiding Plagiarism1. Definition of plagiarism:Plagiarism is defined as the unacknowledged use, as one‟s own, of work of another person, whether or not such work has been published.Put it simply, plagiarism is copying the work of another person without proper acknowledgement. There are two parts in the definition:1 copying2 absence of proper acknowledgement2. The term of proper aknowlegementPlagiarism does not mean that you cannot quote f rom others‟ work.The aim of University education is to foster your originality, your independent thinking and analysis, your power to express and convey your own ideas.You are free to quote the work of others to strengthen your arguments provided that the quote is properly identified and t h e s o u r c e i s a c k n o w l e d g e d.3.Forms of plagiarism:Turning in someone else‟s work as your ownCopying words or ideas from someone else without giving creditFailing to put a quotation in quotation marksGiving incorrect information about the source of a quotationChanging words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving credit.Copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority of your work, whether you give credit or notLesson 9 Citing Sources1. Ways of citing sourcesa)Reporting: to report the other writer's ideas into your own words. You can either paraphrase if you want to keep the length the same or summarize if you want to make the text shorter.b) Direct Quotation: to quote another author's words exactly. You have to make it very clear that the words or ideas that you are using are taken from another writer.2. Direct quotationTaking the exact words from an original source is called quoting. You should quote material when you believe the way the original author expresses an idea is the most effective means of communicating the point you want to make. If you want to borrow an idea from an author, but do not need his or her exact words, you should try paraphrasing instead of quoting.3. How much should I quoteConsider quoting a passage from one of yoursources if any of the following conditions holds: The language of the passage is particularly elegant or powerful or memorable.You wish to confirm the credibility of your argument by enlisting the support of an authority on your topic.The passage is worthy of further analysis.You wish to argue with someone else's position in considerable detail.4. Languages in direct quotationAs X said/says, "... ..."As X stated/states, "... ..."As X wrote/writes, "... ..."As X commented/comments, "... ..."As X observed/observes, "... ..."As X pointed/points out, "... ..."To quote from X, "... ..."It was X who said that "... ..."This example is given by X: "... ..."Lesson10 Paraphrasing1. What is paraphrasingParaphrase=para (modifying) + phrase (tell)To paraphrase means to completely reproduce the original meaning in our own words (but never include our own opinion).2. Three essentials of paraphrasingB ecause you are using someone else‟s words and ideas, you must be sure to do the following:(1) Represent the writers‟ views accurately. Don‟t distort the original meaning.(2) Use quotation marks – identify any unique words or phrases that appear in the original.(3) Cite in-text – By referring to the example above, provide a reference on your reference page so that the reader will know where to find the original that you are paraphrasing.3. Strategies of paraphrasing1) Read and understand the text.2) Make a list of the main ideas.3) Change the structure of the text4) Change the grammar and vocabulary5) Rewrite the main ideas in complete sentences; combine your notes critically6) Check your workLesson 11 Summarizing1. Structural features of a summaryA summary is a short version of a longer text, and it gives only the main points.Short sentences are normally required, but numbered points and/or other graphic devices may also be used.The length of a summary varies according to its purpose; however, it should generally be no more than one-third the length of the original.2. Stages of writing a summary1) Read and understand the text carefully.2) Think about the purpose of the text.Ask what the author's purpose is in writing the text?What is your purpose in writing your summary? Are you summarizing to support your points? Or are you summarizing so you can criticize the work before you introduce your main points?3) Select the relevant information. This depends on your purpose.4) Find the main ideas - what is important.They may be found in topic sentences.Distinguish between main and subsidiary information.Delete most details and examples, unimportant information, anecdotes, examples, illustrations, data etc.Find alternative words/synonyms for these words/phrases - do not change specialized vocabulary and common words.5) Change the structure of the text.Identify the meaning relationships between the words/ideas - e.g. cause/effect, generalization, contrast. Express these relationships in a different way.Change the grammar of the text: rearrange words and sentences. Change nouns to verbs, adjectives to adverbs, etc., break up long sentences, combine short sentences.6) Simplify the text. Reduce complex sentences to simple sentences, simple sentences to phrases, phrases to single words.Lesson 12 Reporting1. What is synthesisA synthesis is a combination, usually a shortened version, of several texts made into one. It contains the important points in the text and is written in your own words. To make a synthesis you need tofind suitable sourcesselect the relevant parts in those sources.use your paraphrase and summary skills to write the information in your own words. The information from all the sources has to fit together into one continuous text.Test on ReportingLesson 13-14 Documentation1. In-text References1) Citing one workBy one or two authors:Author‟s surname in main sentence: year of publication in parenthesese.g. More recent work by Troy (2005) has provided support for the notion that memory for faces involves verbal as well as visual information.b. Author not named in main sentence: author‟s surname and year of publication in parentheses, separated by commae.g. It has been argued that teachers‟ role is to provide the students with optimal conditions which can facilitate learning so that students can achieve similar successful results (Bryman & Cramer, 1990).B. By more than two but fewer than six authors: cite the surnames of all the authors the first time the reference appears in text. In subsequent citations, you simply cite the surname of the first author followed by “et al.”e.g. Studies of the good language learner ( for example, Naiman, Frohlich, Stern and Todesco, 1978) have tried to identify the strategies which successful learners use (Ellis, 1994, p.37). (first citation)Naiman et al. (1978) found a similar relationship, although in this case …effort‟ on the part of the learners was also associated with instrumental motivation (Ellis, 1994, p.512).(subsequent citations)C. By six or more authors: cite the surname of the first author followed by “et al.” for the first and subsequent citations.2) Citing two or more works:A. By the same author: give the surname once, then the years of publication from past to the present. e.g.Empirical studies on student learning carried out since the 70s have found that students‟ learning outcomes to a great extent depend on their choice of learning approaches (Biggs, 1979, 1987). B. By different auth ors: arrange the citations in alphabetical order by the first author‟s surnamee.g. One major finding from the earlier studies (Barley, 1969, 1970; Clement et al., 1978; Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Spolsky, 1969) was that learners with an integrative motivation tended to obtain better achievement than those with an instrumental motivation.3) Citing an Indirect "Second-hand" SourceRemember that you can't treat a source like you have it in hand unless you actually have it in hand. If you want to cite an idea or quote which one of your sources uses, you need to indicate that this is a "second-hand" source by showing in your citation that this information is quoted in (qtd. in) the source you actually have in hand.e.g. Peterkin (1978), for instance, envisioned the black folk as sufferers in "a patient struggle with fate, and not in any race conflict at all" (qtd. in Clark, 1989, p.219).Reference List1)Use heading: References/Bibliography2)Use square brackets instead of parenthesis.3)Page numbers should be included for all articles in journals and in collections.4)Use italics (or underlining in handwriting) for titles of books, periodicals, newspapers etc.5)Use alphabetical order.6)All co-authors should be listed.7)If the author of a document is not given, begin the reference with the title of the document.(1) English ReferencesA. Booksa. One author:[1] Smith, F. (1978). Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.b. Two authors:[2] Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1983). An Introduction to Language. London: Holt-Saunders.c. More than two authors:[3] Barr, P., Clegg, J. & Wallace, C. (1981). Advanced Reading Skills. London: Longman.d. Book, no author, or editor:[4] Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. (1978). London: Longman.e. Edited collections:[5] Kinsella, V. (Ed.). (1978). Language Teaching and Linguistics: Surveys. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.[6] Oller, J. W. & Richards, J. C. (Eds.). (1973). Focus on the Learner. Rowley, Massachusetts:Newbury House.f. Book, corporate author:[7] British Council Teaching Information Centre. (1978). Pre-sessional Courses for OverseasStudents. London: British Council.g. Book, third edition:[8] Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1983). An Introduction to Language (3rd ed.). London:Holt-Saunders.h. Book, revised edition:[9] Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences (rev.ed.). New York:Plenum Press.i. Books or articles, two or more by the same author in the same year:[10] Lyons, J. (1981a). Language and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.[11] Lyons, J. (1981b). Language, Meaning and Context. London: Fontana.B. Periodical Articlesa. One author:[1] Abercrombie, D. (1968). Paralanguage. British Journal of Disorders of Communication, 3,55-59.b. Two authors:[2] Lipinsky, E. & Bender, R. (1980). Critical Voices on the Economy. Survey, 25, 38-42.c. More than two authors:[3] Guiora, A. Z., Paluszny, M., Beit-Hallahmi, B., Catford, J. C., Cooley, R. E. & Dull, C. Y.(1975). Language and Person: Studies in Language Behaviour. Language Learning, 25, 43-61.d. Magazine article:[4] Gardner, H. (1981, December). Do Babies Sing a Universal Song. Psychology Today, 70-76.e. Newspaper article:[5] James, R. (1991, December 15). Obesity Affects Economic Social Status. The Guardian, p. 18.C. Selections from edited collectionsa. One author:[1] Chomsky, N. (1973). Linguistic Theory. In Oller, J.W. & Richards, J.C. (Eds.), Focus on theLearner (pp. 29-35). Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House.b. Two authors:[2] Stern, H. H. & Weinrib, A. (1978). Foreign Languages for Younger Children: Trends andAssessment. In Kinsella, V. (Ed.), Language Teaching and Linguistics: Surveys (pp. 152-172).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Chinese References中文参考资料需要标注类型: [J]代表期刊, [M]代表专著，[A]代表论文集中的论文, [C]代表论文集, [Z]代表其他类型的文献。
英语写作基础讲义
Layout of Notices (5 parts)
Heading （标题） focus on the purpose; brief and clear; bold type; Use sub-headings if necessary Body （正文） with no salutation; presented in complete sentences and short paragraphs; never use contractions Name add signature for notices for public display Position（职位） Date written in Date-Month-Year/Month-Date-Year; write month in letters rather than Arabic numbers.
a) Notices for a lecture or talk should
include background information about the speaker. b) Sometimes we may need to give other details such as people who are involved, or to whom the notice is meant for, or
Sep 28, 2008
Sample 2:
Notice
The winter holiday is coming. the western teachers’ canteen will be closed from Jan. 16 to Feb. 23 , 2010. Wish you a very happy Spring Festival.
英文写作讲义(高中)
英文写作讲义学习任何语言均须经过长时间接触、运用才可打好基础。
但考试好比球赛，球员（考生）除需要有天份（基础），还需要战术（答题技巧）再加少许运气。
本校集合老师教学经验、评卷员阅卷经验、考生心得和考试局的建议，编写一系列讲义，务求加强同学考试技巧及信心以考取最好成绩。
但提醒同学：英语能力才是最重要一环。
又由于本册讲义只着重作文部分的「考试技巧」，为使学生更快、更易掌握，内容是以中文编写。
Paper 1 WRITING内容：写作形式：‧从三题选答一题，作文一篇，字数约三百字‧作文题目包括议论文、描写文、记叙文、信件、报告、故事、报章杂志文章、演讲辞、建议书等。
作文卷没有既定的课程，语文根基是成绩好或劣的最大因素。
作答时紧记不选自己不熟识的题目作答，以免自暴其短。
要考得好，最重要的是要懂得解题及答题目，所以必须参考评分标准(marking scheme)。
英文作文科的评分标准 Marking Scheme现时外间公开试英文科的作文采用印象评卷法（Double Impression Marking）。
同一篇文会先后交由两位评卷员独立评阅，他们会将文章由头至尾读一遍，然后以整体印象为基础评定该篇文章属于甚么等级。
评分会根据内容及语文运用两方面：内容着重文章的趣味性、是否切题、组织是否严谨。
语文运用则视乎考生能否正确地使用句子、段落、生字及标点符号等以表达内容来评分。
考试局把所有作文分为九级：最高为九分，最低一分；四分以上合格，而六分以上则评为优良。
特别差劣的作文，例如只抄题目、交白卷或只写一两句等，便会得到零分。
评卷员评分后，还要根据比例（ratio）分配等级，即所谓marking to a pattern。
这个等级比例是先假设考生成绩为一个Normal Distribution（常态分布）而根据其标准差计算出来：试卷数目等第取分要点写文章通常包括四个步骤：选题、构思、书写和修改。
以下是一些需注意的地方：l‧选题时必须先细阅题目你可以先把每题的「关键词眼」（keywords）划下，以提醒自己这题目的主题、要求怎样的答案、要用什么的写作风格（style）以及有没有特别指示。
英语写作方法示范讲解
写作WritingI. Structure of CET-4 composition开篇的写法写好文章或段落的开头很重要。
一般来讲，文章开头既要写出文章的主题，又要能够引起读者阅读的兴趣。
不同的文章开头的方式不同，常见的有以下八种：引语法(Quotation)、设问法(Questions)、数据法(Figures and statistics)、背景法(Relevant background information)、定义法(Definition)、主题句法(Topic sentence)、比拟法(Analogy)、列举法(Listing the main items)。
一、引语法（Quotation）：指通过在开头段引用一些与主题相关的名人名言、成语或谚语等来开始一篇文章。
引语法可应用于各种文体。
E.g.: As the proverb says, “No one knows the value of health until he loses it.” In other words, nothing is more valuable than health.It is clear that health is the foundation of one‟s future success. …Now that we know that health is the resource of our energy, what should we do to maintain and enhance our health? …In conclusion, health is more important than wealth. (Health)It is known to all that life is short. School life is still shorter. We can obtain many a thing more than once, but we cannot get back the lost time even once. An old saying goes, “Art is long, but life is short.” We have only limited time to learn unlimited knowledge. (Make the Most of Our School Days)A proverb says, “Time is money.” But in my opinion, time is even more precious than money. Because when money is spent, we can earn it back; but when time is gone, it will never return. Thus we must value time.(The Value of time)二、设问法（Questions）: 只用提出问题的方法来引出文章的主题，以激起读者的兴趣。
英文演讲稿的写作方法
英文演讲稿的写作方法英文演讲稿的写作需要讲究方法和步骤，下面就由我为大家共享一下英文演讲稿的写作方法吧！英文演讲稿的写作方法从大的方面看，英语演讲稿实际上属于特别的说明文或谈论文，其基本组成成分是：(1)开头时对听众的称呼语最常用的是Ladies and gentlemen，也可视不怜悯况选用Fellow students, Distinguished guests, Mr Chairman, Honorable Judges(评委)等等。
(2)提出论题由于演讲时间限制，必需开门见山，提出论题。
提出论题的方法多种多样，但最生动，最能引起留意的是用举例法。
比如：你要呼吁全部人关注贫困山区的小孩，你可以用亲眼看到的或者收集到的那些贫困孩子多么需要关心的事实开头。
另外，用详细的统计数据也是一个有效的引出论题的方法，比如：你要谈遵守交通规章的话题，你可以从举一系列有关车辆、车祸等的数据开头。
(3)论证对提出的论题，不行主观地妄下结论，而要进行客观的论证。
这是演讲中最需要下功夫的部分。
关键是要把道理讲清晰。
常见的论证方法有举例法、因果法、对比法等等，可参见英语谈论文的有关章节。
(4)结论结论要简明扼要，以给听众留下深刻印象。
(5)结尾结尾要简洁，不要拉拉扯扯，说个没完。
特殊是不要受汉语影响，说些类似“预备不足，请谅解”，“请批判指正”这样的废话。
最一般的结尾就是：Thank you very much for your attention。
英文演讲稿范文1 Ladies and gentlemen, boys and girls,I am Chinese. I am proud of being a Chinese with five thousand years of civilization behind. I've learned about the four great inventions made by ourforefathers. I've learned about the Great Wall and the Yangtze River. I've learned about Zhang Heng(张衡)and I've learned about Zheng He(郑和).Who says the Yellow River Civilization has vanished(消逝)?I know that my ancestors have made miracles(奇迹)on this fertile land and we're still making miracles. Who can ignore the fact that we have established ourselves as a great state in the world, that we have devised our own nuclear weapons, that we have successfully sent our satellites into space, and that our GNP ranks No. 7 in the world? We have experienced the plunders (掠夺) by other nations, and we have experienced the war. Yet, based on such ruins, there still stands our nation----China, unyielding and unconquerable!I once came across an American tourist. She said, “China has a history of five thousand years, but the US only has a history of 200 years. Five thousand years ago, China took the lead in the world, and now it is the US that is leading.”My heart was deeply touched by these words. It is true that we're still a developing nation, but it doesn't mean that we can despise (鄙视) ourselves. We have such a long-standing history, we have such abundant resources, we have such intelligent and diligent people, and we have enough to be proud of. We have reasons to say proudly：we are sure to take the lead in the world in the future again, for our problems are big, but our ambition (雄心) is even bigger, our challenges (挑战) are great, but our will is even greater.I am Chinese. I have inherited (继承) black hair and black eyes. I have inherited the virtues of my ancestors. I have also taken over responsibility. I am sure, that wherever I go, whatever I do, I shall never forget that I am Chinese!英文演讲稿范文2 Dear judges:I am very glad to make a speech here ! Today I'd like to talk something about English.I love English. English language is now used everywhere in the world. It has become the most common language on Internet and for international trade. Learning English makes me confident and brings me great pleasure.When I was seven, my mother sent me to an English school. At there, I played games and sang English songs with other kids . Then I discovered the beauty of the language, and began my colorful dream in the English world.Everyday, I read English following the tapes. Sometimes, I watch English cartoons.On the weekend, I often go to the English corner. By talking with different people there, I have made more and more friends as well as improved my oral English.I hope I can travel around the world someday. I want to go to America to visit Washington Monument, because the president Washington is my idol. Of course, I want to go to London too, because England is where English language developed. If I can ride my bike in Cambridge university, I will be very happy.I hope I can speak English with everyone in the world. I'll introduce China to them, such as the Great Wall, the Forbidden City and Anshan.I know, Rome was not built in a day. I believe that after continuous hard study, one day I can speak English very well.If you want to be loved, you should learn to love and be lovable. So I believe as I love English everyday , it will love me too.英文演讲稿范文3 As the song goes “My future isn’t a dream .”I love the song which brings me confidence when singing it every time . I believe that all our dreams can come true if we have courage to pursue them .When I was young my father always asked me what I would be in the future . Sometimes I found it very hard to give a certain reply . “I want to be a doctor .”“I want to be a teacher .”and “I ’d like to be a scientist !”Many of these answers are perhaps very childish and ridiculous . But I never think they are far away .How time flies! Who is able to give a definition to his future ? I know clearly that those high buildings are based on solid foundation . As a student , I should have a reasonable aim , and study hard . My goal is to enter the best university forfurther study after middle school . I know it’s hard work , and I ’ll come across many difficulties and frustrations . But no matter what they are , I’ll keep working on it and never give up . My teacher says there ’s only one kind of people that are truly successful : those who are brave enough to put up with hardships . Even if I won’t achieve the goal , I have no regrets for what I have done , for I have struggled for my life .。
北师大第一学期研究生英语写作讲义
09级第一学期写作课讲义选自《研究生英语写作教程》李争鸣编著师范大学1+2x6Spanish place names from the Rio Grande (in Texas) to San Francisco (in California) are all part of the heritage of the early Spanish settlers. [以下一级扩展句] Latin Americans have also added to the variety of the American diet.[以下二级扩展句]From the gourmet-style churrasco (marinated tenderloin of beef) to the everyday taco, Latin food has become an integral part of American dining habits. [以下一级扩展句] Finally, American music, too, has become more diverse as a result of the Latino sound.[以下二级扩展句]The Salsa beat has had a startling effect on popular music, just as the rhythms of the tango and the cha-cha-cha have become a part of the repertoire of dance bands throughout the country. Instruments, such as the congas and the timbale, also have their origins in Latin countries. [以下结论句] In summary, the language, the food, and the music are what Latin Americans have given to the United States.[1. 引言段] [以下概述句] We are all aware that American culture is, in fact, a combination of the contributions of all of those who have settled within its borders. From the founding of the country to the present day, immigrants have brought with them the traditions of their native lands, many of which have been interwoven into the cultural patterns of their new homeland. Immigrants from Latin America, who currently comprise approximately 8 percent of the total population, are no exception to this rule. [以下篇题句] Latin influences on American culture are reflected in the words we speak, the foods we consume, and the music we enjoy.[2. 正文段] [以下主题句] The Spanish influence on the English language in the U.S. began with the early explorers and continues even today. Spanish place names, from the Rio Grande (in Texas) to San Francisco (in California), characterize the southwestern part of the country. Los Angeles, Santa Fe, the Colorado River, and the Mojave desert are all part of the heritage of the early Spanish settlers. Other Spanish words such as adios, amigo, rodeo, and adobe, have actually become part of the English language. More recently, a blend of English and Spanish known as Spanglish, producing expressions like ir almovies (to go to the movies), has developed, particularly in Texas, California, and south Florida, which have a high concentration of Latino residents.[3. 正文段] [以下主题句] Latin Americans have also added to the variety of the American diet. From the gourmet-style churrasco (marinated tenderloin of beef) to the everyday taco, Latin food has become an integral part of American dining habits. Foods ranging from black beans and rice in a Cuban restaurant to frozen burritos, tropical papayas, and jalapeno peppers on supermarket shelves are evidence of the Latin influences on the American diet. It is not surprising, therefore, that over $1 billion per year is spent on Mexican food in the United States.[4. 正文段] [以下主题句] American music, too, has become more diverse as a result of the Latino sound. The Salsa beat has had a startling effect on popular music, just as the rhythms of the tango and the cha-cha-cha have become a part of the repertoire of dance bands throughout the country. Instruments, such as the congas and the timbale, also have their origins in Latin countries. Mariachi bands, Brazilian jazz, and the new Miami Sound are further examples of the strong influences of Hispanic musical traditions on American culture.[5. 结论段] [以下总结] In summary, the language, the food, and the music, although a small part, are what Latin Americans have given to the United States. [以下最后陈述] In the final analysis, the essence of their contributions to American culture is a sensibilidad (a unique sense of style), which promoted Time magazine to report, “This ‘sensibilidad’ is changing the way America looks, the way it eats, dresses, drinks, dances, the way it lives.”ParagraphPart One: The Topic SentenceA topic sentence is the sentence that states the subject that the paragraph will develop. A good topic sentence has the following features:1) It is a complete sentence; that is, it should contain a subject and a verb.2) It is usually a statement, not a question.3) It is the most general statement in the paragraph. It does not give any specific details.4) It has two parts: the topic and the controlling idea. The topic refers to the subject of the paragraph, and the controlling idea is a word or phrase that the reader can ask questions about: How? Why? In what ways? What does that mean? etc.A. Disneyland has (several unique attractions).The question a reader can ask is "?"B.Listed below are (a number of tips) on how to get along with people.The question a reader can ask is "?"C. Boys and girls have(different)dreams.The question a reader can ask is "?"Exercise 3-2-2.Read each sentence below. Underline the topic and enclose the controlling idea in parentheses.1. A homestay helps foreign students know more about American customs.2. First impressions can be misleading.3. Being a twin has both advantages and disadvantages.4. It’s difficult for a Chinese student to study abroad.5. There are two factors which determine an individual’s wisdom.Exercise 3-2-8.Rewrite the topic sentence:A phone call offers more advantages over a business letter. The first advantage of a phone call is speed, of course, because you can ordinarily be speaking with the other person within minutes of placing the calling. Another advantage is the fact that you can exchange information, clear up questions, and often reach an understanding on the basis of a single ten-minute phone call. In contrast, a letter gives you an opportunity to set forth (阐明) your views in a much more careful, detailed way. Furthermore, the other party has an opportunity to reread and think carefully about what you have said. The other person can also seek the advice of associates (有关人员) and, if necessary, check other documents thoroughly. Finally, a written message can always be taken from the files and consulted(查阅) if any question arises about exactly what was said.Exercise 3-2-9.Read the following paragraphs, and then write an appropriate topic sentence for each one.Paragraph one._______________________________________________________________. Some students stay up the night before, trying to cram into their brains what they avoided all semester. Others pace themselves, spending a little time each night going over the notes they took in class that day. Still others cross their fingers(祈盼、祷告) and hope they absorbed enough from lectures. Some dishonest students always pray that their classmates will give them the answers during the exams.Paragraph two.____________________________________________________________________. In college, for example, we use writing to communicate with our instructors and other students in a variety of classes, no matter what our majors are. Exams in many courses also require essays. On the job, we need to write to communicate with our employers, fellow workers, and customers. In fact, a major requirement for getting any good job is the ability to write effective letters, memos, reports, and summaries. A glance through the want ads shows that “good communication skills” are essential to high-paying jobs.Paragraph three._____________________________________________________. First, some books on job hunting and business communication can tell him what to include on a resume and how to present the information on the page. Moreover, word processing programs frequently offer patterns for resumes that are easy to read and understand. Finally, copy centers offer professional-looking printing at low cost－including special paper that will make a resume stand out in the pile of applications an employer receives. Paragraph four.____________________________________________. In a host family, the student is able to learn about a different way of life by experiencing it with people who are from the culture and who can help explain it. Additionally, the student has the advantage of being surrounded by a group of people who can provide emotional support when he is feeling homesick and lonely. This is especially true when the family has children who are the same age as the international student. Finally, although not all homestay experiences are pleasant ones, the international student who lives with a host family will be able to practice the target language far more than one who lives with friends from the same country.Paragraph five.__________________________________________________________. Instead of cooking a simple, nourishing meal, we pop a frozen dinner into the oven. Worse still, instead of studying a daily newspaper, we are content with the capsule (概述) summaries on the network news. Worst of all, instead of walking even a few blocks to the local convenience store, we jump into our car.Exercise 3-2-10.Write a topic sentence based on the general topic Our Universitya) to describe the courses: ____________________________________________________________b) to compare it with another university: _________________________________________________c) to suggest improvements: __________________________________________________________Part Two: Supporting SentencesThere are many ways for students to spend their summer vacations. First, they can find a part-time job Working in the h oliday, they can not only earn some money, but also get more experience that they can’t get on campus. Second, they can travel during the summer holiday. Some classmates can travel together to a city which is different from their hometown. Also, they can have a good time by swimming in the sea with their parents or by climbing the mountains. Third, the summer holiday is the best time for them to learn. A holiday is the good time for students to improve their spoken English. Besides, they can learn some other skills that they have no time to learn in the university. For example, they can learn how to play the guitar or play basketball.There are several methods to develop a topic sentence. (见课件)Exercise 3-2-1.Listed below are the reasons why the gap between the rich and the poor is obviously widening in China today.A ______________________________________________________________________________B ______________________________________________________________________________C ______________________________________________________________________________ Exercise 3-2-2.Our library provides three services for its readers.A.The library has a huge collection of books from natural science to social science.B.Digital information is also available in the library.C.Journals are accessible to readers.The resulting paragraph:First, the library has a huge collection of booksof books are available, such as literature, law, education, economy, and psychology, readers can borrow whatever interests them. Reader are allowed to borrow ten books at a time and keep them for as long as seventy days. Second, digital information is also available in the library. This kind of service has made it easier for readers to get information. By searching and downloading what they need, readers can acquire great amount of knowledge. Last, but not least, journals are accessible to readers. Although journals can not be taken out of the library, readers can read them in the reading room. If a reader finds some essays useful, he can photocopy them.1. Money can’t serve every purpose in our daily life.2. Life is full of choices.3. Opportunities are only for the prepared minds.4. I’m proud of some of the progress I have made so far.5. To effectively manage our time, we can use the following techniques.6. Competition is a common phenomenon in our daily life.7. An individual deals with anxiety in a variety of ways.8. Chatting on the Internet has both advantages and disadvantages.9. There is more joy in simple pleasures than in life’s great events.10. Applying for a job can be a negative experience.Part Three: The Concluding Sentencea) Restate the topic sentence in different words. Do not just copy the topic sentence.Penguins and human beings have three aspects in common. First, like human beings, most penguins keep the same mate in their life. And both parents care for the young. Second, penguins also amuse themselves. For example, they often ride on floes (大浮冰) for no other reason than pleasure. Swimming is another activity they all enjoy. Finally, some of the penguins, like human beings, are thieves. They steal from each other the pebbles used for nest-building. When one catches another in the act, a great disturbance resembling a human quarrel ensures. So people can make a safe conclusion that penguins are similar to human beings in several respects.b) Summarize the main points in the paragraph.At present, there are two means of earthquake prediction. First, seismographs, which are instruments to record and measure earthquakes, can show when the earthquakes will probably happen. These instruments record the different kinds of waves, called S-waves and P-waves, that are sent out when the earth vibrates, or moves. Scientists have learned that P-waves slow down for a while and then speed up just before an earthquake. Thus, seismographs can predict earthquakes. The second way to predict earthquakes is to watch animal behaviors carefully. Scientists have noticed that dogs, chickens, horses, and other animals often behave in unusual ways before an earthquake. They run around excitedly and act afraid. Scientists think that animals can sense earth vibrations long before humans can. To sum up, scientists are trying to foretell the coming earthquakes by using scientific instruments and observing animal behaviors.c) Conclude the paragraph with comments such as a suggestion, a solution, a prediction, or a personal opinion.Football has more mystery than baseball. In football there is always doubt about where the ball is and where the play is going. In baseball, however, there is no sense of mystery; the ball is always out in the open. Football also has a faster pace than baseball. In football, one dramatic play follows another, while baseball drags on slowly with its strikes and ball. For these reasons I find football a more exciting sport to watch than baseball.Exercise 3-2-13.Write a concluding sentence for each of the following paragraphs.Paragraph one.A university professor has many duties. In the classroom, he lectures to the students and answers questions. If the professor is a science instructor, he also conducts laboratory experiments. During office hours, students are free to visit the professor to get help on difficult materials or problems. In addition, a professor may often work for many hours in a laboratory doing a research project. Another professor might spend his time writing a scholarly paper for a professional journal. Still another one might spend time writing a book. _________________________________________________________________.Paragraph two.People keep pets for three major purposes. First, pets are great companions. They prevent us from being lonely, but always waiting for us to come home. And pets give us relief from a stressful life by providing unconditional love. Second, pets make us healthy. Petting or talking to an animal can lower blood pressure, whereas talking to a human can raise blood pressure. Additionally pets can increase rate of survival after a heart attack. The rate of survival is one-third greater for those who have pets. Finally, pets provide mental and emotional benefits. Contact with animals stimulates both children and adults to talk more. Emotionally, pets make people feel better. ____________________________________________. Paragraph three.Valentine’s Day makes people feel sad if they are alone. Last Valentine’s Day, I was alone because I had broken up with my boyfriend the week before. On that Valentine’s Day, I was expecting roses and chocolates from him when he took me out to a romantic dinner, but instead I stayed in and ate a frozen pizza and a candy bar in front of the TV while I looked at my artificial flowers. I was so upset. Then, I found the present that I was going to give him on Valentine’s Day. It was a cute teddy bear holding a big heart that said, “I love you!” As I held it, I realized that the only Valentine card I had received was from my grandmother. I started to cry and wondered how many other people felt as sad as I did. ___________. Paragraph four.Going to college can be expensive. Everyone knows that tuition and room and board can cost anywhere from $3,000 to $10,000 per semester, but there are other expenses that make going to college even more expensive. For instance, books typically cost between $150 and $400 each term. Supplies, too, are not cheap, for as any student knows, paper, notebooks, writing utensils, and the many other supplies needed usually cost more at the college bookstore than at a local discount department store. For instance, a package of notepaper costing $1 at a discount store might cost $2 at a college bookstore. In addition, there are all kinds of special fees tacked onto the bill at registration time. A student might have to pay a $30 insurance fee, a $15 activity fee, a $10 fee to the student government association, and anywhere from $20 to $100 for parking. If a student decides to add or drop a course after his registration, there is yet another fee.________________________________________________________________________________. Paragraph five.There are many reasons why Karima is excelling in her university studies this semester. First, she took a non-credit study skills course as soon as she arrived on campus. As a result, she is better able to use her time effectively, access library resources, write well-organized term papers, and prepare for exams. Second, since she is clearly focused on her studies and not easily distracted by those around her, she is doing well in all of her courses. Many of her friends have parties on week nights but Karima never attends. Instead, she studies hard and lets off steam on the weekends when she goes to movies or parties with friends. Because she wants to get good grades, she doesn't let her social life interfere with her studies. Third, Karima attends all of her lectures and labs regularly. While some of her friends are sleeping after a long night of partying, Karima is on her way to class. _________________________________________. Paragraph six.People can accomplish more with their lives if they are well organized. Students who have neat and carefully arranged desks don’t have to waste time before they begin their homework. Thus, they can actually do more work in less time than disorganized students who must clear their desks of clutter and hunt for their notebooks and pens before beginning an assignment. People in business also need to be organized. A business executive who keeps track of her appointments and keeps important documents carefully filed will be more successful than one who forgets appointments and misplaces papers. _______. Paragraph seven.Rita, our roommate, is very inconsiderate. First, she always makes the kitchen messy. Whenever Rita makes a sandwich, she leaves the lettuce and mayonnaise on the breadboard. Also, she frequently leaves one or two dirty pots or pans in the sink. Besides, Rita uses the bathroom for an hour or more every morning. After she comes out of the bathroom, we can find towels on the floor and toothpaste on the washbasin. She even puts her dirty laundry on the towel racks. To make matters worse, Rita seldom takes any phone messages for us. When she does take a message, she either can not remember who has called or forgets to write down an important phone number. ___________________________________________.Paragraph eight.A police officer must observe many details in the process of investigating the scene of a crime. He must first, upon arriving at the scene, determine that a crime has been committed. After that he must make sure what type of crime happened. The next detail that the officer must follow is to protect the crime scene. This is done so that any evidence present will not be destroyed. Then the officer must ask the people around if they witnessed the crime. If there are some witnesses, the officer will either take their names and addresses or ask them to wait and talk with other investigators who may arrive. If the crime is a murder, the officer will search the surrounding area for the murder weapon. After the search, he will patrol the area to see if he can find and arrest a suspect. As soon as the investigation of the crime scene is completed, the officer must file a report on the crime. ___________________________________________________. Paragraph nine.People may reject certain foods because of their religious and cultural habits. Hindus do not eat beef. Muslims do not eat pork. North Americans do not eat dog meat or horse meat. In certain parts of Africa, fish is considered an unclean food. Some Europeans think that corn and oats are only for animals. Ugandans think milk carries a skin disease. _____________________________________________. Exercise 3-2-11.1. hobby2. animal3. challenge4. marriage5. environment6. money7. holiday8. festival9. gratitude 10. achievement11. dream12. family 13. memory 14. imitation 15. childhood16. gift 17. service 18. romance 19. invention 20. transportation21. sports 22. health 23. weather 24. birthday 25. entertainment26. idol 27. Internet 28. tradition 29. custom 30. impression31. media 32. fashion 33. curiosity 34. donation 35. prediction36. career 37. season 38. volunteer 39. education 40. technology41. regret 42. travel 43. hospital 44. happiness 45. information46. crime 47. culture 48. mistake 49. friendship 50. communicationEssaySection Two. The Introductory ParagraphThe Thesis Statement and its Characteristics1) It is a straightforward statement; therefore, there is no room for suspense or surprises.2)It contains controlling ideas that will be used in the topic sentences of the body paragraphs of the essay.3)It is the most specific sentence in the introductory paragraph.4)The main points in the thesis statement should be grammatically parallel.5)It is usually the last sentence of the introductory paragraph.Exercise 4-2-1.(见课件)Exercise 4-2-3. 改错anization, expression, and revising are three keys to good writing.2. Adam convinced most of the audience because he argued logically, calmly, and was reasonable.3.Working with children is interesting, challenging, and has its rewards.4.Nuclear power isa safe, renewable, and not expensive source of energy.5. If we’re not careful, we’ll leave the next generation polluted air, contaminated water, and forests that are dying.6. While waiting for the exam to start, small groups of nervous students glanced over their notes, drank coffee, and were whispering to each other.7.Air China aims at safety, being on time, and good service.8.Climbing frozen waterfalls requires strength, knowledge of the proper tools, and it is very important to have clothes that keep you warm, too.9. Political candidates can be grouped by age, gender, and whether people like them or not.10. We are constantly bombarded with message in the form of oral communication, written communication, and what we see.Exercise 4-2-4.The following ideas gathered from brainstorming(集思广益)are about some of the problems that many people from Honduras(洪都拉斯) encounter when they live in the United States.Step 1.-formal vs. informal -cold weather in America -tropical in Honduras-lots of unfamiliar food -prefer mother tongue -English is too difficult-heavy snow in America-extended families in Honduras-dating is different-constant rains in Honduras -high tuition in AmericaStep 2.Group 1. Languages:-prefer mother tongue -English is too difficultGroup 2.Climates:-tropical in Honduras-constant rains in Honduras-heavy snow in America-cold weather in AmericaGroup 3.Customs:-formal vs. informal -lots of unfamiliar food-dating is different -extended families in HondurasStep 3.Thesis Statement:Many people from Honduras find it difficult to live in the United States due to different languages, climates, and customs.Exercise 4-2-6.Brainstorm to gather as many ideas as you can about the reasons that lead to a student’s failure to pass an exam._____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ Thesis Statement: ______________________________________________________________________The General Statements1)Although the general statements usually refer to some general information, they must be naturally relevant to the subject of the essay, too.2)The general statements and the thesis statement should be smoothly connected. Any awkward jump in thought between these two parts should be avoided.The busy schedules that people face from day to day have globally created a rising health problem－mental stress. Mental stress affects almost everybody, from the highly pressured top leaders in a government to the busy students in schools. Although mental stress is not a curable disease like a common cold, it can be controlled by setting realistic goals, by enjoying a hobby and/or physical exercise, and by maintaining a close relationship with his/her family and friends.Exercise 4-2-8.(1) To find out, I conducted a survey. (2) After looking over their answers, I realized that there are three types of students in my class: the “Don’t know” type, the “Go Back Home” type, and the “Stay Abroad” type. (3) Will they return to their own countries or stay abroad? (4) Where will my classmates be next year after they graduate? (5) I asked each of them what he or she plans to do after graduation.Exercise 4-2-9.Brainstormto gather as many ideas as you can about themultiple pressures that college students are facing today._____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ Thesis Statement: ______________________________________________________________________ Exercise 4-2-15.Write the introductory paragraph ONLY based on one of the topics below:1. Discuss themultiple pressures that college students are facing today.2. Discuss the three best things (or worst things) about our campus.Section Three. The Body ParagraphsThe Plan of the Body Paragraphs1. There are three major differences between New York City and Washington, D.C.: population, business, and traffic.2. Filling a car with gas at a self-serve station requires three steps: pulling up to the proper pump, putting the gas in the tank, and paying money to the attendant.3. The Campus Bookstore is the worst place to buy books because of its unreasonable prices, unqualified employees, and constant book shortages.A. unreasonable pricesa. books too expensive compared to other storesb. the prices keep increasing from day to dayB. unqualified employeesa. clerks with little knowledge about the booksb. clerks unfamiliar with the location of booksC. constant book shortagesa. wrong books and/or wrong edition orderedb. delayed ordersThe Bridges between the Body Paragraphsa) The thesis statement: The barriers that wheelchair users face lie mainly in transportation, access to public buildings, and employment.The first barrier the wheelchair users face every day relates to transportation.The second barrier for the wheelchair users is the stairs in front of public buildings.The last, but the worst barrier of all is the occupational barrier.b) The thesis statement: There are three things you must think about when choosing clothes for a job interview: color, style, and size.Topic sentence 1. The color of your clothes sends a message about whether or not you should be hired.Topic sentence 2. In addition to color, the styleof your clothes makes a difference.Topic sentence 3. Along with color and style, your clothes must also fit you perfectly.Exercise 4-3-1.People commit crimes because they are poor, ignorant, or greedy.Some people commit crimes because they are poor.Some people commit crimes because they are ignorant.Some people commit crimes because they are greedy.。
英文文章一般写法(杂志主编讲)
Dong Shen Hu
3.193
1.232 4.272 1.009
Zhang
2.798
No improvement!
Should we order the data in a different manner?
Arrange in order of increasing yield? Hu
Shen
1.232 2.798 3.193
4.272
Hu Dong
Zhang Cheng
1.1 1.2
2.8 3.2
Include as many decimal points as justified by the accuracy of your data
Shen
4.3
The columns of a table must be labelled appropriately, and the units must be included too
Where to pubournal
– From which journals do you cite papers in your reference list? – Which journals publish on a similar topic?
Dong 1.232 Zhang Cheng Hu 2.798 3.193 1.009 Shen 4.272
Dong Zhang
Cheng Hu
1.232 2.798
3.193 1.009
Shen
4.272
Should we order the data in a different manner?
09写 作 讲 义
09写作讲义.txt单身很痛苦，单身久了更痛苦，前几天我看见一头母猪，都觉得它眉清目秀的什么叫残忍？是男人，我就打断他三条腿；是公狗，我就打断它五条腿！ one must make regular practice.不定式短语的逻辑主语决不是regular practice，为了把逻辑关系表达清楚，要么把不定式短语改成If one wants to improve his writing skill，要么把主句改成one must make regular practice.4．表示相同的意思，是否用了平行语法结构例 10a) With the computer, one can do shopping, banking and read at home.b) With the computer, one can do shopping, banking and reading at home.can do shopping, banking and read at home, 用语法平行结构来衡量，用动词原形 read 是不妥的，为了和 do shopping, do banking 保持结构上平行，接下来的一个内容要用do reading.例 11a) Nowadays, people not only eat enough food, but also eat better.b) Nowadays, people not only eat more, but also eat better.用 not only...but also, both...and, whether...or, either...or, as well as, along with等能连接两个成分的连词，前后两个成分在结构上要保持一致。
用 eat enough food, eat better不如用 eat more, eat better，都用副词。
2023届高考英语阅读技法讲义：文章大意题讲义
2023届高考英语阅读技法讲义：文章大意题精讲题型概览（一）一般会直接问这篇文章主要是关于什么的，或者是主要讲了什么，非常直接。
比如“in discussing the US jury system, the text centers on_______”“Which of the following is the text mainly about ?”（二）出题人不会直接问文章的主旨大意是什么，而是换个角度，考察这篇文章的标题是什么。
常见的问法比如“What would be the best title for the text?”。
这里需要注意的是，英文里面，尤其是高考阅读的文章中，这些文章的标题，一定是文章的主旨大意所涉及的东西，不会像中文的一些文章那样，标题和文章主题看起来没有什么关联。
在高考阅读的文章里，题目和文章的主旨大意，是可以直接划等号的。
解题策略一、最传统做法流传最广的一种常规解法，看文章的第一二段和最后一段。
看看这些部分有没有首尾呼应。
要是有，大概率就是文章的主旨大意了，毕竟英文文章一般来讲还是比较讲究逻辑结构的。
但是，这种解法有一点问题，那就是有的文章，并不是这样的总分总结构，现在出题人也很聪明，也学会了反套路，第一段不一定就直接点题，有的时候也会作为一个引子，例如讲点故事之类的来引出主题。
最后一段，也不一定会来一个总结。
因此，光看首尾部分，并不能百分百把这个题做出来。
三、最适用做法最适用的解法。
在讲这个解法之前，首先要树立这样一个观念：一篇好的英文文章，各个段落的主旨句串联在一起的话，也会构成一个相对完整的段落。
写作如此，阅读的文章同样也是如此，在做此类题的时候，可以把每一段的中心句找出来，将中心句串联在一起，看看这些串联在一起之后的一堆中心句讲了什么，什么样的内容占主体，那么这个占主体的内容，就是文章的主旨大意或者是段落标题了。
这个方法比第一个方法使用范围要宽广很多，可以说是最正规的解法。