英语专业必备!胡壮麟语言学笔记汇总

Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics
1.2 what is language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human communication
1.3 design features of language
arbitrariness: there is no connection between the words; sound and its meaning
duality: the property of having two levels of structures
creativity(productivity): users can produce sentences they have never heard before. Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness.
displacement: language can be used to refer to the context removed from the immediate situation of the speakers.
cultural transmission: language is passed o through teaching and learning , rather than by instinct.
1.4 origin of language
The bow-wow theory: imitate the sounds of animal
The pooh-pooh theory: instinctive sounds of joy, ager and pain
The yo-he-ho theory: rhythmic grunts produced when working
1.5 functions of language
1.5.1 the main functions of language:
Descriptive functions: cognitive or referential or propositional function. Primary function of language. , to convey factual information
Expressive function: emotive or attitudinal function, supplies users’ feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.
Social function: interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people
1.5.2 according to Jakobson:
Emotive: addresser 表达情感
Conative: addressee 导致动作的发生
Referential: context描述客观事实
Poetic: message语言本身的美
Phatic communication: contact建立社会关系
Metalinguistic: code make clear the meaning of language itself
1.5.3 according to Halliday this system contains three macrofunctions
Ideational: to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. 达意功能指组织说
话者或作者现实或虚伪世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚伪的人，物，动作，事件，状态等Interpersonal: to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people.人际功能表明，建立，或维持人与人之间的社会关系，包括称谓形式，情感，语言功能等。

Textual function: to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.组篇功能指组成书面或或口头的语篇，这些语篇内部连贯，并适用于所用的特定场景。

1.6 what is linguistics:
The scientific study of language
1.9 important distinctions in linguistics
Descriptive：aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use . describe how things are Prescriptive: 规范性aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, to tell people what they should say and what they should not say
Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time
Diachronic: the description of a language at a period of time
Speech：is prior to writing , and it plays a more important role in terms of information
Writing: should be taught and learned in schools
Langue: an abstract linguistic system shared by all members of speech community
Parole: the realization of langue in actual use
Competence：the ideal users’s knowledge of his rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
Traditional grammar: is prescriptive and tend to emphasize the importance of written word
Modern grammar: descriptive, regard spoken language as primary, not the written.
Chapter 2 Speech sounds
Phonetics: the study of speech sounds, the production, transmission and perception of speech sounds. Phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It studies sound patterns, how sounds are combined together. The study od speech sounds is divided into three main areas,each dealing with one part of the process.
1).Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds.发音语音学
2).Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds声学语音学
3).Perceptual or auditory phonetics: is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.听觉语音学
2.3 phone, phoneme, allophone
Phone: is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds that we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Individual sounds as they occur in speech.
Phoneme：the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. is a phonological unit; it is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.
Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme. the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called allophone
2.4 consonants
Consonants: are speech sounds where obstruction of airstream is blocked somewhere in the mouth or throat to different degrees, voiced or voiceless.
V owels: are speech sounds which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced with vibration of the vocal cords, too. no obstruction, voiced
2.5 suprasegmental features
The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features Syllable: a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.
The syllable structure
Stress: it refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable
1)at the word level: the location of stress in english distinguishes meaning
2)At the sentence level: the relative force given to the components of a sentence.
Tone: pitch variation, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
Intonation: when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
补充：
1.Sequential rules: the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language
2.phonemic contrast: if they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonetic contrast单个音的关系，属于不同的phoneme
Complementary distribution: the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution变体之间是互补的
关系
Minimal pair：音串eg: kill till bill will
Chapter 3 Lexicon 词典
3.1.3 closed-class words and open-class words
Closed-class : is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles and others.
Open-class: is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.
3.2 the formation of word
3.2.1 morpheme and morphology
Morpheme : the minimal units of meaning. A morpheme cannot be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.
Morphology: the part of he grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure. The systematic study of morpheme
3.2.2 types of morpheme
1) free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself
Bound morpheme: a morpheme that must be attached to another one
2)root: the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyzed without destroying its meaning. 词根Affix: a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound. 词缀
Stem: is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
3)inflectional affix(inflectional morpheme): 屈折词素less productive than derivational morpheme , they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme词位, such as friends, boys; do not change the word class of the word they attach to; are mostly suffixes, which are always word final, 给的单词添加词缀或根据语言的语法规则以其他方式改变词形的过程，the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some way according to the rules of the grammar of a language.
Derivational affix(Derivational morpheme): 派生词素very productive in making new words, such as recite-recitation; change the lexical meaning; both be prefixes and suffixes,such as online, suburban, slaver, teacher.将词缀加入其他单词或词素以构成新词的方法the formation of new words by adding affixes to
other words or morphemes.
3.2.3 inflection: indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, aspect, etc
Word formation: the process of how words are formed. Can be further divided into two sub-types
1)compound(compositional type): those words that consist of ore than one lexical morpheme, or the way to
join two separate words to produce a single form, such as sunrise, paperbag
2)derivation(derivational type): shows a relationship between roots and affixes. Such as unconscious,
national; can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged
3.2.4
Sememe: the smallest component of meaning
Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in grammar
Phoneme: the smallest meaningful unit of sound
Allomorph: different forms of a morpheme
3.3 lexical change
3.3.1 lexical change proper
Coinage(invention): many new lexical items are cioned outright to fit some purposes; come directly from technological and economic activities. Such as kodak, ylon, coke
Clipped word(abbreviation): some words are the abbreviations of longer words or phrases. Such as exam-examination, fridge-refridgerator
Blending: some words are formed by combining some part of words.
Such as smog-smoke fog, brunch-lunch breakfast
Acronyms: some words are the initial part of several words. Such as CEO
Back-formation: an unusually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by delecting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. Such as gangling-gangle, editor-edit Analogical creation: the coexistence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some english verbs.
Borrowing: when two culture come to contact, the word may be borrowed from one country to another one. Such as testa, coconut, tea
3.3.2 morpho-syntactical change
1)morphological change
2)syntactical change
3.3.3 semantic change
1) broadening: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one. Holiday
2) arrowing: the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense. Meat
3) meaning shift: marshal 马夫-元帅
4) class shift:
5) folk etymology: the change of the from of a word od phrase.
3.3.4 phonological change: changes in sound leading to changes in form
1)loss: refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system
2) addition: sounds may also be added to the original sound sequence.
Strike-sutoraiki
3) metathesis: a process involving a change in the sequence of sounds
Bird-brid
3)assimilation: 同化
3.3.5 orthographic change:
Vp-up sunne-sun sate-sat
Chapter 4 From word to text
Syntax: the study of how word combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences
4.1 syntactic relations
4.1.1 positional relation: sequential arrangement of words in a language
Syntagmatic relation: (F de Saussure)横组合关系
Horizonal relation
Chain relation
4.1.2 relation of substitutability
1)the relationship that linguistic units have with others that could be substituted for them in the sentence Saussure: associative relations(联想关系)
Hjemslev: paradigmatic relations(纵聚合关系)
Vertical/choice relations(垂直选择关系)
4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence: the words of different sets of clauses may permit , or require, the occurrence of
a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence
4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents
4.2.1 grammatical construction: any syntactic construct
External syntax of a construction: the property of the construction as a whole
Internal syntax of a construction: a description of the constructions’s make-up
4.2.1 immediate constituents
Constituents: a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.
Immediate constituent analysis: IC analysis, proposed by American structuralist. The goal and consequence of IC analysis is to analyze a linguistic expression into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.
4.2.3 endocentric and exocentric constructions
4.2.3.1 endocentric: is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents. There is definable center or head.
These two oldest stone bridges
Will be leaving
Very late
Exocentric: the opposite of endocentric. Refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, no definable center or head
The boy smiled
He hid behind the door
He kicked the ball
John seemed angry
4.2.4 coordination and subordination
Coordinate construction: 并列结构，more than one head
Girls and boys came, ate and left
Down the stairs and out the door beautiful and expensive
Jane loves jim and jim loves jane
Subordinate construction: one head
The three small children the book left on the shelf
Will have been leaving hot beyond endurance
Complement clause: 补足语
I do not think you are right
Adjunct or adverbial clause: 状语从句
He cleaned the blackboard before I read the note
Relative clause: 定语从句
The man I love must be responsible
4.3 syntactic function: shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used
Subject: 主语
Predicate:谓语
Object:宾语
4.3.4 the relation between classes and functions
A class item can perform several functions
A function can be fulfilled by several classes
4.4 category: refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense. Eg: noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, etc, more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units. The category of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, aspect, voice, etc;
4.4.1 number: mostly a category of noun and pronoun
Dog-dogs I wish-he wishes
4.4.2 gender: mostly a category of noun and pronoun
Actor-actress waiter-waitress
4.4.3 case: a grammatical category that shows the function of the noun or noun phrase in a sentence.
4.4.4 agreement: the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories
4.5 phrase：短语
Clause: 从句
Dependent clause从属从句: because I was late, they went without me
Independent clause独立子句: I love you and you love me
Finite clause: 限定性从句
Non-finite clause：非限定性从句
Sentence: 句子
Simple sentence: 只有一个谓语
Compound sentence: 复合句、并列句
Complex sentence: 复杂句
4.6 recursiveness递归性
Coordination并列关系and subordination主从关系
Conjoining合并: refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined to another, and but or Embedding嵌入: refers to the means by which one clause is included in a sentence, eg：the man I love must be responsible
Hypotactic 主从结构，从属关系and paratactic并列的
4.7 beyond the sentence
Text linguistics: 篇章语言学
Discourse analysis: 话语分析
4.7.1 sentential connection:
Hypotactic relations: 从属关系
I don't like the party. So I won’t take part in it
Paratactic relations: 并列关系
The door is open.
4.7.2 cohesion衔接
一种语义上的概念，衔接是“存在于语篇中并使之成为语篇的意义之间的联系
-Would you like an apple? -yes, I would like a small one.
Chapter 5 Meaning
Semantics: the study of meaning of linguistic units, words, and sentences in particular.
1.naming theory: words are just labels or names for things, which is proposed by Plato
2.conceptualism theory: semantic triangle
symbol(word):linguistic elements----------------------referent(object):the object in the world
thought(concept)
words—concept—objects
this theory relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mind
there is no direct link between a linguistic form and wha it refers to；rather in the interpretation of meaning that they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3.contextualism(J.R forth)
we should know a word by the company it keeps; meaning is based on context. the meaning of a word is its use in language
situational context and linguistic context
4.behaviorism theory（Leonard Bloomfield）: refers to the situation in which the speaker utters it and the
response it calls forth in the hearer.
Stimulus—language—response
I’m thi rsty
Stimulus—response-------stimulus—response
5.1 meaning of “meaning”
5.1.1 conceptual meaning: basic meaning
1) denotation: the entity which has the abstract properties; the object a word refers to
2) connotation: the abstract properties of the entity a word denotes
5.1.2 connotative meaning: implied meaning
5.1.3 social meaning: what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use
5.1.4 affective meaning: what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer
5.1.5 reflected meaning：what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression. Human language is a tool of social intercourse.
5.1.6 collocative meaning: what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word
He is a pretty man. She is a handsome girl.
5.1.7 thematic meaning: what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.
My sister is at the door. At door is my sister
5.2 the referential theory所指理论
The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to , or stands for it
Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of linguistic form, the collection of all its features. The abstract properties.
Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in a real and physical world. The concrete entities having these
properties.
5.3 sense relations:
5.3.1 synonymy: the sameness or close similarity of meaning
1)absolute synonyms: 维生素-维他命激素-荷尔蒙
2)relative synonyms:
3)dialectal synonyms: used in different region
4)Stylistic synonyms: differing in style
5)Emotive synonyms:differ in the emotion and evaluating meaning.
6) collocational synonyms: accuse of charge with
7)semantically different synonyms: amaze astound
5.3.2 antonymy: relation of semantic opposition
Gradable antonyms: old and young middle-aged
Complementary antonyms: 互补反义关系alive and dead male and female Converse antonyms: 相反反义关系father and son teacher and student 5.3.3 hyponymy: 上下义关系: the sense relation between a more general
More inclusive word
Superordinate:广义词
Hyponyms: more specific words.
补充：homonymy: 同音异义词
Same in sound: homophones leak/leek piece-peace
Same in spelling:homographs lead/lead tear/tear
Same in sound/spelling: complete homonyms fast scale
Polysemy: 一词多义table
5.4 componential analysis: analyze word meaning
Advantages: it better accounts for sense relations between words
Eg man(human, adult , male)
It better accounts for sense relations between sentences
X is synonymous with y x is inconsistent with y
X entails y x presuppose y
X is a contradiction x is semantically anomalous
Kill=cause die=become
5.5 sentence meaning: includes word meaning and sentence structure
The dog bit the man john, said mary, was a snob
The man bit the dog mary, said john, was a snob
5.5.1 an integrated theory 整体理论
Compositionality: 复合性原则：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usually known as the principle of compositionality
5.5.2 logical semantics: 逻辑性原则
1)Propositional logic:命题逻辑the study of the truth conditions for proposition
假如P是正确的，则P的反命题是错的
5.5.3 predicate logic: 谓词逻辑，studies the internal structure of simple propositions
John is a man. John is argument while man is the predicate
Chapter 6 Language and cognition
6.1 cognition: in psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual; is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.
6.2 psycholinguistics: the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language
6.2.1 language acquisition: possessing a language is the quintessentially human trait.
1) holophrastic stage:独词句阶段：独词句阶段是语言习得的第一阶段
2) two-word stage: 双子句阶段
3) stage of three-word utterances
4)fluent grammatical conversation stage
6.2.2 language comprehension
1) word recognition:
2)comprehension of sentences
3)comprehension of context
6.2.3 language production
1) access to words: how speakers generate single words?
2) generation of sentences
3)written language production
6.3 cognitive linguistics: a newly established approach to the study of language
6.3.1 construal解释说明and construal operations
Construal: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc
Construal operations: conceptualizing process used in language process by human beings.
1)attention/salience显著
2)judgment/comparison: have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else.
There’s a cat(figure) on the mat(ground)
3)perspective/situatedness置身所在，情境性
look at that look at this
6.3.2 categorization:分门别类the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences
主客观相互作用对事物进行分类的过程。

Category: 指事物在认知中的归类
1)basic level: are mostly culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the best. This is the leve l where we preceive the most differences between “objects ” in the world. The most inclusive level
2)superordinate level: the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gesalt at this level; less good categories than basic level categories, have fewer defining features than basic level categories.
3) subordinate level: 从属级别they are typically composite forms.
6.3.3 image schemas图解: a recurring , dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.
1) a center-periphery schema: it involves a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and degree of distance from the core. Eg: an individual’s social sphere, with family and friends at the core and others at the outside.
2)a containment schema: involves a physical or metaphorical boundary, enclosed area or volume.
3)a cycle schema: repetitious events and event series
4)a force schema: physical or metaphorical causal interaction
5)link schema: two or more entities, eg: a child holding her mother’s hand.
6)a part-whole schema: eg: the body and its parts ,the family and the case structure of india
7)a path scheme:
8) a scale scheme: eg: properties in the number system
9)a verticality schema:
6.3.4 metaphor: 暗喻
6.3.5 metonymy: 转喻，换喻，是在提及事物时不用其本身的名字称呼而是用与它密切相连的概念来替代它的一种英语修辞格。

它着重的是事物本身的特点或它与其他事物之间的特殊关系。

6.3.6 blending theory
补充：
Simile：明喻
Synecdoche: 提喻跟转喻比较相似局部代替整体或整体代替局部，种类代替个体或以个体替代种类，以材料代替所制成的物品的修辞格。

Chapter 7 Language, culture, and society
7.1 language and culture
Language is an indispensable carrier of culture, culture finds a better representation through language use. Culture, in a broad sense, means integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that is both a result of and integral to the human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations; consists of language, ideas, belief, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques ,and works of art,symbols, etc; reflects a total way of life of a people in a community.
7.1.1 how does language relate to culture?
1)language use and its meaning are heavily tinted(relate to) with its culture
Eg: 美国人把狗看做一种毛的驯服的家庭宠物，但有些国家看做桌上美食
2) language expresses cultural realty: 语言反应一个人的文化社会背景，因为语言折射出一个人的习惯，思维习惯。

3) language is related to what the culture is and what is was and is also related to the culture of imagination, which governs people’s decisions as well as actions
4) to sum up, language as an integral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, which boh express and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language as a system of spoken or written symbols used by people in a shared culture to communicate with each other, reflects ad affects a culture’s way of thinking and helps perpetuate and change the culture and its influence.
7.1.2 more about Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 思维语言的一致性
The structure of the language people habitually use influences the way they think and behave. To put it simply, different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think and speak differently—linguis tic realty.; they believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences, this interdependence of language and thought is now known as SWH
Mainly two different interpretations:
A strong version: language patterns d etermine people’s thinking and behavior
The weak one: language patterns influences people’s thinking and behavior
Eg: english-speaking culture tend to teach its people what is practical, useful and important, that is to say, the important things take on specific names while the less important things have general names. The eskimos have countless words for snow for snow is extremely important and so crucial to life. In english-speaking culture, snow is far less important and the simple word snow usually suffices the need.
SWH has shed two important insights:
There is nowadays recognition that language , as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constraints the way people think;
More than in whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in c omplementing the meanings encoded in the language.
7.2 language and society
7.2.1 how does language relate to society
Language is used to communicate meaning, while it is also used to establish and maintain social relations建立维系社会关系
The king of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in return, reveals information about its speaker.反映说话人的社会背景。

7.3 cross-cultural communication
7.3.1 what should we know about cross-cultural communication
Successful com munication occurs when hearer can see, feel, and understand issues from the speaker’s point of view; when the speaker and hearer know each other’s intension; when the two parties adopt a dynamic dialogue pattern.
7.3.2 case study
when in Rome do as the romans do
put yourself in other’s shoes
one culture’s meat is another culture’s poison
honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding
Chapter 8 Language in use
Sentence meaning: includes word meaning and sentence structure; abstract and de-contextualized
Utterance meaning: the meaning a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context situation; concrete ad contextualized.
Semantics: the study of sentence meaning
Pragmatics: the study of utterance meaning, the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
8.1 speech act theory
Proposed by john Langshaw Austin 语言可以导致一个现象的发生或结束
8.1.1performatives: 行事话语, the statements that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable
Constatives: 陈述话语the statements what either state or describe, and were thus verifiable
8.1.2 theory of the illocutionary act: 行事行为using a sentence to perform a function; expressing the speaker’s intension
Locutionary act: 发话行为the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology Perlocutionary act: 取效行为is the result or effects that are produced by means of saying something.
补充：Searle’s classification of speech acts: share the same illocutionary point, but differ in strength
1)representatives/assertives: 阐述类stating or describing , saying what the speaker believes to be true. I have never seen the man before
2)directive: 指令类trying to get the hearer to do something
Open the door
3)commissives: 承诺类committing the speaker himself to some future course of action
I promise to come
4)expressive: 表情类expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state
I’m sorry for the mass I have made
5)declarations: 宣告类bringing about immediate changes by saying something
I fire you
8.2 the theory of conversational implicature
8.2.1 cooperative principle: the co-operation between speakers by using the conversational maxim
Four categories of maxims:。