20世纪90年代日本经济反思

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失去的十年----20世纪90年代日本经济反思之一〔技术分析篇〕
〔摩根斯坦利全球经济论坛,Robert Alan Feldman,中经网编译〕
[摘要]日本在过去13年间的经历是至关重要的,无论分析日本金融市场的走势,还是其他国家的市场走势,都能从中吸取有益的教训。

无论怎样分析,人们都必须成认,任何成功的全球性投资方案都不应回避日本的资产。

事实上,日本问题专家不仅不会受到冷落,甚至会面临供不应求的局面。

他们将像过去一样,为世界其他地区的投资者解释日本经济的特点。

目前,从某些方面来看,在日投资的业绩正在与其他国家趋同,但人们仍然需要了解日本的特点。

不仅如此,我们还必须了解其他国家经济的缺陷,从而有效地借鉴日本经济的教训。

本文首先介绍了研究日本经济问题的四象限分析框架,即把分析角度分为技术分析、计量模型、新闻报导和经济理论四个象限,而后从这四个角度进行了分析。

〔世经评论·北京〕本文为90年代日本经济反思四部曲的第一篇。

本系列包括四篇文章,从四个角度探讨了90年代到21世纪最初几年间日本经济的教训。

近来,越来越多的国际投资者纷纷表示,日本经济已经无关紧要了。

这种观点何其时髦,又何其错误。

依我看,日本在过去13年间的经历是至关重要的,无论分析日本金融市场的走势,还是其他国家的市场走势,都能从中吸取有益的教训。

无论怎样分析,人们都必须成认,任何成功的全球性投资方案都不应回避日本的资产。

事实上,日本问题专家不仅不会受到冷落,甚至会面临供不应求的局面。

他们将像过去一样,为世界其他地区的投资者解释日本经济的特点。

目前,从某些方面来看,在日投资的业绩正在与其他国家趋同,但人们仍然需要了解日本的特点。

不仅如此,我们还必须了解其他国家经济的缺陷,从而有效地借鉴日本经济的教训。

如何分析日本经济的教训
2001年,摩根斯坦利在一份报告中提出了一个两坐标轴、四象限的分析框架用以进行投资分析。

横轴的两个方向分别表示事件和数据。

纵轴的两个方向那么表示事实〔信息本身〕和模型〔事实之间的关系〕。

两轴相交自然形成了四个象限。

令横轴为数据-事件轴,负方向表示分析重点为数据,正方向表示分析重点为事件。

令纵轴为事实-模型轴,正方向强调事实,负方向那么强调模型。

在这个坐标系中,左上方的象限为数据-事实的统一。

此象限的重点为数量分析,寻找数量规律,而无须过分关系这样的规律是否成立,以及是否稳定。

左下方的象限为数据和模型的统一,计量模型是这里的主宰者。

这里忽略信息〔事实〕本身,而注重研究信息的不同侧面究竟如何能够协调一致〔即模型〕。

右上方的象限把事件和事实结合起来,自然,这是新闻报导的世界。

如果搜集整理事实的难度很大,而是事实之间的关系较为复杂、或难于量化,那么新闻报导就是最有效的手段。

最后,右下方的象限是事件与模型的结合,这里是经济理论的天地,我们在这里运用简单的框架来分析事实的关系,令种种复杂的因素各就其位。

技术分析象限的教训
首先我们来讨论技术分析象限的教训。

本文的其他局部将讨论其他象限的问题。

正如我们过去指出的那样,技术分析象限的第一个教训是,虽然日本经历了十几年之久的长期熊市,但不同部门和企业的股价走势存在很大差异。

1990-2002年期间,东证指数下跌了70.7%,但其中一些行业的成分股几乎没有下跌,而另一些的跌幅也很有限。

就个股而言,在这13年期间,单支股票的价格最多上涨了528%,涨幅居第二十位的股票价格也上涨了80%。

最近三年的情况同样如此,东证指数下跌了51%,但其中四个行业的股价实际上上升了,另有三个行业的跌幅不到10%。

如果说有什么不同的话,那就是,三年来,不同行业的股价之间的分化更加明显了。

个股最大涨幅为598%,第二十位那么为127%。

技术分析领域的第二个教训是,日本股市的下滑之路并非一降到底。

十三年中,确实存在一些股市整体上扬的时期。

具体来说,如果一名投资者准确地判断了股市的涨跌走势,那么从1990年1月到2002年12月,他的投资收益累计将到达300%,也就是年度回报率可达10.7%。

当然,没有人能够长期对股价走势做出准确的判断,但这并不能否认,日本股市确实有一些强劲增长的时期。

更何况,一些转折点出现前有明显的动因,准确判断决非难事。

举例来说,1992年8月,当时的首相宫泽喜一改变了政策取向,决定采取财政扩张政策,这无疑是一个重大利好。

1998年10月,金融改革法案的通过同样如此。

我们认为,虽然技术分析是对过去的数量分析,但投资者不应无视从中得出的教训。

下文中,我们将讨论得自其他三个象限的教训。

原文:
Japan: Very Relevant -- Lessons from the 1990s (Part I)
This is the first of a four-part series that discusses the lessons from Japan over the last decade. Subsequent parts will appear in the Global Economic Forum this week.
It has become fashionable among some international investors to declare Japan sterile and irrelevant. How chic. How wrong. I view Japan’s experiences of the last 13 years as highly relevant to analysis of what is still the largest financial market in Asia as well as analysis of other countries. Regardless of one’s style of thought, the overall conclusion is that Japanese assets will continue to be an essential part of any successful global portfolio. Indeed, far from slipping into oblivion, Japan specialists will be in even greater demand. As always, they will need to interpret the specifics of the Japanese context for the rest of the world (even as Japanese investment performance converges in some respects with that of other countries). In addition, they will also
have to acquire expertise in the warts and blemishes of other countries, in order to adapt what we have learned from Japan to other contexts.
Thinking About Thinking About the Lessons
In November 2001, a Morgan Stanley report (Thinking About Thinking About Investment," November 6, 2001) outlined different approaches to the analysis of investments in a two-axis, four quadrant framework. The horizontal axis differentiates whether emphasis is placed on stories or on numbers. The second axis differentiates between emphasis on facts (information per se) and on models (relationships among facts). This set of axes naturally results in a four-quadrant system. Let the horizontal axis be the Number-Story (NS) axis. Emphasis on numbers is on the left, and emphasis on stories on the right. Let the vertical axis be the Facts-Models (FM), with emphasis on facts at the top and on models at the bottom.
The northwest quadrant is the Numbers-Facts combination. This is the quadrant of quantitative analysis, which concentrates on finding numerical regularities, without worrying too much about why such regularities might exist, or if they are stable. The southwest quadrant is the Numbers-Models combination, where econometric models dominate. The quantity of information (facts) is reduced in favor of analytic specification of exactly how the different pieces of information fit together (models). The northeast quadrant is the Stories-Facts combination, which is the realm of journalism. Journalism is most applicable where gathering facts is difficult, and where the relationships among them are complex or inherently non-quantifiable. Finally, the southeast quadrant is the Stories-Models combination. This is the realm of theory, where complex sets of factors must be fit into simple frameworks or patterns of relationships among facts.
Lessons from the Technical Quadrant
First, let us consider the lessons from the technical quadrant. Subsequent parts of this essay will consider the other three quadrants.
As my colleague Katsuji Moriguchi has pointed out, the first lesson from the technical quadrant is that there is a huge divergence among sectors and stocks, even in a major, long-term bear market. Taking the whole period from 1990 to 2002, when TOPIX fell by 70.7%, some sectors barely fell at all, and some suffered only moderate declines. Looking at individual stocks, the best performer rose by 528% over the 13-year period, and even the 20th-best performer was up by 80%. Taking the most recent three years, the conclusion is identical. Although TOPIX fell by 51%, four sectors actually rose, and three others fell by less than 10%. If anything, the divergences have been greater in the last three years. The best-performing stock was up by 598%, and the 20th-best by 127%.
The second major technical lesson is that the path down was not a one-way street. There were significant periods of positive equity performance for the market as a whole. This may be seen by looking at the potential performance of an investor with perfect timing in calling peaks and troughs (based on monthly data). Such an investor would have earned a cumulative 300% over the
January 1990-December 2002 period, for an annualized return of about 10.7%. That fact that no one can ever get timing perfectly over a long period does nothing to invalidate the point that there were significant periods of strong performance. Moreover, calling some of the turning points was far from difficult. For example, the August 1992 shift to an expansionary fiscal policy by then-PM Miyazawa was a ringing buy signal. So was the October 1998 passage of the financial reform legislation.
Although numerical and backward looking, the lessons from the technical quadrant cannot be ignored by investors, in our view. This observation is even more true for the other three quadrants, which are the subjects of subsequent parts of this series.
失去的十年----20世纪90年代日本经济反思之二〔计量模型篇〕
[摘要]日本在过去13年间的经历是至关重要的,无论分析日本金融市场的走势,还是其他国家的市场走势,都能从中吸取有益的教训。

无论怎样分析,人们都必须成认,任何成功的全球性投资方案都不应回避日本的资产。

事实上,日本问题专家不仅不会受到冷落,甚至会面临供不应求的局面。

他们将像过去一样,为世界其他地区的投资者解释日本经济的特点。

目前,从某些方面来看,在日投资的业绩正在与其他国家趋同,但人们仍然需要了解日本的特点。

不仅如此,我们还必须了解其他国家经济的缺陷,从而有效地借鉴日本经济的教训。

本文首先介绍了研究日本经济问题的四象限分析框架,即把分析角度分为技术分析、计量模型、新闻报导和经济理论四个象限,而后从这四个角度进行了分析。

〔世经评论·北京〕本文是90年代日本经济反思四部曲的第二篇。

第一篇首先介绍
了研究日本经济问题的四象限分析框架,即把分析角度分为技术分析、计量模型、新闻报导和经济理论四个象限;而后,该篇讨论了技术分析象限的教训。

本篇将从数据和理论入手,讨论计量模型象限的教训。

本篇将以数量模型为中心,运用各种模型来分析股市走势与经济指标走势以及资产价格走势之间的关系。

本系列的后两篇分别讨论新闻、理论二象限的教训。

用计量经济模型来分析日本经济“失去的十年〞,可以得到一些有益的教训。

其中最重要的分析方法包括分析资产负债表、分析不同行业价格变化的差异、研究消费格局的变化、以及拓展投资风格的类型,将其应用于新领域。

下面我们依次对这些方法进行讨论。

资产负债分析
在通货紧缩时代,分析资产负债表是至关重要的。

不过,这种分析方法并不仅仅是简单地“良好的财务比率意味着企业的经营状况良好〞。

举例来说,为什么一些财务状况良好的日本公司会突然倒闭呢?为什么如此之多财务状况糟糕的日本公司反而维持了如此之久呢?其所以出现前一种情况,是因为一些公司采取了违规的会计操作,甚至进行肆无忌惮的欺诈;而后一种情况屡屡出现那么说明,如果公司的现金流足以支付利息,那么企业就可以承受较高的财务比率。

随着日本经济在通货紧缩中越陷越深,利率下降也就不可防止,这样,财务状况薄弱的公司就更容易生存下来。

另一方面,财务状况良好的企业却难于凭借自身的实力加强自己的地位,因为那些弱小的对手可以借助有利的宏观经济政策维持下去。

即使低利率缺乏以维持企业生存,事实上,只要不断借入新资金从而实现正的现金流,企业就可以坚持下去。

在日本,主银行体制保证了财务状况不良的企业能够借入资金,因为借款的大企业倒闭将给那些主银行带来无法承受的巨额损失。

此外,日本公司还可以通过出售资产来获取现金,甚至运用会计操作,对按照账面价值计算的资产进行重新估价。

由此可以得出我们的教训:投资者不能仅仅关注各种财务比率,而应对资产定价方法以及财务比例赖以生成、现金流赖以实现的财务操作进行研究,判断出这些方法是否如实地反映了企业的财务状况。

财务操作问题一直是威胁金融业开展的大问题。

事实证明,日本金融当局以及各银行使用的不良贷款定义存在很大漏洞。

通货紧缩时期,利润率反而有可能上升
90年代日本经济最令人吃惊的教训之一是,在通货紧缩时期,公司利润未必会下降,即使经济增长缓慢也是如此。

举例来说,自从日本在90年代后期出现持续的通货紧缩以来,非金融行业利润率事实上上升了。

即使在90年代末经济反复振荡时期,名义利润一直持续上升。

消费格局的变化创造了新的市场时机
我们从上一个十年得出的另一个结论是:通货紧缩可以创造新的商机。

消费格局的变化为投资者创造了巨大的机遇。

20世纪90年代初,日本向亚洲的工业制成品敞开了进口大门,由此,通货紧缩开始降临日本。

90年代中期,来自中国的进口成为影响日本消费者市场的重要因素,此后,中国产品大量涌入日本市场。

由于日本制造业向海外转移,该国的经济资源必然转向新领域。

局部资源未能找到新的活动领域,由此造成了失业率上升。

然而,廉价优质进口品的涌入为日本的消费者和企业节省了大量资源,规模之巨大足以用来创立全新的
行业。

例如,13年来,日本消费者在食品上节省的费用相当于消费开支总额的2个百分点,在服装上节省的费用也相当于消费开支的2个百分点。

由此节省的巨额资金支持了移动、电动器具、保健以及房地产业的繁荣。

一些公司十年前还不存在,现在已经成为日本市场上叱咤风云的企业巨头,电信业尤其如此。

事实上,每个收入层都存在新的商机,而不仅限于高端产品。

投资风格:超越价值型与增长型投资
正如我们过去指出的,对投资者来说,最后一个教训涉及到投资风格,这恐怕也是最重大的教训。

日本陷入通货紧缩之前,大局部投资者认为,成长型投资和价值型投资存在根本性的区别。

给定投资者的投资回报目标,那么成长型的投资者会更加注重市盈率,因为高市盈率意味着良好的增长前景。

而价值型投资者那么不然,他们不愿承当企业成长的风险,因此不会投资于市盈率较高的股票。

这种区分投资风格的方法适用于稳定增长的经济体,却不适用于日本这种通货紧缩之中的经济体。

要理解过去十几年中日本资产价格的变化,这是非常重要的。

简言之,关于经济和股市的计量经济模型不断推陈出新,由此大大加深了投资者对经济和市场的认识。

我们的结论不仅适用于日本,也适用于其他国家。

在本系列的后两篇中,我们将更深入地认识日本的经济。

第三篇将是新闻报导象限的教训,第四篇那么对经济理论象限进行分析。

原文
Japan: Very Relevant -- Lessons from the 1990s (Part II)
This is the second part of a four-part series on lessons from Japan’s long bear market. The first part (Global Economic Forum, January 20, 2002) set up the four-quadrant framework for the styles of thought within which the lessons are derived, i.e., the technical, econometric, journalistic, and theoretical quadrants. It also discussed the lessons from the technical quadrant. This part discusses the lessons from the econometric quadrant, which approaches thought from the viewpoint of numbers and theories. This approach concentrates on numerical models, and applies them the relationship of market movements to movements of economic indicators and/or asset valuation. Subsequent parts will discuss the journalistic and theoretical quadrants.
There are several econometric model-based lessons about investment performance from Japan’s lost decade. Among the most important are the centrality of balance sheet analysis, the importance of price-change differentials among sectors, the importance of changing consumption patterns, and the extension of style analysis (e.g., growth vs. value) into new territory. Let us deal with each of these in turn.
The Centrality of Balance Sheet Analysis
Balance sheet analysis is central in an era of deflation. That said, the story is not so simple as "good balance sheet ratios mean good companies." Why, for example, did some Japanese companies with apparently good balance sheets fail suddenly? Why have so many Japanese firms
with weak balance sheets survived for so long? The former cases concerned poor accounting practices, and in some cases outright fraud. The latter cases showed that high leverage is bearable when cash flow is positive enough to pay interest. As interest rates fall, which is inevitable as an economy moves toward deflation, it becomes easier for weak firms to survive. Moreover, it is harder for strong firms to reap the gains of their strength, because their weak competitors continue to receive life support from macro policy.
If even low interest rates are not enough, positive cash flow can be secured by fresh borrowings, which in Japan’s c ase often came from main banks because the latter were too weak to absorb the losses from allowing large borrowers to fail. Cash flow can also be secured by selling assets, or even through accounting transactions that revalue assets initially held at book value. The lesson is that investors must look beyond the ratios themselves, and see whether the valuation techniques and the transactions that generated the balance sheet ratios and cash flows are genuine. The latter has been a continuous problem in evaluation of the health of the financial sector, where the definitions of non-performing loans used by the authorities and the banks proved wholly inadequate.
Profitability Can Rise in Deflation
One of the most surprising lessons from Japan is that corporate profits do not necessarily suffer in an era of deflation, even if accompanied by weak growth. For example, the profit margin (recurring profits/sales) for the non-financial sector in Japan has actually improved since the country went into sustained deflation in the late-1990s. Moreover, even nominal profits have been on an uptrend, despite fluctuations, since the late-1990s.
Changed Consumption Patterns Create New Opportunities
Yet another conclusion from the last decade is that deflation creates business opportunities. The shifts of consumption create huge openings for investors. Deflation pressures in Japan began in the early 1990s with the major opening of the economy to manufactured imports from Asia. Imports from China became a major factor at the middle of the 1990s, and have accelerated since. As Japanese manufacturing moved abroad, domestic resources had to be shifted into new activities. Some resources failed to find new activity, and became unemployed. However, the cost savings to consumers and business from low-cost imports were large enough to generate whole new industries. For example, Japanese consumers have saved 2% points of total consumption in food, and another 2% points in clothing over the last 13 years. These savings have been used to fuel the boom in mobile phones, electronic gadgets and services, health, and housing. Some firms that did not exist 10 years ago are now among the largest in the country, particularly in the telecommunications sector. Moreover, there can be business opportunities in niches for all components of the income scale, not just the high end.
Investment Styles: It’s Not Just Value and Growth Any More
As my colleague Naoki Kamiyama has written, the final, and perhaps most important, lesson
for investors concerns styles of investment. Prior to Japan’s fall into deflation, most investors accepted the basic distinction between growth investing and value investing. For a given target return on equity, growth-oriented investors would invest in companies with high price-earnings ratios (PER), as a symbol of growth prospects. This required, mathematically, that the firms also have a high ratio of price to book (PBR). (Note that [P/B] / [P/E] = E/B = RoE.) For the same targeted return on equity, value-oriented investors did not want to take the growth risk, and thus would not invest in high PER firms. As a result, they were able to invest in firms with low PBRs as well. While useful in a growing economy, this distinction between growth and value is inadequate for a deflation economy. In particular, the old assumption that PBR and PER are necessarily correlated positively turns out to be incorrect. Japan has taught us to make more subtle distinctions. In particular, some firms have high PBR, but low PER -- I label these quality companies. Some others have low PBR and high PER -- I label these distressed companies. These distinctions turn out to be crucial in understanding how Japanese valuations changed during the decade.
Performance among the different styles of investing changed sharply over the last 12 years. The first major period is late-1991 to early-1997. In this period value companies outperformed very clearly. It is also interesting to note that the distressed category (high PER, low PBR) also performed well. Perhaps this can be attributed to investors dismissing the importance of PERs in Japan, because of accounting differences with other countries. It may also be attributable to cross-holdings, whereby business relationships within corporate groups at times overshadowed investment quality as a criterion for asset selection. From early 1997 on, things began to change. Quality stocks (low PER, high PBR) began to outperform, while distressed stocks began to underperform significantly. In the TMT era, growth companies outperformed -- although quality companies continued to do well also. In this period, distressed companies suffered more, and value stocks suffered the most. With the bursting of the TMT bubble, growth stocks collapsed, but interestingly, quality stocks did not. In recent months, value stocks have done poorly as well, leaving quality stocks as the only category that has maintained its relative performance.
In short, developments in econometric models of both the economy and the equity market generated new insights for investors. These insights can be applied elsewhere. Moreover, there are many other insights from the remaining two quadrants, the journalism quadrant and the theory quadrant. The third part of this series will turn to the journalism quadrant, and the fourth to the theory quadrant.
摩根斯坦利:失去的十年----20世纪90年代日本经济反思之三〔新闻报导篇〕
[摘要]日本在过去13年间的经历是至关重要的,无论分析日本金融市场的走势,还是其他国家的市场走势,都能从中吸取有益的教训。

无论怎样分析,人们都必须成认,任何成功的全球性投资方案都不应回避日本的资产。

事实上,日本问题专家不仅不会受到冷落,甚至会面临供不应求的局面。

他们将像过去一样,为世界其他地区的投资者解释日本经济的特点。

目前,从某些方面来看,在日投资的业绩正在与其他国家趋同,但人们仍然需要了解日本的特点。

不仅如此,我们还必须了解其他国家经济的缺陷,从而有效地借鉴日本经济的教训。

本文首先介绍了研究日本经济问题的四象限分析框架,即把分析角度分为技术分析、计量模型、新闻报导和经济理论四个象限,而后从这四个角度进行了分析。

〔世经评论·北京〕本文为90年代日本经济反思四部曲的第三篇。

本系列的前两篇介绍了研究日本经济问题的四象限分析框架,即把分析角度分为技术分析、计量模型、新闻报导和经济理论四个象限;而后讨论了技术分析象限和计量模型象限的教训。

本篇讨论新闻报导象限的教训,侧重点是事实与事件。

下一篇将讨论经济理论象限的教训。

我认为,新闻报导象限的教训可以归结为新技术、丑闻和政治分裂三个方面。

新技术引领新闻焦点
过去十几年间,新技术一再成为日本经济的主题,然而,对这些新问题进行量化几乎是不可能的。

新技术行业的先行指标和滞后指标固然难以捉摸,但麻烦不止于此;事实上,由于崭新的技术类型不断涌现,因而我们找不到现成的分析框架对其进行研究。

正因为如此,高技术问题只能表现为事实和事件,因而属于新闻报导象限。

这里很难讨论诸如哪些新技术最为重要之类的细节,因此我们不妨把有关问题归纳为几个不同的局部,分别予以讨论。

首先应该指出,企业要维持竞争优势,那么新产品、新效劳的开发技术就是极为重要的。

不过,仅有高技术产品是不够的。

更重要的是必须选择能够为公司创造收入和利润的产品。

这就是说,包括一些大型电器工业公司在内,日本的高科技企业集团之所以业绩不佳,是因为它们未能集中技术资源,以获得良好的投资回报。

市场的新进入者问题是有关新技术的又一类重要问题。

上文曾提到,一些电信公司90年代初还不存在,现在却已经位居日本最大的公司之列。

随着企业家不断发现新商机,许多新公司也就应运而生了。

其中一些是外国公司的日本分公司,其他那么是国内的企业。

并购活动与新技术的开展息息相关,这些活动的主角有些是外国公司,有些那么是日本本国公司。

新技术驱动的物流革命是新闻报导关注的另一个重要内容,在这种情况下,便利店的重要性日渐突出,而全球采购网络的梦想也由此成为现实。

关于新技术的另一项内容是高技术根底设施的建
设,在这个建设过程中,国家购置并布设了长度惊人的电缆,采购并装配了数量巨大的通讯设备。

由于铁路网和电力网的接入权问题是电信根底设施建设的一个重要局部,因此有关部门也成为了这方面新闻中的重要角色。

丑闻层出不穷
从新闻报导来看,90年代日本经济最惨痛的教训之一自然是经济丑闻层出不穷,无休无止。

日本的经济丑闻可以分为六个主要类型。

首先是有意制作不实的财务报表,房地产公司Jusen丑闻就属于这种情况。

这些丑闻中的违规操作手法众多,例如虚报资产价值、隐瞒无法回收的资产,目的往往是为了掩盖企业出现资本负值的实情。

有时,欺骗性操作的目的那么是为了制造虚假利润。

有些欺诈案甚至得到了审计师的帮助,他们在明知实情的情况下签署虚假账目,最终受到了起诉以至监禁。

第二种类型是政治献金丑闻,一般来说,此类丑闻要么与违规会计操作有关,要么只是涉及滥用资金事件。

官员受贿丑闻在90年代成为媒体关注的焦点,进入新世纪,有关消息还常常引起人们的注意。

丑闻的第三种类型是公司管理层与犯罪阻止相勾结,后者负责保证股东年会上不会有人提出对管理层不利的问题,而他们可以得到金额庞大的报酬。

第四种类型的丑闻是管理层采取其他非法手段以阻止股东提出的合理要求。

例如收买股东在股东会议上压制对管理层不利的问题。

第五种丑闻是监管机构与公司合谋,压制可能危及有关公司的消息。

例如,卫生省就曾帮助有关企业压制关于受污染的血液制品的消息。

第六类丑闻主要是政府官员的腐败问题,例如日本央行和财务省官员曾接受由其负责监管的企业提供的豪华娱乐效劳;地方政府为了争夺财政拨款,也曾向中央政府的官员提供奢侈的娱乐效劳;警方的高官为了在内斗中占上风而泄漏机密的调查结果,等等。

为了遏制丑闻愈演愈烈的趋势,人们付出了极大的努力以改善公司治理,加强信息披露,强化财务责任,并提高法规的约束力。

在这些领域的一局部工作取得了成效,而另一些还没有成果。

日本已经修订了?商法典?,以适应类似与国外模式的公司治理结构,但日本企业的管理者大多数很不愿意改变现状。

聘请外部董事的公司数量虽然不断增加,但绝对数依然很少。

即使在设立了外部董事的企业中,这些董事的独立性也很值得疑心。

我们认为,信息披露方面的进展极大,但许多问题依然存在。

信息披露领域的一个重要方面是投资者关系,事实上,90年代初日本企业还不曾理会这方面的问题,而现在,大公司已经普遍设立了处理投资者关系的机制。

财务责任领域同样取得了一定进展,企业高管因财务问题而辞职或受到惩办的情况越来越多,逐渐成为一个趋势。

而对审计师义务的要求也越来越严格,如果他们受到了财务欺诈案的牵连,就会受到惩办。

对投资者而言,日本的教训主要集中在四个领域----公司治理,信息披露,财务责任和审计义务。

投资者必须亲身拜访准备投资的企业、研究其历史、了解其管理层并评估其执行能力,这些动作都是不可替代的。

政界严重分裂
日本政界的的分裂局面表现为几种形式。

首先是政党之间的对立。

由于日本政局在90。

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