英语词汇学 Chapter 9 主要英语国家词汇特征

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大学英语词汇学L9-minor

information
to identify the following modern shortening VIP very important person 贵宾 veep MC master of ceremony 司仪 emcee DJ disc jockey 电台唱片音乐节目主持人 deejay GP general purpose vehicle 吉普车 jeep dinky dual income, no kids + y 无子女的双职工夫妻 nilk no income, lots of kids 无收入多子女夫妻 p.s. postscript （信末）附言 c/o care of 烦……转交
They may be good, but I think they won’t bell the cat at the crucial moment. You have to make a case for your proposal in order to get them approved.
Shortening or Abbreviation
1. initialism（首字母连写法） 2. acronym（首字母拼音法） 3. clipping（剪切法）
Initialism
what is called initialism? A type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase.
to complete the following shortening words from the news headlines US auto workers end strike automobile Rural-credit co-ops to get more autonomy cooperatives Palestinian demos mark massacres demonstrations US: first use of nuke weapons not unlawful nuclear Iran asks for info on stolen gems

英语词汇学(第九讲)

• • • • •
Once bitten, twice shy. More haste, less speed. Out of sight, out of mind. Better late than never. Easier said than done.
• • • • •
2) the simple sentence A stitch in time saves nine. Every dog has his day. The early bird catches the worm. Practice makes perfect.
参考中文：位高权重
• Some might describe Bill Gates as sitting in the cat bird seat.
Crocodile tears
• Pretending to cry in an attempt to manipulate or exploit, phony（假的） tears. • It was often thought that crocodiles shed tears that slid down into their mouths, moistening their food and making it easier for them to swallow. • Hence the tears appear to be an expression of emotion but are in fact a means to make it easier to swallow (possibly the observer).
• • • • •
3) the imperative sentence 祈使句 Grasp the nettle and it won’t sting you. 困难像弹簧，你硬它就软。 4) the compound sentence You may lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him tters is not gold. • He that sups with the devil must have a long spoon. • 与恶人交往，须特别提防。 • Don’t count your chicken before they’re hatched. • 不要过早乐观。

英语词汇学知识点整理

词汇期末复习（C1-C7）Chapter 1一、Word 词的定义(1) a minimal free form（最小的自由形式）(2) a sound unity(3) a semantic unity（meaning）(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能）二、Vocabulary词汇的定义All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary.一般来说，词汇指的是一种语言里所有单词的总和。

词的总和构成语言的词汇。

词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。

三、Sound&Meaning发音和意义The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional. 二者的关系是约定俗成、随意的四、Sound & Form发音和形式(1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oralform.自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。

(2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发音与形式不同的原因：①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来自罗马②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发音改变快速③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发音不断变化，书写标准化。

英语本科-英语词汇(考试重点)

英语本科英语词汇学Chapter1—Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord(词的定义)：A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.(1)a minimal free form of a language(2)a sound unity(3)a unit of meaning(4)a form that can function alone in sentenceSound and meaning(声音与意义)：almost arbitrary“no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”.Sound and form(读音和形式)：不统一的四个原因（1）t he English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each other;（2）T he pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years;（3）S ome of the difference were creates by the early scribes;（4）T he borrowing is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary; Vocabulary(词汇)：all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words:By use frequency: basic word stocking & nonbasic vocabularyBy notion: content words& functional wordsBy origin: native words& borrowed wordsThe basic word stock(基本词汇)：is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征)：1）All- National character(全民通用性most important)2)Stability(相对稳定性) 3)Productivity(多产性)4)Polysemy(多义性) 5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语)(2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang(语)(4)Argot(暗语)(5) Dialectal words(方言)(6)Archaisms(古语)(7)Neologisms(新词语)：Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meaning.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed Words（外来词语）：Native words（本族词语）：known as Anglo-Saxon words(50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basicword-stocks). Two other features:(1)neutral in style;（2）frequent in use;Borrowed words/Loan words(外来词语)：Words taken over from foreign languages (80% of modern EV) .4 Types of loan words:1)denizens(同化词)：（shirt form skyrta(ON)）2)aliens(非同化词、外来词)：are borrowed words which have retained their originalpronunciation and spelling(kowtow(CH)磕头)3)translation loans(译借词)：按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see(From China)4)Semantic loans(借义词)：they are not borrow with reference to the form, but theirmeaning are borrowed.Chapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Threes Stage of Development of the English Vocabulary:1.Old English (450-1100)(vocabulary50,000 to 60,000): was I high inflected language.2.Middle English (1150-1500): remains much fewer inflections.3.Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words comealmost directly from classical language. In Modern E, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English ) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式)1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namelytoots, affixes and other elements(最重要的方式)。

英语词汇学第9章

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英语词汇学总结

英语词汇学总结1. 引言英语作为一门国际语言，在全球范围内被广泛使用和学习。

掌握英语词汇是学习英语的基础，因此，了解英语词汇学的基本概念和原则对于掌握英语至关重要。

本文将总结英语词汇学的相关知识，并介绍一些有效的学习方法。

2. 英语词汇的基本特点英语词汇具有以下基本特点：2.1 词汇量丰富英语词汇量庞大，众多单词构成了英语的基础词汇。

根据统计数据，英语词汇库中单词数量超过170,000个，而这还不包括派生词、复合词、短语等。

因此，学习者需要逐渐积累词汇，扩大自己的词汇量。

2.2 杂种来源英语词汇来源广泛，包括古英语、拉丁语、法语、德语等多种语言。

这些词汇通过演变、借用、合成等方式进入英语词汇体系。

2.3 多音节和重音英语中的词汇多为多音节，且每个词汇都有一个重音。

正确把握英语单词的重音对于正确的发音和理解词义至关重要。

3. 英语词汇学的研究方法英语词汇学是研究英语词汇的学科，主要有以下研究方法：3.1 词源研究词源研究是研究单词来源和发展的学科，通过追溯单词的起源和历史变迁，可以更好地理解和记忆单词。

3.2 词汇分类研究词汇分类研究根据单词的词性、语法功能等对英语词汇进行分类，有助于学习者更好地理解和运用词汇。

3.3 语义研究语义研究关注单词的意义和词义之间的关系，通过研究词汇的意义和用法，可以提高学习者的词汇理解和运用能力。

4. 英语词汇学的学习方法掌握英语词汇需要坚持学习和实践，以下是一些学习方法：4.1 单词记忆技巧使用记忆技巧可以帮助学习者更好地记忆和掌握单词。

例如，通过联想记忆、构建单词网络等方式，可以提高单词记忆效果。

4.2 词汇扩展技巧在学习单词的基础上，学习者可以通过学习词根、前缀、后缀等词汇形态，扩大自己的词汇量。

4.3 词汇应用技巧学习者可以通过阅读、写作和口语实践等方式，将学到的词汇应用到实际场景中，加深对单词的理解和记忆。

5. 结论英语词汇学是一门重要而复杂的学科，掌握英语词汇是学习英语的关键。

《英语词汇学》笔记1-10章

Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.（全民性）13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings.18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use.20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings.名词解释：1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. vocabulary（词汇）: The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particulararts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.4.Archaisms（古语词）: Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.5. Neologisms（新词语）: Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.6. borrowed words（外来词）: Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.7. Deizens（同化词）: Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated into the English Language.8. Aliens（非同化词）: Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.9. Translation-loans（译借词）: Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.10.Semantic-loans（借义词）: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题：1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock（基本词汇）?①. All national character.（全民性）②. Stability（稳定性）③. Productivity（多产性）④. Polysemy（多义性）⑤. Collocability（搭配性）Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答：①. Neutral in style（文体上中性）. Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use（使用频繁）. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答：A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms（新词语）with examples.答：Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, “emil”(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word “mouse” might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答：V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency（使用频率）, words may fall into the basic word stock（基本词汇）and nonbasic vocabulary（非基本词汇）. Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use；②By notion（实义）, words can be divided into content words（实义词）and functional words （功能词即虚词）, content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences；③By origin（起源）, words can be grouped into native words（本族语词）and borrowed words （外来语词）. Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. Indo-European Language is made up of most of the Languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.2. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages：Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian Languages.3. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.4. The surviving Languages show various of degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution.5. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English（古英语）.6. The introduction of Christianity（基督教）at the end of the 6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.7. Old English （古英语）has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modren German.8. Until 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.9. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.10. During the Middle English period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland.11. Middle English retained much fewer inflections. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.12. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, and Thames.13. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their Language almost totally blotted out Celtic .14. Old English is considered to be a highly-inflected Language.15. During the Middle English period three languages—English, French and Latin（英语，法语和拉丁语）---- existed simultaneously for over a century.16. Modern English（当代英语）began with the establishment of printing（印刷术）in England.17. Since the beginning of this century, word-formation has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary.18. Early Modern English refers to the language spoken from 1500 to 1700 .19. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are the growth of science and technology, economic and political changes, the influence of other cultures and Languages .20. The four major foreign contributors to the English vocabulary in earlier times were French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian .21. Though still at work today , borrowing can hardly compare with what it was in the past.22. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic Language(Old English) to the present analytic Language.23. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.24. The word of “recollection” is formed by creation.25. The first people known to inhabit the British isles were Celts. Their languages were Celtic.26. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in theMiddle English period.名词解释：1. creation（创造新词）: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In Modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2. semantic change（旧词新意）: Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. borrowing（借用外来词语）: Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.4. Old English（古英语）: It refers to the Language used from 450 to 1150.5. Middle English（中世纪英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1150 to 1500.6. Modern English（现代英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1500 up to the present.论述问答题：1. What are eight principal language in the Indo-European Language family（印欧语系）?答：They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答：the rapid development of modern science and technology.；Social, economic and political changes.；The influences of other cultures and languages.；3. What are three main modes of vocabulary developments?答：Creation creates new words by using existing materials.Semantic change. An old form takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrow words from other Languages.Chapter 3 Word Formation I重点知识锦集：1. It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a Language that stands alone to communicate meaning.2. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’.3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4. The morpheme to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.5. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.6. Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes.7. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.9. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.（内部曲折词缀和派生词缀）10. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single free morpheme.11. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes(黏着语素) include bound roots, inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‘s’ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively.名词解释：1. morpheme（语素）: the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.2. allomorphs（语素变体）: some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.3. free morphemes（自由语素）: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.4. bound morphemes（黏着语素）: morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.5. bound root（黏着词根）: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. affixes（词缀）: Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.7. inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.8. derivational affixes（派生词缀）: As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.9. root（词根）: A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10. stem（词干）: A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.论述问答题：1. What are the differences between root and stem?答：①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.②A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as ina compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②“happy”and “ideal”are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.Chapter 4 Word Formation II重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”’is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other’s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5 Word Meaning重点知识锦集：1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.（任意的和依照惯例的）3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.（语法意义）6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.（概念意义和关联意义）8. Associative meaning（关联意义）comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.（褒义词和贬义词）10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.11. Motivation（理据）explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning（词汇意义）in particular.16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated.17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated.名词解释：1. concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.4. onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.5. morphological motivation（形态理据）: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ‘mail by air’.6. semantic motivation（语义理据）: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.7. etymological motivation（词源学理据）: The meanings of many words often relate directly。

词汇学第九章课件

Many idioms are semantically inexplicable. 许多习语在语义上是无法解释的。
9.1.2 Structural Stability结构的稳定性
01 T h e s t r u c t u re of a n idiom is to a large extent unchangeable. 一个习语的结构在很大程度上是不可改变的。
9.2 Classification of idioms习语的分类
01
The standard of Classification of idioms is The criterion
02
of ’grammatical function’.习语的分类标准是语法功能的标准。
9.2.1 Idioms nominal in
主要是谚语和格言，包括口语词和时髦语
The forms and functions of idioms are not necessarily identical. 习语的形式和功能并非完全相同。 E.g. pepper and salt His hair is pepper and salt.他的头发黑白相间
❖ 3.Figure of speech 修辞手法
❖ I. Simile 明喻
❖ II .Metaphor 暗语
Animal to refer to people.
❖ III.Metonymy 借代
❖ Synecdoche 提喻法
.——means using a part for a whole， an individual for a class a material for a thing or the reverse of any of these. 部分代替整体或整体代替部分

《英语词汇学》知识点归纳

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each other（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary词汇Vocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary词语分类Classification of English Words：1.By use frequency: basic word stock & non basic vocabulary基本词汇的特征:1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的词:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words (6)Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms2.By notion: content words实词 & functional words虚词3.By origin: native words & borrowed wordsNative words（本族语词）: Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)1) denizens(同化词，融入英语): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词，可以看出源头）: kowtow3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see / tofu4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed withreference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed pioneer本指开拓者，先引申为先锋。

英语词汇学chapter9 English Idiom

1) Many idioms come from the everyday life of the English people – Student life (speak by the book说话确切) – Agricultural life (go to seed花谢结籽，退化) – From hunting (to hold in leash控制，抑制住) – From card-games (show one’s hand摊牌，表明意图)
9.2 Classification of idioms 习语的分类
Idioms can be classified by origin,semantic relationship, morphological structure and grammatical funin
• By semantic relationship • 1) standardized word combination (to make a report作报告) • 2) phraseological unities ( to come to the point 说重点，开门见山) • 3) phraseological fusions（once in a blue moon千载难逢）
3. morphological structure
• Phrase idioms a bed of roses 安乐窝 • Clause idioms blow one‘s stack发脾气 • Sentence idioms Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁
4.By grammatical function
1
2) The Bible a thorn in the flesh肉中刺 3) Shakespeare’s play flutter the dovecotes扰乱鸽棚(使温顺和平的人们骚动起来)... 4) From fables, myths or legends as sour grapes酸葡萄

英语词汇学知识点整理

词的总和构成语言的词汇。

词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。

英语词汇学chapter

The basic vocabulary is consistently updated and expanded as new words and expressions enter the language through changes in culture, technology, and society
• The Changes and Development of English Vocabulary
目录
• Introduction to English Lexicology
• The Composition of English Vocabulary
• The semantic relationship of English vocabulary
Middle stage: During the Middle Ages, schools begin to pay attention to the morphology and semantic changes of words, and compiled a large number of dictionaries and glossaries
Characteristics
English Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the dynamics and complex nature of vocabulary It involves the study of word formation processes, semantic changes, and the use of words in context
Modern stage: With the development of linguistics in the 19th century, scholars have been systematically studying the structure and function of the English vocabulary from a linguistic perspective Since then, English Lexicology has gradually become an independent discipline

现代英语词汇学9

Chapter 9 美国英语American English
行话：影视界： Ghost 叠影，rain 银幕上出现的干扰雨点 Channel simmer 不断调台的收视者， Sonochrome 黑白片 Polychrome 彩色片 Simulcast 无线电和电视同时联播
Chapter 9 美国英语American English
Chapter 9 美国英语American English
3. 词汇的混杂性 1）外来词
印第安语： persimmon 美洲柿 tamarack 美洲落叶松 raccoon 浣熊 muskrat 麝鼠 woodchuck 土拔鼠 tepee 圆锥形帐篷
pter 9 美国英语American English
Chapter 9 美国英语American English
More examples:
The soup has carrots in. (BE) The soup has carrots in it. (AE) It seems a long time. (BE) It seems like a long time. (AE. BE) We ‘d like you to do this now. (BE. AE) We’d like for you to do this now. (BE)
Chapter 9 美国英语American English
Thank You
Thank you for your listening
Chapter 9 美国英语American English
in Britain： baggage 行李(15世纪进入英语，18世纪消失）而使用luggage in America: baggage 仍在使用，保留原意。

英语词汇学各个章节的内容

Introduction 部分：Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics.Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization第一章：What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。

1) A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail management 可以次划分为manage 和 -ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortune blackmail 次划分为black 和 mailWhat is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is …no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented bydifferent sounds.What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record ofthe oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oralform, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differencesoccur between the two.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship orirregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet wasadopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter torepresent each sound in the language so that some letters must dodouble duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidlythan spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by theearly scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel ofenriching the English vocabulary.要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音、拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是…sound and form ‟不一致。

英语词汇学教程课件第9章English Lexicology 9上

other special font; (2) its pronunciation, in some form of alphabetic
notation; (3) its word class (‘part of speech’); (4) its etymology (historical origin and derivation); (5) its definition; and (6) examples of its use.
The words in a dictionary are usually arranged alphabetically, although there are exceptions, such as the thesaurus (usually a dictionary of synonyms, which may be arranged by meaning).
To know the pronunciation symbols correctly, you will have to read their explanation in the front part of the dictionary. The noun merchandise may end in /s/ as well as in /z/, and most dictionaries will show that variation.
Etymology
Etymology in the dictionary is a statement of the origin of the headword. It may include not only the earliest known form and the language in which this occurs (e.g. Old French) but also cognate forms in other language.

现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter9

Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning⏹9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning⏹9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change⏹9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of WordsDefinition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words.9.1 Causes of Changes in Word MeaningA.Historical cause 历史原因It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed .*Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science.Eg.pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”.atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos ,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.B.Social cause 社会原因Change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change.Some technical words have lost their specialized meaning and have come to be used in more general senses.Eg.feedback (Electr.) =means “response” in common use ,as in “The teacher likes to have feedback from his students”;allergic (Med.)=means “being unusually sensitive to the action of particular foods, pollens, insect-bites ,etc.”*A specific environment may add a fresh and highly technical sense to a word of general use .Eg.energy =(Phys.) ability of matter or radiation to do workdecline =(Gram.) inflect, state the case-forms ofC.Foreign influences 外来文化影响A particularly important cause .eg.-pig ,sheep ,ox(cow)denote the names of both the animals and their meat in the Old English period ,but since the meat was called pork ,mutton and beef respectively among the Norman conquerors, the original terms are now used only as the names of the animals.-dream meant “joy” in OE, it gets its modern sense from the related Scandinavian word draumr.D.Linguistic cause 语言上的原因*Two tendencies: towards ellipsis省略and towards analogy类推.-Ellipsis as a cause of semantic change often occurs in habitual collocations, such as adj.+n.,or attributive n.+n.,in which the noun is often deleted and only the first element (the attributive )is left ,but retaining the sense of the whole phrase .eg.a general –a general officer 一位将军an editorial–an editorial article一篇社论bugle–bugle horn 号角gold–gold medal ,as in the Olympic Games金牌uniform–uniform dress 制服transistor–transistor radio 收音机daily–daily newspaper 日报duplicate –duplicate copy 副本-Analogical tendency: New meanings developed in one part of speech are passed on to other parts of speech from the same lexical base.eg.diplomatic (外交的，外交上的)which had earlier meant only “skillful in managing international relations,”had by 1826 developed the sense of “tactful in the management of relations of any kind ;artful management it dealing with others.” By 1848，this new meaning had been passed on to the noun diplomacy. （外交；外交手腕；交际手段）E.Psychological cause 心理学上的原因*Three formsa)Euphemism委婉People have a tendency to use mild, agreeable language when speaking of an unpleasant or embarrassing fact (such as death, disease, unfortunate events or crime), and of taboo subjects as sex and the excretive processes of the body.eg. hence death and things related to death-to pass away-to breathe one’s last -to cease to think-to fall asleep -to go west-to kick the bucket -to be no moreb)Grandiloquence 夸张Grandiloquence refers to the use of long, important-sounding words for effort .The desire to upgrade or raise the social status of a position, occupation, or institution by changing its common name to one felt to confer greater dignity or importance is another psychological factor in the change of word meaning.eg.janitor看门人；守卫；门警–custodian管理人；监护人；保管人gardener园丁；花匠；园艺家–landscape architect造园技师；环境美化设计家reform school教养院；少年犯管教所–community home少年感化院；c)Cynicism 嘲讽Cynicism: the desire to sneer and to be sarcastic.eg .pious虔诚的；敬神的；可嘉的；尽责的--hypocritically virtuous 伪善地善良fanatic狂热的；盲信的—unreasonably enthusiastic ,almost approaching to madnessgrandiloquent夸张的；夸大的；大言不惭的—pompous in language ;given to beautiful talk sanctimonious假装虔诚的；假装圣洁的；假装诚实的–devout ,holy or sacre d9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic ChangeA.Restriction of meaning (specialization) 词义的缩小/具体化♦Restriction of meaning means that a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow , specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted.B.Extension of meaning (generalization) 词义的扩大/普遍化♦Extension of meaning: means the widening of a word’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.*Two main reasons for this tendency :1. The predominant developmental trend is in the direction of differentiation rather than ofsynthesis;2. Related to the first ,is that the formation of general concepts from specific terms is of lesserimportance in non-scientific communication though it is rather a characteristic of scientific endeavor .C. Degeneration of meaning (pejoration) 词义的降格/语义转贬 ♦ Two main forms:1. The failing of word meaning into disrepute, for one reason or another . eg. silly1) Originated from the ASs œlig meaning “blessing and happy ”2) Since the blessed people are usually those innocent of evil ,the word came to mean “innocent ” inthe 17th century3) As innocent people are so often those leading simple lives, it later came to mean “simple ” and“simple-minded ”, which is often associated with “lack of intelligence ” 4) hence the modern meaning of the word silly :“foolish ”.2. This form may take the form of the gradual extension to so many senses that any particular meaning which a word may have had is completely lost.*This form refers to the weakening of meaning resulting from habitual use of particular words on unsuitable occasions.D. Elevation of meaning (amelioration) 词义的升格/语义改良♦ Elevation of meaning: a word meaning takes a turn for the better in the course of time, and haseither risen from a “snarl ” word to a “purr ” word ,or from a slang term to a common word.9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of WordsA. Metaphor隐喻，暗喻♦Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on association of similarity, in which a word or a phrase ordinarily and primarily used for one thing in applied to another, a process which often results in semantic change or figurative extension of meaning.eg. food for thought ,a heart of stone ;thunderous applausea cunning person –foxa beautiful woman –vision美景♦Two types:a)The similarity between tenor and vehicle may be based on likeness in form or appearance; on aresemblance in relative position; in quality or in function.eg. eye of a needlethe teeth of a combthe bridge of a pair of eyeglassesthe crest of a mountainb)There is one psychological process which also produces linguistic results similar to those ofmetaphor:eg. synaesthesia. 联觉“which is based on transportation from one sense to another”*Many words have been used so frequently as metaphors that their metaphorical sense have become well-established in people’s minds. They are called faded metaphors and appear as one of the word’s meanings listed in any standard dictionaries.B. Metonymy 借喻，转喻，借代♦Metonymy is a figure of speech by which an object or idea is described by the name of something closely related to it.eg. the white house –the president or for the presidential staff of the US♦Categories of metonymy:a)Sign for the person or thing signified;eg. from the cradle to the grave (for “from infancy until death”)b)Container for its contents; the place for the people occupying it;eg. the bottle (for alcoholic drink ) wardrobe (for a person’s collection of clothes)c)The abstract for the concrete;eg. the pride (of our university ) the management (for governing body ,board of directors ect.)d)The concrete for the abstract;eg. tongue(for language ) the floor(the right of one member to speak, as in “to have the floor )e) A part for the whole and vice versa;eg. a sail for a ship (as in “a fleet of fifty sail )f)The material for the ting made.eg. silver for coins made of silver (as in “£20 in notes and £3 in burglars)。

英语词汇学知识点概括总结

英语词汇学知识点概括总结
一、英语词汇学概述
英语词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究的是词汇的形成、构成、分类和运用规律等。

对于学习英语的人来说，词汇是基础，因此了解英语词汇学知识点对于提高语言水平很有
帮助。

二、英语词汇的分类
英语词汇根据不同的分类标准可以分为不同的类型，按照词性分类，英语词汇可以分为名词、动词、形容词、副词、代词、介词、连词和感叹词等。

此外，英语词汇还可以按照构
词法、语义分类和语法功能等不同标准进行分类。

三、英语词汇的构成
英语词汇的构成主要包括词根、前缀、后缀和词干等部分。

通过不同的组合方式，可以构
成不同的词汇，使得英语词汇系统更加丰富多样。

四、词汇记忆与运用
词汇是语言运用的基础，因此词汇的记忆和运用是英语学习中的重要内容。

学习者可以通
过生词本、词根词缀、语境记忆等方式进行词汇的记忆，同时要注重词汇的运用，积累语感，灵活运用词汇。

五、词汇拓展与应用
在学习英语词汇的过程中，不仅要记忆掌握基础词汇，还需要不断拓展词汇量，了解词汇
在不同语境下的应用，丰富自己的词汇库，使得语言表达更加流畅。

六、英语词汇学研究的意义
英语词汇学的研究对于语言学的发展具有重要的意义，可以帮助我们了解语言规律，促进
语言教学和翻译工作的发展，同时还可以为语言教学提供理论基础和实践指导。

总之，英语词汇学是语言学的重要分支之一，研究词汇的构成、分类和应用等方面，对于
提高语言水平和推动语言学科的发展都具有重要意义。

因此，我们可以在学习中加强对英
语词汇学知识的学习，从不同角度掌握词汇的规律和应用，提高语言表达能力和运用能力。