Unit 7_生产经营管理_经管营销_专业资料
标准化法及相关知识生产经营管理经管营销专业资料
全球化与区域化
全球化
随着全球化的深入发展，各国之间的经济、贸易和技术交流越来越频繁。标准化将更加 注重全球化的发展趋势，推动国际标准的制定和实施，促进各国之间的合作和交流。
区域化
在全球化背景下，区域化也是未来标准化发展的重要趋势之一。区域内的国家或地区可 以制定统一的标准化规则和标准，促进区域内的经济和技术发展。同时，区域化也可以
为全球化提供重要的支撑和补充，推动全球化的深入发展。
THANKS
感谢您的观看
标准化法具有系统性、科学性、规范 性、强制性和国际性的特点，能够提 高生产效率、保障产品质量、促进技 术创新和市场竞争力。
标准化法的历史与发展
历史
标准化法的起源可以追溯到古代，如中国的度量衡制度。现 代标准化法的发展始于工业革命时期，随着生产规模的扩大 和国际贸易的增加，各国纷纷制定自己的标准化法规和标准 。
产品定价标准化是实现企业盈利和市场竞争力的关键环节。
详细描述
产品定价标准化包括制定合理的定价策略、方法和流程，以确保产品价格既能满足企业的盈利目标， 又能具有市场竞争力。这需要综合考虑成本、市场需求、竞争状况等因素，以实现定价的动态调整和 优化。
销售渠道管理标准化
总结词
销售渠道管理标准化是提升销售效率和 渠道控制力的有效手段。
市场研究标准化
总结词
市场研究标准化是确保企业准确了解市场需求和竞争态势的关键步骤。
详细描述
市场研究标准化包括制定统一的市场调查问卷、调研方法和数据分析标准，以确保收集到的数据具有可比性和可 靠性。这有助于企业更准确地识别市场趋势、潜在机会和竞争威胁，为制定有效的营销策略提供依据。
产品定价标准化
总结词
准化法及相关知识生产经 营管理经管营销专业资料
Warehouse Management System _07 - Stock Receipt
Goods receiptPurposeA goods receipt in the Warehouse Management system (WMS) is the physical inbound movement of goods or materials into the warehouse. It is a goods movement that is used to post goods received from external vendors or from in-plant production. All goods receipts result in an increase of stock in the warehouse.IntegrationA goods receipt in the WMS can be triggered by several business transactions in various components of the SAP system. The corresponding reference document in the WMS triggers the goods receipt:Reference documents for goods receipt in the WMSPrerequisitesThe data in the reference documents for the goods issue in the WMS is complete.FeaturesYou have the following possibilities for goods receipt posting:∙Goods Receipt Handling With Reference to Inbound DeliveryIf you use the decentralized Warehouse Management system or Handling UnitManagement, the data necessary for creating the transfer orders is transferred from the inbound delivery. You can decide whether you want to post the goods receipt before orafter the putaway.∙Goods Receipt Handling Without Reference to Inbound DeliveryIf you want to post the goods receipt for unpackaged materials, the goods receipt is first posted in Inventory Management, from which the Warehouse Management systemgenerates a transfer requirement. Typical processes for this are, for example:o Goods receipts with reference to a purchase ordero Goods receipts with reference to a production order∙Goods Receipt Without Previous Goods Receipt Posting in IMIn this case, you put away the goods first by creating a transfer order in the WMS and not posting the goods receipt until later.Goods Receipt Handling with Reference to Inbound DeliveryPurposeIf you work with a decentralized Warehouse Management system (WMS) or Handling Unit Management, the basis of goods receipt handling in Warehouse Management is the inbound delivery . The system then creates transfer orders for putaway with reference to inbound deliveries or to handling units.Process FlowYou have the following possibilities to create transfer orders with reference to inbound deliveries:∙Entry of the inbound delivery numberHere you can create transfer orders as follows:o Via the inbound delivery monitoro Bycreating a transfer order for an inbound deliveryo Automatically in the background if you have set up the message WMTA and assigned it to the inbound delivery (see alsoAssigning Output Type WMTA to Inbound Deliveries)The SAP system creates the transfer orders from the materials or handling units in theoutbound delivery and determines the destination storage bins.∙If you have set up Handling Unit Management, you have the following possibilities for creating a transfer order with reference to a handling unit:o By creating a transfer order for a storage unito By creating a transfer order from the stock listo Automatically in the background if you have set up the message WMTA and assigned it to the inbound delivery (see also Assigning Output Type WMTA toInbound Deliveries)The SAP system determines in the background which inbound delivery is assigned towhich handling unit. The inbound delivery is updated via the transfer order for putaway.This function is also supported if the handling unit is nested and refers to several delivery items.This kind of transfer order creation is particularly suitable if you scan handling units, since you can process every handling unit individually.If you work with a decentralized WMS, you can find more detailed information under Goods Issue in a Decentralized Warehouse.Putaway Before Goods Receipt Posting1.Create an Inbound Delivery2. If you work with handling units, pack the materials (see also:Packing for Inbound and Outbound Deliveries)3. Carry out theputaway (of handling units).Confirm the putaway transfer order before posting the goods receipt. The storage unit is in the destination storage bin of the transfer order. The system creates a negative quant with the storage unit number in the source storage bin.You can enter differences when you confirm the transfer order. However, you can onlyconfirm difference in the source storage bin. If you have set the indicator TransferPutaway Quantity, the putaway quantity is reduced (see also Define ShippingControl).After confirmation the quantities are available in the destination storage bin. In this case, you can move the storage unit within the warehouse. However, you can only removepartial quantities or pick for a delivery after posting the goods receipt.4.Post the goods receipt.When you post the goods receipt for inbound delivery, the system deletes the negativequants in the goods receipt area and makes a note in the storage unit that partialwithdrawal is now possible. You can now post the goods receipt for the entire inbounddelivery.Goods Receipt Posting Before Putaway1.Create an Inbound Delivery2. If you work with handling units, pack the materials (see also:Packing for Inbound and Outbound Deliveries)3.Post the goods receipt.4.Carry out the putaway (of handling units).Manual Creation of Transfer Orders for Putaway UseYou can also create transfer orders manually if you have a goods movement that only involves internal transfer of goods.Procedure1. If you wish to manually create a transfer order for a transfer requirement, choose fromthe SAP menu Logistics → Logistics Execution→ Inbound Process → Goods Receipt for Purchase Order, Order, Other Transactions → Putaway → Create Transfer Order → For Transfer Requirement.If you wish to manually create a transfer order for a material document, choose from the SAP menu Logistics → Logistics Execution→ Inbound Process → Goods Receipt forPurchase Order, Order, Other Transactions → Putaway → Create Transfer Order → For Material Document.If you wish to manually create a transfer order for an inbound delivery, choose from the SAP menu Logistics → Logistics Execution→ Inbound Process → Goods Receipt forPurchase Order, Order, Other Transactions → Putaway → Create Transfer Order → For Inbound Delivery.If you want to manually create a transfer order without a source object, choose from the SAP menu Logistics → Logistics Execution → Internal Whse Processes → StockTransfer → Create Transfer Order → No Source Object.2.Enter the required data and choose Continue.You cano Enter palletization data to have the goods ready for being set to storage status.o Enter the destination bin manually.o Add the material to stock in storage bins where there are already quants of the same material. Choose Add to Existing Stock.If you choose Putaway background, the system will create the destination storage bin.If you process the transfer requirement in the foreground, you can change the destination storage bin proposed by the system.You receive a list of all bins where this material is already stored and where you can add to the existing stock. Here you can select bins for calculation of the respective additional stock quantity, or you can enter the open quantity to be added to the existing stock.If the capacity check is not active for the storage bin, the column Available capacity remains empty.If you select bins and choose Max.quantity to be added to stock, the system adds the open quantity to the Column Qty to be added from top to bottom based on the available capacity for the bins.If the quantity shown in the Available capacity column is displayed as a decimalnumber, you may need to manually adjust the quantity calculated by the system in the Qty to be added field. If the open quantity to be added is 200 pieces, forexample, and the available capacity is shown as 123,648 pieces, you need tocorrect the quantity in the Qty to be added column to 123 pieces.3. To post the transfer order to the database, choose Transfer order → Post.Processing ReturnsPurposeUsing this process, you can put rejected goods from a return back into your warehouse.Prerequisites∙You have created and released a return for a complaint.For more information, see Creating Returns.∙You have flagged the item category for returns deliveries as relevant for picking in the Customizing for Shipping under Picking →Define Relevant Item Categories.Process Flow1. You create a returns delivery for the return.If you use Handling Unit Management (HUM) and you want to put away the goods in a HU-managed storage location, pack the goods.2.You create a transfer order based on the (returns) delivery.When the transfer order is created, the system determines the destination bin for thematerial to be putaway on the basis of predifined putaway strategies.3.You put away the goods and confirm the transfer order.4.You post the goods receipt for the (returns) delivery.Goods Receipt Handling Without Reference to Inbound DeliveryPurposeIf you only want to post the goods receipt for materials that are not packed (that is, not in handling units) and you do not want to use the decentralized Warehouse Management system, you post the goods receipt in Inventory Management. The Warehouse Management system then generates a transfer requirement.Process FlowWhen goods are received in the warehouse, the processes that take place in Warehouse Management (WM) are generally automatic and transparent to the user. From the time a dock worker scans a bar code on the container slip until the goods are putaway in a storage bin within the warehouse, WM records of all the transactions for a material. The system can automatically execute all of the necessary steps – from posting the goods receipt in Inventory Management (MM-IM) to confirming the movement. The individual steps in this process are:1.To trigger the transactions necessary for goods receipt in WM, post the good issue inInventory Management (see also: Goods Receipt in Inventory Management).2.As a result of stock posting, the system creates a quant in a storage bin in a goodsreceipt interim storage area and creates a transfer request in WM.(For more information about types of interim storage areas, see WM Interface toInventory Management (IM).)3.The system then (automatically) creates a transfer order on the basis of the information inthe transfer request.ing a predetermined search strategy, the system determines the storage bin in whichthe goods are to be stored and divides them into pallets.5.The transfer order is used to transfer the goods from the interim storage bin in the goodsreceipt area zone to one or more storage bins in the warehouse.6.The warehouse worker confirms the transfer of the goods. He can enter this manuallyinto the system or automatically by using RF equipment to scan the bar code on thecontainer.Differences between the quantity requested and the quantity transferred into thewarehouse are recorded in WM. You must post these in IM later.ResultThe goods receipt process is complete.ExampleThe following figure shows a possible scenario for an inbound movement in conjunction with a transfer order (TO). This example shows the processes in the warehouse and in WM for a goods receipt.Creating Transfer Orders Immediately at the IM PostingUseYou can set up your system so that transfer orders are created immediately in the background when you post material documents in the Inventory Management component. PrerequisitesYou have set up automatic transfer order creation in the system. You have assigned mail message recipients separately for each movement type.You can define these settings in Customizing for Warehouse Management under Interfaces →Inventory Management→ Define Movement Types →LE-WM Interface inventory management in the TR Create transf. requirement field.FeaturesYou create material documents in Inventory Management (IM) as usual. The Warehouse Management system (WMS) then creates the relevant transfer requirements and posting change notices automatically if this function is included in the relevant WM movement type.If the following conditions are met, the system immediately creates a transfer order for a material posting in Inventory Management (MM-IM)When you post a material document in IM, and movement types both "with" and "without" automatic transfer order creation exist in that document, the system does not start the automatic transfer order creation program. Instead, it goes directly to the screen for creating a transfer order for a material document.If the system does not create a transfer order automatically, even though youhave set the indicator for Automatic TO creation in the transport requirementsheader you should set up your system so that it sends a mail message to a userin cases like these. The user can then process the error from within the message. ActivitiesIf direct transfer order creation is not possible, you have to create the transfer order for the material document manually.Goods Receipt Without Previous Goods Receipt Posting in IMPurposeYou put goods away by creating a transfer order in the Warehouse Management system (LE-WM) first, without posting a goods receipt in Inventory Management (MM-IM) first.PrerequisitesYou use SAP Inventory Management (MM-IM).You have made the following settings in the Customizing for Warehouse Management:∙You have not set the indicator TR (for automatic creation of transfer requirement) for the relevant WM reference movement type under Interfaces → Inventory Management →Define Movement Types →LE-WM Interface inventory management.∙You use a special movement indicator for when you want to make an exception and activate automatic transfer requirement creation for this movement type. To do this,define a new movement type, assign a special movement indicator to the new movement type and set the indicator TB (for automatic creation of transfer requirement)∙Negative stock is allowed in the interface storage type.To do this, choose the menu path Master Data→ Define Storage Type in theCustomizing for Warehouse Management and set the indicator Allow negative stock. Process Flow1. The goods to be put away are in the goods receipt interim storage area of yourwarehouse.2. You create atransfer order for goods putaway.When you create the transfer order, the system determines the storage bin for thematerial on the basis of a predefined search strategy.The system creates a negative quant in the goods receipt interim storage area.3.You put away the goods from the goods receipt interim storage area in one or morestorage bins, based on the transfer order.4.You confirm the transfer order and enter any differences.Once you confirm the transfer order, the goods are available in the system.You can find additional information on entering differences under handling differences.5.You post the goods receipt in Inventory Management (MM-IM).When you post the goods receipt, you increase the stock and clear the negative quant inthe goods receipt interim storage area, and a positive quant is created in the destinationstorage bin for the material.ResultThe goods receipt process is complete.Creating a TO in WM Without Previous Posting in IMThis process is explained using the transfer of a pallet from production into the warehouse as an example. The goods are brought to the identification point of a high rack storage area on a conveyor belt and are to be put away there.1.To create the transfer order, choose Logistics→Logistics Execution→InternalWarehouse Processes→Stock transfer→Create Transfer Order→No Source Objectin the SAP menu.2.In the initial screen, enter the warehouse number, WM movement type (103), quantity,material number, and plant. If you enter a storage unit type (in the Stor.unit type field), the system uses the unit type you enter instead of the storage unit type in the material master record (if available).If you have a single storage unit type, choose Goto → Single item to go to the itemgeneration screen. If you are creating a transfer order for more than one storage unit type, choose Enter or Goto → Preparation to go to the preparation screen where the systemproposes storage unit types and quantities.3.If you selected the item generation screen (for a single storage unit type), the systemproposes the destination storage bin and type, as well as the quantity of material that will be placed in the storage bin. The proposed values depend on the storage unit type andputaway strategy for the storage type, among other things. To create a transfer order that consists of only one item choose Enter. The system returns to the initial screen andissues a message that the transfer order has been created.If you create a transfer order for more than one storage unit type, you arrive at thepreparation screen. The system proposes the palletization from the material masterrecord. You can accept the proposed values or overwrite them. Choose either Goto→Generate TO item→Foreground process, or Goto → Generate TO item→Backgroundprocess, to create the transfer order items, which are displayed on the preparation screen.To save the transfer order, choose Transfer order→Post. The system returns to theinitial screen and issues a message that the transfer order has been created.The quantity is posted in WM via this transfer order. A negative quantity is posted to the goods receipt interim storage area, while a positive quantity is posted to the destination storage area. These individual quantities cancel each other out, balancing the WM total stock out to zero.Displaying the Stock BalanceIf you want to see the summarized stock overview for a particular material according to storage type, choose Logistics→Logistics Execution→Internal Warehouse Processes→Bins and Stocks→Display→Total Stock per Material (Warehouse Management) in the SAP menu. Posting Goods Receipt in IMYou complete this type of goods receipt by posting it in IM.1. Choose Logistics → Logistics Execution → Inbound Process → Goods Receipt forPurchase Order, Order, Other Transactions → Putaway → Create Transfer Order → For Material Document from the SAP menu.2. On the initial screen, enter (at least) movement type 101 with reference to the productionorder, and the plant.The stock in IM is increased via this function. Additionally a positive quantity is posted to the goods receipt interim storage area in WM. This means that the negative quantity inthe interim storage area is deleted, resulting in a positive quantity in the storage bin.Allowing Negative StockUseWarehouse Management (WM) manages negative stock in interim storage areas. If movements occur that require the use of interim storage areas, the stock balance between Inventory Management (IM) and WM must remain constant. This is made possible by posting negative stock.The system posts negative stock when a goods receipt is posted in IM before the goods receipt posting, for example.ProcedureYou can define whether you want to allow negative stock by making the relevant settings for each storage type in Customizing.1.To do this, choose Logistics Execution → Warehouse Management → Interfaces →Inventory Management →Allow Negative Stocks in Interim Storage Types →Allownegative stock for each storage type in the Implementation Guide (IMG).2.When the allow negative stock indicator is set, the system lets you post negativequants to the corresponding storage type.Additionally, you can define whether you want the system to issue an error message (E) or a warning message (W) or no message (blank) when posting negative stock. You can make therelevant setting in the activity Control of System Messages in Warehouse Management. You can determine the notification type using the parameter MSV in the user master record.1.To do this, choose System → User profile → Own data.2.Then select the tab page Parameters.3.Enter MSV in the Parameters field and enter the value with which you want to groupcertain users in the value field (for example 01).4.Choose Logistics Execution → Warehouse Management → Interfaces → InventoryManagement →Allow Negative Stocks in Interim Storage Types →Control of SystemMessages in Warehouse Management in the Implementation Guide (IMG).5.Create a new entry with the version number (Value) you have chosen and enter thedesired system reaction in the Message Category field (E, W, or blank).∙Version= Parameter MSV from the user master∙Application area= L9∙Message No.= 040∙Message Category= E, W, or blankIf the parameter MSV is not maintained in the user master, the system uses version 00.Adding Goods to Existing StockUseWhen addition to existing stock has been defined for a storage type, the system places goods in storage bins that already contain the same material. When you create the transfer order for the putaway, the system uses the storage type record to determine whether the particular putaway strategy or the indicator in the material master allows additional stock.PrerequisitesDefine that addition to existing stock is allowed for the desired storage type.1.Define the storage types in the IMG under Logistics Execution→WarehouseManagement→Master Data→ Define Storage Type.2.Select the storage type you want and choose Goto → Details.a.If you want to allow addition to existing stock generally, enter X in the Addn tostock field.b.If you want to allow addition to existing stock according to the settings in thematerial master, enter M in the Addn to stock field.If you want to allow addition to existing stock in a storage type according to theindicator in the material master, set the Allow addn to stock indicatorfor the relevant material in the material master.a.To do this, choose Logistics→Logistics Execution →Master Data → Material → Change → Immediately inthe SAP menu, if you want to change a material whichalready exists.b.Enter the desired material.c.Choose the Warehouse Management 1 view.d.Enter the plant, warehouse number, and storagetype for the material.e.Set the allow addn stock indicator in the Storagestrategies area.Procedure1. If additional stock is allowed, choose Goto→Add to existing stock in the preparation screen to display the information about thestorage bins in which the material is already being stored. This screen shows the storage type and storage bin, total stock in the storage bin and the remaining available capacity.2.On the add to additional stock screen, you can select one or more storage bins, in whichyou want to store the material.To create the transfer order item, choose either Edit→ For stock placement→ Foreground or Edit→ For stock removal→ Background.If the strategy for the storage type is set for addition to existing stock, the systemautomatically selects the appropriate storage bin.3.Once you have created the transfer order item, choose Transfer order→Post from thepreparation screen to save the transfer order to the database.Goods Receipt for InspectionPurposeFor goods that are delivered from an external supplier or from internal production, you can first of all post them to inspection stock. Goods that you have posted to inspection stock do not belong to unrestricted stock and are not available for stock removal.PrerequisitesWhen posting the goods receipt in Inventory Management (MM-IM), the quality check indicator is set on the item screen for the stock type. This means that the quant, which is created in the interim storage area, and the transfer requirements (TR) for putaway in WMS receive the stock category Q (inspection stock).To make sure that the inspection stock indicator is always set, you have defined it in the material master or set it when creating the order.Process FlowReceiving Material into Inspection Stock1. You post a goods receipt for the purchase order.2. A quant with dynamic coordinates and stock category Q is created in the goods receiptinterim storage area of WMS for the material received.3. The system creates a transfer requirement (TR) with stock category Q.4. You create a transfer order in WMS for putting away the material on the basis of the TR.5. You put the material away in the warehouse and confirm the transfer requirement. ResultYou have put away the material. However, although the material is in the warehouse, you cannot remove it from stock because it is part of the quality inspection stock with stock category Q.See also:Release from Quality Inspection StockProcessing Preallocated StockPurposePreallocated stocks are materials that you urgently need for goods issue but which are not available in the warehouse, for example materials required urgently by production, materials required by the customer, or quantities in backlog. In the Warehouse Management system (WMS), you can flag materials as preallocated stock in the system and forward them directly from the goods receipt interim storage area to the goods issue interim storage area.You provide the goods issue interim storage area with the preallocated stock via what is know as a bypass, directly from the goods receipt interim storage area. This way, you miss out putting away the preallocated stock and then removing it from storage again.Prerequisites∙You have set up the relevant movement types for the bypass in the Customizing for Warehouse Management under Activities→Transfers→Define Movement Types.There you set the Consider Pre-Alloc. Stock indicator for the respective movement type.∙You have flagged the material as preallocated stock in the preallocated stock table and entered the necessary data under SAP Menu→Logistics→Logistics Execution→Outbound Process→Goods Issue for Other Transactions→Picking→Maintain Missing Stock.In doing so, the system uses the current number to differentiate entries for the samematerial. You can enter any number as the current number.Process Flow1. During creation of the putaway transfer order, the system determines, on the basis of thesystem settings for the source movement type, whether the material to be put away is to be checked for preallocated stock.If you have set the Consider Pre-Alloc. Stock indicator for the source movement type, the system checks the entries in the preallocated stock table.2. If you have entered the material in the preallocated stock table, the system emits amessage to show that the material is preallocated stock.3. During transfer order creation, you can display information from the preallocated stocktable.4. If you choose Calculate Selected Quantity, the system transfers the open quantity fromthe preallocated stock table into the column Selected Quantity.5. You save the transfer order.ResultThe material flagged as preallocated stock is transferred directly from goods receipt to the goods issue interim storage area.If the quantity of material to be away in the transfer order is less than the quantityentered in the preallocated stock table, the system transfers the smaller quantityas the Selected Quantity and reduces the quantity in the preallocated stock tableaccordingly.If the quantity of material to be put away in the transfer order corresponds to orexceeds the quantity entered in the preallocated stock table, the system removesthe entry from the preallocated stock table when the transfer order is confirmed. Putaway Using Storage Unit TypesThe Warehouse Management system (WMS) component allows you to use a number of different storage unit types when you transfer and put away materials. You can transfer and put away materials on pallets of various sizes, such as Europallets or industrial pallets.。
starter unit1-7教学案
Unit 1 Hello主备人：执教人：执教班级：执教时间：年月日Content: HelloPeriod: 1-1Teaching aims and demands:1. To learn the letter from Aa to Nn2. To learn the useful words and expressionsGood morning /afernoon/evening, What is yoour name? My name is…/I am … How are you? I’m fine ,thank you!Key points and difficult points:1. To learn the letter from Aa to Nn2. To learn the useful words and expressions3.Introduce oneselfTeaching aids:A tape recorder, some pictuesTeaching methods:页脚内容1Task-based teaching approachCooperative learning approachTeaching procedures:Step1:1. Why learn English : the importance of learning English.2. The way of learning English.3. Sing a songA B C song4.Learn the letters from Aa—Gga.Learn the rules of handwriting of the lettersb.Write the letters on the blackboard and have them repeatc.Let the students Practise the letters again and againStep2:GreetingHello!Hi!Good morning,class.Good morning,Miss Fang.页脚内容2How are you today?I’m fine.Thank you.Good afternoon,Nick.Good afternoon,Millie.Goodbye!Goodbye!Step3:Presentation1. Learn to sayGood morning,Peter.This is Sally.She is my sister.Hi,Sally.I’m Lily.This is Nick.He is my twin brother.This is Spotty.He is my dog.This is Mimi. She is my cat.Hello, What’s your name?Hello, I am____Goodbye!页脚内容3Goodbye!看挂图或者幻灯，让学生试着脱开书本对话。
生产与作业管理(最终版)
单选题：1．第1题MRP的3种输入信息中，应将计划时间内每一时间周期最终成品的计划生产量记入（）。
A.零件需要明细表B.产品结构信息C.库存状态信息D.主生产计划标准答案：D2．第2题产品在整个生产过程或其中某个生产阶段，生产环节，投入到产出所需要的全部时间叫做（）。
A.节拍B.工艺工序的时间C.生产周期D.工期标准答案：C3．第3题编制物料需求计划(MRP)的主要依据是主生产计划、物料清单和（）A.生产能力B.库存处理信息C.生产周期D.物料采购能力标准答案：B4．第4题汽车装配线宜采用A.流水线布置B.固定位置布置C.成组单元布置D.以上都不是标准答案：A5．第5题产品在各工艺阶段投入、产出的时间与成品出产时间相比所要提前的时间称为（）A.工艺提前期B.生产提前期C.计划提前期D.销售提前期标准答案：B6．第6题少品种、大批量的生产方式在设置生产单位时宜采用（）A.工艺专业化形式B.对象专业化形式C.设备专业化形式D.加工专业化形式标准答案：B7．第7题根据不同的特点、特性可以把生产划分成各种类型。
大量生产、单件生产、成批生产的分类依据是( )A.组织生产的特点B.生产的性质C.生产工艺特性D.生产专业化程度标准答案：D8．第8题生产计划分为长期生产计划，中期生产计划和生产作业计划。
长期生产计划的任务是A.规定企业品种质量等指标B.对生产任务作统筹安排C.确立何种竞争优势的决策D.控制库存水平标准答案：C9．第9题关键作业的含义是指在该项作业上的任何延迟都会导致项目完工期的( )A.提前B.推迟C.停顿D.失败标准答案：B10．"第10题按对象专业化原则建立生产单位，适用于A.单件生产B.小批生产C.大批生产D.工程项目标准答案：C11．"第11题JIT的核心是追求A.零库存生产方式B.柔性生产方式C.大量产出方式D.EOQ方式标准答案：A12．"第12题运作过程是“投入－转换－产出”的过程，其实质是投入一定的（）在转换过程中发生增值。
07. From competitve advantage to corporate strategy
From Competitive Advantage to Corporate StrategyBy Michael E. PorterCorporate strategy, the overall plan for a diversified company, is both the darling and the stepchild of contemporary management practice—the darling because CEOs have been obsessed with diversification since the early 1960s, the stepchild because almost no consensus exists about what corporate strategy is, much less about how a company should formulate it.A diversified company has two levels of strategy: business unit strategy and corporate strategy. Competitive strategy concerns how to create competitive advantage in each of the businesses in which a company competes. Corporate strategy concerns two different questions: what businesses the corporation should be in and how the corporate office should manage the array of business units.Corporate strategy is what makes the corporate whole add up to more than the sum of its business unit parts.The track record of corporate strategies has been dismal. I studied the diversification records of 33 large, prestigious U.S. companies over the 1950-1986 period and found that most of them had divested many more acquisitions than they had kept. The corporate strategies of most companies have dissipated instead of created shareholder value.The need to rethink corporate strategy could hardly be more urgent. By taking over companies and breaking them up, corporate raiders thrive on failed corporate strategy. Fueled by junk bond financing and growing acceptability, raiders can expose any company to takeover, no matter how large or blue chip.Recognizing past diversification mistakes, some companies have initiated large-scale restructuring programs. Others have done nothing at all. Whatever the response, the strategic questions persist. Those who have restructured must decide what to do next to avoid repeating the past; those who have done nothing must awake to their vulnerability. To survive, companies must understand what good corporate strategy is.Concepts of Corporate StrategyMy study has helped me identify four concepts of corporate strategy that have been put into practice-portfolio management, restructuring, transferring skills, and sharing activities. While the concepts are not always mutually exclusive, each rests on a different mechanism by which the corporation creates shareholder value and each requires the diversified company to manage and organize itself in a different way. The first two require no connections among business units; the second two depend on them. While all four concepts of strategy have succeeded under the right circumstances, today some make more sense than others. Ignoring any of the concepts is perhaps the quickest road to failure.PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENTThe concept of corporate strategy most in use is portfolio management, which is based primarily on diversification through acquisition. The corporation acquires sound, attractive companies withcompetent managers who agree to stay on. While acquired units do not have to be in the same industries as existing units, the best portfolio managers generally limit their range of businesses in some way, in part to limit the specific expertise needed by top management.The acquired units are autonomous, and the teams that run them are compensated according to unit results. The corporation supplies capital and works with each to infuse it with professional management techniques. At the same time, top management provides objective and dispassionate review of business unit results. Portfolio managers categorize units by potential and regularly transfer resources from units that generate cash to those with high potential and cash needs.In a portfolio strategy, the corporation seeks to create shareholder value in a number of ways. It uses its expertise and analytical resources to spot attractive acquisition candidates that the individual shareholder could not. The company provides capital on favorable terms that reflect corporate wide fund-raising ability. It introduces professional management skills and discipline. Finally, it provides high-quality review and coaching, unencumbered by conventional wisdom or emotional attachments to the business.The logic of the portfolio management concept rests on a number of vital assumptions. If a company’s diversification plan is to meet the attractiveness and cost-of-entry tests, it must find good but undervalued companies. Acquired companies must be truly undervalued because the parent does little for the new unit once it is acquired. To meet the better-off test, the benefits the corporation provides must yield a significant competitive advantage to acquired units. The style of operating through highly autonomous business units must both develop sound business strategies and motivate managers.In most countries, the days when portfolio management was a valid concept of corporate strategy are past. In the face of increasingly well-developed capital markets, attractive companies with good managements show up on everyone’s computer screen and attract top dollar in terms of acquisition premium. Simply contributing capital isn’t contributing much. A sound strategy can easily be funded; small to medium-size companies don’t need a munificent parent.Other benefits have also eroded. Large companies no longer corner the market for professional management skills; in fact, more and more observers believe managers cannot necessarily run anything in the absence of industry-specific knowledge and experience. Another supposed advantage of the portfolio management concept—dispassionate review—rests on similarly shaky ground since the added value of review alone is questionable in a portfolio of sound companies. The benefit of giving business units complete autonomy is also questionable. Increasingly, a company’s business units are interrelated, drawn together by new technology, broadening distribution channels, and changing regulations. Setting strategies of units independently may well undermine unit performance. The companies in my sample that have succeeded in diversification have recognized the value of interrelationships and understood that a strong sense of corporate identity is as important as slavish adherence to parochial business unit financial results.But it is the sheer complexity of the management task that has ultimately defeated even the best portfolio managers. As the size of the company grows, portfolio managers need to find more and more deals just to maintain growth. Supervising dozens or even hundreds of disparate units andunder chain-letter pressures to add more, management begins to make mistakes. At the same time, the inevitable costs of being part of a diversified company take their toll and unit performance slides while the whole company’s ROI turns downward. Eventually, a new management team is in-stalled that initiates wholesale divestments and pares down the company to its core businesses. The experiences of Gulf & Western, Consolidated Foods (now Sara Lee), and ITT are just a few comparatively recent examples. Reflecting these realities, the U.S. capital markets today reward companies that follow the portfolio management model with a “conglomerate discount”; they value the whole less than the sum of the parts.In developing countries, where large companies are few, capital markets are undeveloped, and professional management is scarce, portfolio management still works. But it is no longer a valid model for corporate strategy m advanced economies. Nevertheless, the technique is in the limelight today in the United Kingdom, where it is supported so far by a newly energized stock market eager for excitement. But this enthusiasm will wane, as well it should. Portfolio management is no way to conduct corporate strategy.RESTRUCTURINGUnlike its passive role as a portfolio manager, when it serves as banker and reviewer, a company that bases its strategy on restructuring becomes an active restructurer of business units. The new businesses are not necessarily related to existing units. All that is necessary is unrealized potential.The restructuring strategy seeks out undeveloped, sick, or threatened organizations or industries on the threshold of significant change. The parent intervenes, frequently changing the unit man-agement team, shifting strategy, or infusing the company with new technology. Then it may make follow-up acquisitions to build .a critical mass and sell off unneeded or unconnected parts and thereby reduce the effective acquisition cost. The result is a strengthened company or a transformed industry. As a coda, the parent sells off the stronger unit once results are clear because the parent is no longer adding value and top management decides that its attention should be directed elsewhere.When well implemented, the restructuring concept is sound, for it passes the three tests of successful diversification. The restructurer meets the cost-of-entry test through the types of company it acquires. It limits acquisition premiums by buying companies with problems and lackluster images or by buying into industries with as yet unforeseen potential. Intervention by the corporation clearly meets the better-off test. Provided that the target industries are structurally attractive, the restructuring model can create enormous shareholder value. Some restructuring companies are Loew’s, BTR, and General Cinema. Ironically, many of today’s restructurers are profiting from yesterday’s portfolio management strategies.To work, the restructuring strategy requires a corporate management team with the insight to spot undervalued companies or positions in industries ripe for transformation. The same insight is necessary to actually turn the units around even though they are in new and unfamiliar businesses.These requirements expose the restructurer to considerable risk and usually limit the time in which the company can succeed at the strategy. The most skillful proponents understand this problem, recognize their mistakes, and move decisively to dispose of them. The best companies realize they are not just acquiring companies but restructuring an industry. Unless they can integrate the acquisitions to create a whole new strategic position, they are just portfolio managers in disguise. Another important difficulty surfaces if so many other companies join the action that they deplete the pool of suitable candidates and bid their prices up.Perhaps the greatest pitfall, however, is that companies find it very hard to dispose of business units once they are restructured and performing well. Human nature fights economic rationale. Size supplants shareholder value as the corporate goal. The company does not sell a unit even though the company no longer adds value to the unit. While the transformed units would be better off in another company that had related businesses, the restructuring company instead retains them. Gradually, it becomes a portfolio manager. The parent company’s ROI declines as the need for reinvestment in the units and normal business risks eventually offset restructuring’s one-shot gain. The perceived need to keep growing intensifies the pace of acquisition; errors result and standards fall. The restructuring company turns into a conglomerate with returns that only equal the average of all industries at best.TRANSFERRING SKILLSThe purpose of the first two concepts of corporate strategy is to create value through a company’s relationship with each autonomous unit. The corporation’s role is to be a selector, a banker, and an intervenor.The last two concepts exploit the interrelationships between businesses. In articulating them, however, one comes face-to-face with the often ill-defined concept of synergy. If you believe the text of the countless corporate annual reports, just about anything is related to just about anything else! But imagined synergy is much more common than real synergy. GM’s purchase of Hughes Aircraft simply because cars were going electronic and Hughes was an electronics concern demonstrates the folly of paper synergy. Such corporate relatedness is an ex post facto rationalization of a diversification undertaken for other reasons.Even synergy that is clearly defined often fails to materialize. Instead of cooperating, business units often compete. A company that can define the synergies it is pursuing still faces significant organizational impediments in achieving them.But the need to capture the benefits of relationships between businesses has never been more important. Technological and competitive developments already link many businesses and are creating new possibilities for competitive advantage. In such sectors as financial services, computing, office equipment, entertainment, and health care, interrelationships among previously distinct businesses are perhaps the central concern of strategy.To understand the role of relatedness in corporate strategy, we must give new meaning to this often ill-defined idea. I have identified a good way to start—the value chain.5 Every business unit is a collection of discrete activities ranging from sales to accounting that allow it to compete.I call them value activities. It is at this level, not in the company as a whole, that the unit achieves competitive advantage.I group these activities in nine categories. Primary activities create the product or service, deliver and market it, and provide after-sale support. The categories of primary activities are inbound lo-gistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales, and service. Support activities provide the input and infrastructure that allow the primary activities to take place. The categories are company infrastructure, human resource management, technology development, and procurement.The value chain defines the two types of interrelationships that may create synergy. The first is a company’s ability to transfer skills or expertise among similar value chains. The second is the ability to share activities. Two business units, for example, can share the same sales force or logistics networkThe value chain helps expose the last two (and most important) concepts of corporate strategy. The transfer of skills among business units in the diversified company is the basis for one concept. While each business unit has a separate value chain, knowledge about how to perform activities is transferred among the units. For example, a toiletries business unit, expert in the marketing of convenience products, transmits ideas on new positioning concepts, promotional techniques, and packaging possibilities to a newly acquired unit that sells cough syrup. Newly entered industries can benefit from the expertise of existing units and vice versa.These opportunities arise when business units have similar buyers or channels, similar value activities like government relations or procurement, similarities in the broad configuration of the value chain (for example, managing a multisite service organization), or the same strategic concept (for example, low cost). Even though the units operate separately, such similarities allow the sharing of knowledge.Of course, some similarities are common; one can imagine them at some level between almost any pair of businesses. Countless companies have fallen into the trap of diversifying too readily because of similarities; mere similarity is not enough.Transferring skills leads to competitive advantage only if the similarities among businesses meet three conditions:1. The activities involved in the businesses are similar enough that sharing expertise is meaningful. Broad similarities (marketing intensiveness, for example, or a common core process technology such as bending metal) are not a sufficient basis for diversification. The resulting ability to transfer skills is likely to have little impact on competitive advantage.2. The transfer of skills involves activities important to competitive advantage. Transferring skills in peripheral activities such as government relations or real estate in consumer goods units may be beneficial but is not a basis for diversification.3. The skills transferred represent a significant source of competitive advantage for the receiving unit. The expertise or skills to be transferred are both advanced and proprietary enough to be beyond the capabilities of competitors.The transfer of skills is an active process that significantly changes the strategy or operations of the receiving unit. The prospect for change must be specific and identifiable. Almost guaran-teeing that no shareholder value will be created, too many companies are satisfied with vague prospects or faint hopes that skills will transfer. The transfer of skills does not happen by ac-cident or by osmosis. The company will have to reassign critical personnel, even on a permanent basis, and the participation and support of high-level management in skills transfer is essential. Many companies have been defeated at skills transfer because they have not provided their business units with any incentives to participate.Transferring skills meets the tests of diversification if the company truly mobilizes proprietary expertise across units. This makes certain the company can offset the acquisition premium or lower the cost of overcoming entry barriers.The industries the company chooses for diversification must pass the attractiveness test. Even a close fit that reflects opportunities to transfer skills may not overcome poor industry structure. Opportunities to transfer skills, however, may help the company transform the structures of newly entered industries and send them in favorable directions.The transfer of skills can be one-time or ongoing. If the company exhausts opportunities to infuse new expertise into a unit after the initial post-acquisition period, the unit should ultimately be sold. The corporation is no longer creating shareholder value. Few companies have grasped this point, however, and many gradually suffer mediocre returns. Yet a company diversified into well-chosen businesses can transfer skills eventually in many directions. If corporate management conceives of its role in this way and creates appropriate organizational mechanisms to facilitate cross-unit interchange, the opportunities to share expertise will be meaningful.By using both acquisitions and internal development, companies can build a transfer-of-skills strategy. The presence of a strong base of skills sometimes creates the possibility for internal entry instead of the acquisition of a going concern. Successful diversifiers that employ the concept of skills transfer may, however, often acquire a company in the target industry as a beachhead and then build on it with their internal expertise. By doing so, they can reduce some of the risks of internal entry and speed up the process. Two companies that have diversified using the transfer-of-skills concept are 3M and Pepsico.SHARING ACTIVITIESThe fourth concept of corporate strategy is based on sharing activities in the value chains among business units. Procter & Gamble, for example, employs a common physical distribution system and sales force in both paper towels and disposable diapers. McKesson, a leading distribution company, will handle such diverse lines as pharmaceuticals and liquor through superwarehouses. The ability to share activities is a potent basis for corporate strategy because sharing often enhances competitive advantage by lowering cost or raising differentiation. But not all sharing leads to competitive advantage, and companies can encounter deep organizational resistance to even beneficial sharing possibilities. These hard truths have led many companies to reject synergy prematurely and retreat to the false simplicity of portfolio management.A cost-benefit analysis of prospective sharing opportunities can determine whether synergy is possible. Sharing can lower costs if it achieves economies of scale, boosts the efficiency of utilization, or helps a company move more rapidly down the learning curve. The costs of General Electric’s advertising, sales, and after-sales service activities in major appliances are low because they are spread over a wide range of appliance products. Sharing can also enhance the potential for differentiation. A shared order-processing system, for instance, may allow new features and services that a buyer will value. Sharing can also reduce the cost of differentiation. A shared service network, for example, may make more advanced, remote servicing technology economically feasible. Often, sharing will allow an activity to be wholly reconfigured in ways that can dramatically raise competitive advantage.Sharing must involve activities that are significant to competitive advantage, not just any activity. P&G’s distribution system is such an instance in the diaper and paper towel business, where products are bulky and costly to ship. Conversely, diversification based on the opportunities to share only corporate overhead is rarely, if ever, appropriate.Sharing activities inevitably involves costs that the benefits must outweigh. One cost is the greater coordination required to manage a shared activity. More important is the need to compromise the design or performance of an activity so that it can be shared. A salesperson handling the products of two business units, for example, must operate in a way that is usually not what either unit would choose were it independent. And if compromise greatly erodes the unit’s effectiveness, then sharing may reduce rather than enhance competitive advantage.Many companies have only superficially identified their potential for sharing. Companies also merge activities without consideration of whether they are sensitive to economies of scale. When they are not, the coordination costs kill the benefits. Companies compound such errors by not identifying costs of sharing in advance, when steps can be taken to minimize them. Costs of compromise can frequently be mitigated by redesigning the activity for sharing. The shared salesperson, for example, can be provided with a remote computer terminal to boost productivity and provide more customer information. Jamming business units together without such thinking exacerbates the costs of sharing.Despite such pitfalls, opportunities to gain advantage from sharing activities have proliferated because of momentous developments in technology, deregulation, and competition. The infusion of electronics and information systems into many industries creates new opportunities to link businesses. The corporate strategy of sharing can involve both acquisition and internal development. Internal development is often possible because the corporation can bring to bear clear resources in launching a new unit. Start-ups are less difficult to integrate than acquisitions. Companies using the shared-activities concept can also make acquisitions as beachhead landings into a new industry and then integrate the units through sharing with other units. Prime examples of companies that have diversified via using shared activities include P&G, Du Pont, and IBM. The fields into which each has diversified are a cluster of tightly related units. Marriott illustrates both successes and failures in sharing activities over time.Following the shared-activities model requires an organizational context in which business unit collaboration is encouraged and reinforced. Highly autonomous business units are inimical to such collaboration. The company must put into place a variety of what I call horizontal mechanisms—a strong sense of corporate identity, a clear corporate mission statement thatemphasizes the importance of integrating business unit strategies, an incentive system that rewards more than just business unit results, cross-business-unit task forces, and other methods of integrating.A corporate strategy based on shared activities clearly meets the better-off test because business units gain ongoing tangible advantages from others within the corporation. It also meets the cost-of-entry test by reducing the expense of surmounting the barriers to internal entry. Other bids for acquisitions that do not share opportunities will have lower reservation prices. Even widespread opportunities for sharing activities do not allow a company to suspend the attractiveness test, however. Many diversifiers have made the critical mistake of equating the close fit of a target in-dustry with attractive diversification. Target industries must pass the strict requirement test of having an attractive structure as well as a close fit in opportunities if diversification is to ultimately succeed.Choosing a Corporate StrategyEach concept of corporate strategy allows the diversified company to create shareholder value in a different way. Companies can succeed with any of the concepts if they clearly define the corporation’s role and objectives, have the skills necessary for meeting the concept’s prerequisites, organize themselves to manage diversity in a way that fits the strategy, and find themselves in an appropriate capital market environment. The caveat is that portfolio management is only sensible in limited circumstances.A company’s choice of corporate strategy is partly a legacy of its past. If its business units are in unattractive industries, the company must start from scratch. If the company has few truly pro-prietary skills or activities it can share in related diversification, then its initial diversification must rely on other concepts. Yet corporate strategy should not be a once-and-for-all choice but a vision that can evolve. A company should choose its long-term preferred concept and then proceed pragmatically toward it from its initial starting point.Both the strategic logic and the experience of the companies I studied over the last decade suggest that a company will create shareholder value through diversification to a greater and greater extent as its strategy moves from portfolio management toward sharing activities. Because they do not rely on superior insight or other questionable assumptions about the company’s capabilities, sharing activities and transferring skills offer the best avenues for value creation.Each concept of corporate strategy is not mutually exclusive of those that come before, a potent advantage of the third and fourth concepts. A company can employ a restructuring strategy at the same time it transfers skills or shares activities. A strategy based on shared activities becomes more powerful if business units can also exchange skills. A company can often pursue the two strategies together and even incorporate some of the principles of restructuring with them. When it chooses industries in which to transfer skills or share activities, the company can also investigate the possibility of transforming the industry structure. When a company bases its strategy on interrelationships, it has a broader basis on which to create shareholder value than if it rests its entire strategy on transforming companies in unfamiliar industries.My study supports the soundness of basing a corporate strategy on the transfer of skills or shared activities. The data on the sample companies’ diversification programs illustrate some important characteristics of successful diversifiers. They have made a disproportionately low percentage of unrelated acquisitions, unrelated being defined as having no clear opportunity to transfer skills or share important activities. Even successful diversifiers such as 3M, IBM, and TRW have terrible records when they have strayed into unrelated acquisitions. Successful acquirers diversify into fields, each of which is related to many others. Procter & Gamble and IBM, for example, operate in 18 and 19 interrelated fields, respectively, and so enjoy numerous opportunities to transfer skills and share activities.Companies with the best acquisition records tend to make heavier-than-average use of start-ups and joint ventures. Most companies shy away from modes of entry besides acquisition. My results cast doubt on the conventional wisdom regarding start-ups. While joint ventures are about as risky as acquisitions, start-ups are not. Moreover, successful companies often have very good records with start-up units, as 3M, P&G, Johnson & Johnson, IBM, and United Technologies illustrate. When a company has the internal strength to start up a unit, it can be safer and less costly to launch a company than to rely solely on an acquisition and then have to deal with the problem of integration. Japanese diversification histories support the soundness of start-up as an entry alternative.My data also illustrate that none of the concepts of corporate strategy works when industry structure is poor or implementation is bad, no matter how related the industries are. Xerox acquired companies in related industries, but the businesses had poor structures and its skills were insufficient to provide enough competitive advantage to offset implementation problems.AN ACTION PROGRAMTo translate the principles of corporate strategy into successful diversification, a company must first take an objective look at its existing businesses and the value added by the corporation. Only through such an assessment can an understanding of good corporate strategy grow. That understanding should guide future diversification as well as the development of skills and activities with which to select further new businesses. The following action program provides a concrete approach to conducting such a review. A company can choose a corporate strategy by:1. Identifying the interrelationships among already existing business units.A company should begin to develop a corporate strategy by identifying all the opportunities it has to share activities or transfer skills in its existing portfolio of business units. The company will not only find ways to enhance the competitive advantage of existing units but also come upon several possible diversification avenues. The lack of meaningful interrelationships in the portfolio is an equally important finding, suggesting the need to justify the value added by the corporation or, alternately, a fundamental restructuring.2. Selecting the core businesses that will be the foundation of the corporate strategy.Successful diversification starts with an understanding of the core businesses that will serve as the basis for corporate strategy. Core businesses are those that are in an attractive industry, have the potential to achieve sustainable competitive advantage, have important interrelationships。
学习麦当劳_生产经营管理_经管营销_专业资料
孕育期 婴儿期 学步期
成熟度
萌芽
青春期 发展
盛年期 成熟
稳定期 壮大
组织 演进
• 行政部 • 人事部
• 人力资源部 • 培训部
• 培训中心
• 职业发展中心（如GE）
• 组织发展部（ODP） • 企业大学（如海尔）
• 企业商学院（如HP）
• 有培训意识，但• 有专职培训岗位，开 • 已建立相对完善的培 • 组织形态上，有独立组
•摩托罗拉大学
•惠普商学院
高
高
层
社会
层
社会
中
中
层
层
供
供
基 层
应 链
基 层
应 链
内部
外部
内部
外部
说明：从2005年起，摩托罗拉大学在亚太地区说的明战：惠普商学院的成立初衷是分享惠普多年的成 略重心发生重大转移，从主要培训内部员工转变功成管主理经验，帮助中国重要客户的高层管理者提升 要为其客户、供应商、战略伙伴和其他潜在顾客管提理供水平；发展过程中客户群逐渐扩大，成为专业 培训和咨询，与更多亚太地区包括中国的企业结从盟事，商业管理及个人职业技能培养的培训机构；成 建立更广泛的摩托罗拉商业生态系统，从而促进为业企务业的利润中心 的增长
• 如何定位企业大学，关键取决于以下几个问题
－是否需要通过培训业务整合价值链 －培训业务是否对企业有吸引力 －企业是否在培训业务方面具竞争优势，如企 业知名度、课程开发能力和培训师资等
企业培训的发展阶段
企业大学的建设 时机
创业初期
创业中期 快速增长期 稳健增长期 成熟期 衰退期
• 高层
中层
基层
企业内部
缺乏效果
体系
生产与运营管理(ppt 97页)
增加的固定成本会被规模经济所吸收，从而新工艺技术也就能有力地推动 成本的降低； 任何时刻都要保持生产过程的效率，其中最重要的就是稳定，包括输入、 过程和产出的稳定，每一个环节都要流畅的运转； 产品生命周期应尽量延长，以降低单位产品开发成本，并减少对产品和工 艺技术的平均投入； 产品生命周期较长，使得有更多的时间不断进行产品改进，这又推动更大 规模市场的形成。
开发 生产 销售 交付
交付定制产品或服务 销售定制产品或服务 生产模块化产品或服务 开发模块化产品或服务 –规模经济是通过构件而不是产品获得的 —PC行业 –范围经济是通过在不同产品中反复使用模块化构件获得的 ---软件行业
生产与运营管理讲授提纲
2. 库存控制
目录
1. 生产与运营战略 2. 库存控制
1. 生产与运营战略—分销模式
直销模式(Directed selling Model)
直接销售，直接接触顾客，省去渠道环节，按顾客订单定 制；
管理重点：产品平台设计的标准化与通用化，减少零部件 品种，加强供应链管理，降低系统库存水平，提高响应速 度。
多级分销模式(Multiechelon Distribution Model)
大规模定制方式之三
---提供交货点定制
开发
生产 销售
生
交付
产
生产和交付定制部分 交付标准化部分 销售定制化产品或服务 集中生产产品或服务 的标准化部分 继续开发标准化产品或服务
–在购买时按顾客要求喷字、印图和刺绣的 T恤衫 –海尔整体厨房
大规模定制方式之四
---通过构件模块化以定制最终产品和服务
特许经营概论答案22
【判断题】包销是卖方以协议的形式给予买方在一定期间、一定地区经营卖方某一种或几种产品的权力。
选择一项：对错反馈正确的答案是“对”。
题目2标记题目题干【多项选择题】特许连锁企业人力资源培训的特点：（）选择一项或多项：a. 层次差异性b. 薪资加奖金制c. 战略投资d. 系统内克隆e. 周期性活动反馈 The correct answers are: 系统内克隆, 周期性活动, 层次差异性, 战略投资题目3 标记题目题干【匹配题】几种不同的销售方式的比较：直销企业招募直销员，由直销员直接向顾客销售商品的方式，不涉及销售权的转让问题。
答案 1一种典型的金字塔式销售模式，经营者层层通过发展人员，组织网络来推销产品（或服务）。
答案 2制造商或批发商将销售某种产品的权利授予某一销售商，由其在约定的期限和地域内销售商品，获得差价利益的一种商业模式。
答案3卖方以协议的形式给予买方在一定期间、一定地区经营卖答方某一种或几种产品的权力。
案4反馈正确答案是：直销企业招募直销员，由直销员直接向顾客销售商品的方式，不涉及销售权的转让问题。
→ 直销, 一种典型的金字塔式销售模式，经营者层层通过发展人员，组织网络来推销产品（或服务）。
→ 传销, 制造商或批发商将销售某种产品的权利授予某一销售商，由其在约定的期限和地域内销售商品，获得差价利益的一种商业模式。
→ 经销,卖方以协议的形式给予买方在一定期间、一定地区经营卖方某一种或几种产品的权力。
→ 包销题目4标记题目题干【判断题】从特许经营双方的实力讲，受许人的实力一定是弱小的，受许人的实力一定不会超过特许人。
选择一项：对错反馈正确的答案是“错”。
题目5标记题目题干【单项选择题】（）是整个特许经营企业工作分析过程的核心部分。
选择一项：a. 分析阶段b. 运行阶段c. 计划阶段d. 运用阶段反馈正确答案是：分析阶段题目6标记题目题干【单项选择题】（）是为了利于特许经营模式的复制、利用特许经营体系的管理和控制或保持整个特许经营体系的一致性，这是特许经营的优势和竞争力之一。
Information and Communication Technology
Assessment OneStudent Name: Huang Wei WeiStudent Number: 12014245603Unit: Information and Communication Technology in Business: An IntroductionUnit Code: DE3K 35Qualification: Business AccountingTutor/Assessor name: Tang Zhe JunSubmission Date：2016.10.17Candidate Coursework Declaration (Assessment Record) Candidate name............................................................Tutor/Assessor name…………………………………..Qualification ………………….....................................Assessment for Outcome...............................................StatementI, (sig.)_____________, guarantee that I will make sure the safety and confidentiality of this document and that I will not use it for commercial or collusive purposes such as photocopying or taking photographs and posting it online, selling it to or sharing it with other students, etc.I also fully understand that breaching the SQA and Ningxia University regulations will have serious legal consequences as well as university sanctions.Date_____________Outcome covered 1 and 2Assessment instructionQuestion One1.Strategic:with regard to the nature of the information required for decision making at strategic level, to tell the truth, there are information such as profitability, investment, staffing needs, future projections and market trends, which are the information referred to long-term planning, setting objectives and formulating policy. And then, if we take a conclusion, these above information are used by strategic manager without any doubt for it.Evaluation: According to the case study of Crown Catering Services, Connor wishes to introduce a number of changes over the next five years in his strategic business plan, but he is also conscious that he dose not fully know the type of information that his managers require. There are some internal and external information. Moreover, the profitability and staffing needs are the internal information needed by Connor, hr can get the type of information by financial statement and the man also needs to collect the information about market trends and that kind of information, in other words, he should collect the external information. Finally, no matter the internal information or external information at strategic level are not easy to collect, but the two kind of information are very useful for Connor to make some long term planning or setting some objectives.2.Tactical: when we talk about the nature of the information required for decision making at tactical level, there are some information to be used for budgetary control, monitoring, developing operational policies and obtaining resources, for examples, productivity, variance analysis, cash flows and budgets. Moreover, these above kind of information was collected and used by tactical manager to approach the Semi-structures problems.Evaluation:Referring to the internal and external source of information at tacticallevel, the internal source of information includes the variance analysis, the company can know the information from some professional third-party agency and external source of information consists of productivity, cash flows and budgets, the company can get these information from Cash Flow statement or other financial statements. According to the case study of Crown Catering Services, Conner can collect these above internal and external information to developing operational objectives, which will be very helpful for budgetary control, monitoring and others. That is to say, those information required are very helpful, but like the strategic required information, the tactical required information also have to take some cost to collect. 3.Operational: the nature of the information required for decision making at operational level is referred to routine activity, monitoring, ensuring effective use of resources, staffing levels, absence recording and hours worked. These information are weekly, daily, hour by hour, and every second. The operational manager use the kind of source of information to deal with the very structured problems. Evaluation:Firstly, the internal source of information can be collected from the routine activity, which is not complex to be gathered. Secondly, the external source of information can be the newspapers or even the TV Show, which is very easy for the collectors. According, Connor can raise the internal and external information at operational level from the routine activities and newspaper.parison:Question Two1. Management Information System (MIS)Definition: Management information system, the combination of human and computer-based resources that results in the collection, storage, retrieval, communication and use of data for the purpose of efficient management of operations and for business planning (SQA).Evaluation: MIS is therefore a system that converts data and information obtained from internal and external sources, and communicates it to the relevant people using the most appropriate format to allow managers at different levels within the organization to male effective and timely decision. And then there are some roles of MIS, it includes support to strategic advantages, support to managerial decision-making and business operation. However, there are some disadvantages of MIS, MIS have little analytical capability and are relatively inflexible, in addition, MIS have an internal rather than external orientation. According to the case study, Connor can use the MIS to facilitate control to Crown Catering Services.2.Decision Support System (DSS)Definition: Decision support system are interactive systems that rely on hardware andsoftware to support managers in the decision making process, for example, what-if scenarios, simulation and modelling techniques that provide you with an overview of the effects of an action (SQA).Evaluation: Decision support systems allow you to model the effects on the organization of proposed changes before you actually implement these, so the system is a mechanism for managers to assist them in the decision-making process. Moreover, DSS was created to help make tactical decisions and supports data collection, performed by transaction processing, analysis of models and presentation. However, DSS can only deal with partly unstructured problem at strategic level, there is no guidelines that are available to managers. According to the case study, Connor and his managers can deal with semi-structured and unstructured problem by using DSS.3.Expert SystemDefinition:These are system that aim to duplicate what an expert or number of experts would do in a given situation (SQA).Evaluation: The expert system incorporates some of the experience and expert knowledge of an expert within a given area of expertise. The expert system allows a non-expert to achieve similar results through a reasoning process similar to the way that a human would think. However, people perform certain tasks better than computers, for instance, problem solving and evaluating. According to the case study, Connor and his managers can use ES to help them with unstructured problem.Question Three1. The Data protection Act 1998Definition: the Data Protection Act governs the processing of information relating to individual (SQA). The Act covers the obtaining, holding and use or disclosure of information. Moreover, this Act also concerns personal information held about individuals and relates to the following: Data processed using an electronic system and information recorded as part of a relevant filling system (SQA).Analyzing: Firstly, the legislation detailing the rights of organizations and individuals relating to how personal information is collected, recorded, disclosed and processed, for example, the data protection principles. Secondly, failure to comply with the Act may result in a fine of up to 2000. Thirdly, the Act also restricts the processing of sensitive information as detailed below, racial or ethnic origin of data subjects, political views and other sensitive information related. Moreover, data subject, an individual who is the subject of personal data, is entitled to make a written request to the data controller, accompanied by an administration fee of 10 or under (1998 prices) and be given within 40 days. Finally, according to the Data protection Act 1998 “data” means information. Organization wishing to hold this type of information must obtain consent from the individual concerned.2. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1988)Definition:This legislation allows a company to safeguard intellectual property rights agai nst competitors or other people who try to benefit from the company‟s research activity (SQA).Analyzing:Firstly, intellectual property, term used to describe designs, ideas and inventions. For example, patents, trademarks, designs and copyright. Secondly, the copyright includes music, dramatics, literary work and other items. Thirdly, when the period covered by legislation has expired then the work can be used by the general public with no restraints on usage or copying. Finally, about patents, this provides the owner with a monopoly over their invention and protection does not begin until the patent has been awarded.Question Four1. Internet service providers (ISPs)Internet service providers provide access to the Internet. Most ISPs use company telephone lines to connect them to their Network service providers (NSPs) for access to their systems and features. The ISP will charge for their service and they in turn are charged by NSPs for access to their networks and systems. NSPs are oftentelephone companies (SQA). Moreover, the Internet includes the WAN and LAN.2. LANA local area network is a network that connects computer within a limited geographical area, usually within a single office or building. These are the most common types of network and are connected using direct cables. They do not require modems to connect through the telephone system like wide area networks do and each time the company expands it must expand the network (SQA).3. WANWide area networks, unlike LANs, cover large geographical areas. An example would be organizations based in different parts of a city, a different country or anywhere in the world. The internet is a good example of a wide area network (SQA).4. ComparisonThe Internet includes the WAN and LAN. In comparison with WAN, the LAN connects computer within a more limited geographical area, and they do not require modems to connect through the telephone system. The internet is a good example of a wide area network.Question Five1. The benefits of InternetFirstly, Internet can provide some valuable information and great service to individuals, organization and even countries. Secondly, Internet is a excellent data communication system for all the companies. According to the case study, Crown Catering Services consists of 20 branches that are based throughout Scotland, so that the company can use the Internet between 20 branches as it data communication system.2. The benefits of LANFirst of all, LANs can be linked to other LANs. Moreover, LANs are under thecontrol of a single authority. According to the case study, the 20 branches of Crown Catering Services can set their own LAN as its own data communication system. 3. The benefits of WANFirstly, used to communicate across wide distances. Secondly, WAN is run by several national or international organizations, unlike LANs. Making reference to the case study, Crown Catering Service can consider WAN as its own data communication system to communicate foreign companies.Question SixThreats to security of networked information1.Link virus: this virus attaches itself to the directory structure of a disk and is able to manipulate file and directory information. These types of viruses are difficult to remove because they are embedded in the affected data. Any attempt to get rid of these viruses often leads to the loss of data (SQA).2.Macro viruses: Often found in email packages, web browsers and software applications, these viruses can cause a great deal of havoc and damage(SQA).3.Hackers:These are people that break into computer systems, often to test their ability to access secure computer sites (SQA). However, there are someone called cracker, a person who intentionally accesses a computer system to cause damage or harm.4.Evaluation: Link virus and Macro virus are the computer virus, viruses are often downloaded from the Internet or through emails. These can disable systems and destroy data. According to the case study, the Virus checkers should be employed by Crown Catering Service company, and the company should also employ some hackers to resist against the Crackers.The security procedure1.Formal security policies: Organizations should develop a policy on security (SQA).2.Password:Passwords are a very common method of protecting computerized information systems(SQA). It is a simple and inexpensive way of limiting access to equipment and sensitive data.3.Data Encryption: Data encryption is an extra layer of protection for sensitive data. Modern encryption methods depend on the use of one or more keys on the keyboard of the computer(SQA). Without the correct key, any encrypted data is meaningless and of no value to a potential thief.Evaluation: In comparison with formal security policies, the password is more simple and easy to implement. According to the case study, Connor can use the password to protect computerized information system as soon as possible. And then, the company can use the formal security policies and data encryption to supplement the information safety.Question Seven1. Wi-FiDescription: Wi-Fi stands for wireless fidelity and uses a 2.4 GHZ band to transmit data. It is a wireless LAN (Local Area Network). Wi-Fi is a way to access a fast Internet connection without cables. This can be a real benefit to organizations as cabling has to be changed or added to whenever companies expand or change office layouts(SQA). Users Of Wi-Fi can enjoy Internet connectivity up to 50 times faster than dial-up connections. It is also easy and cheap to install.Evaluation: According to the case study, Connor wants to make changes to the ICT of Crown Catering Services, the Wi-Fi is easy and cheap to install, and is faster than dial-up connection. Moreover, whenever the companies expand or change office layout, it does not have to change the cables. So as far as i am concerned, the Wi-Fi is a good choice of ICT for Crown Cater services.2. BroadbandDescription:Broadband is a high-bandwidth Internet connection that transmits or downloads information 40 times faster than a standard telephone and modem. Aboutthe connection of broadband, there is no expensive equipment required and hard installation(SQA).Evaluation:Broadband can be used for video conference, online access to marketing information, online financial transaction and online sales. Moreover, broadband can provide many advantages to businesses. According to this case study, Crown Catering Services can connect the broadband via telephone lines, cables, modems and wireless networks, there are so many methods to connect broadband, and then the company can take online financial transactions and sales. Moreover, the broadband is often cheaper to run and save time. In conclusion, the broadband is a good kind of ICT for Crown Catering Services.3. Virtual Character TechnologiesDescription: Virtual characters technologies are 3D images of people that can interact online with computer users or customers(SQA). The benefits of VC includes that virtual characters are always polite and patient with customers, angry people have no effect on the service they provide, and VC are useful for improving marketing and customer services. Moreover, information is available even when staff are not by use VC, and it saves costs of support staff in call centers.Evaluation:According to the case study, if Crown Catering Services make use of VC, it will be useful for improving the marketing and customer services of the company, so that the company can do to prevent customers moving their business to rival catering companies. Moreover, the VC can save costs of support staff in call center, which can make a great influence on the financial profit.Reference:Information and Communications Technology in Business:An Introduction SQA 2013 Version 3.。
Management and Organizations
Meaning the coordination
submit a secondary main things
In general - give things and affairs appropriate size; adapt measures for the purpose.
The wrong coordination make dysfunction the organization
Top Managers
Individuals who are responsible for making organizationwide decisions and establishing plans and goals that affect the entire organization.
Introduction to Management and Organizations
Dr Krzysztof Machaczka
Bibliography
1.
2. 3. 4.
James A. F. Stoner, Charles Wankel, Management, Prentice Hall, (from third edition); R. Griffin, Management, Houghton Mifflin, (from third edition); Andrew J. DuBrin, Essentials of Management, South Western Publishing Co. James H. Donnelly, Jr, James L. Gibson, John M. Ivancevich, Fundamentals of Management, IRWIN.
(GB-T29639-2013)生产经营单位生产安全事故应急预案编制导则
生产经营单位生产安全事故应急预案编制导则（GB/T 29639－2013 2013-10-01 实施）1、范围本标准规定了生产经营单位编制生产安全事故应急预案（以下简称应急预案）的编制程序、体系构成和综合应急预案、专项应急预案、现场处置方案以及附件。
本标准适用于生产经营单位的应急预案编制工作，其他社会组织和单位的应急预案编制可参照本标准执行。
2、规范性引用文件下列文件对于本文件的应用是必不可少的。
凡是注日期的引用文件，仅注日期的版本适用于本文件。
凡是不注日期的引用文件，其最新版本（包括所有的修改单）适用于本文件。
GB/T 20000.4 标准化工作指南第4部分：标准中涉及安全的内容AQ/T 9007 生产安全事故应急演练指南3、术语和定义下列术语和定义适用于本文件。
3.1 应急预案 emergency plan为有效预防和控制可能发生的事故，最大程度减少事故及其造成损害而预先制定的工作方案。
3.2 应急准备 emergency preparedness针对可能发生的事故，为迅速、科学、有序地开展应急行动而预先进行的思想准备、组织准备和物资准备。
3.3 应急响应 emergency response针对发生的事故，有关组织或人员采取的应急行动。
3.4 应急救援 emergency rescue在应急响应过程中，为最大限度地降低事故造成的损失或危害，防止事故扩大，而采取的紧急措施或行动。
3.5 应急演练 emergency exercise针对可能发生的事故情景，依据应急预案而模拟开展的应急活动。
4 、应急预案编制程序4.1 概述生产经营单位应急预案编制程序包括成立应急预案编制工作组、资料收集、风险评估、应急能力评估、编制应急预案和应急预案评审6个步骤。
4.2 成立应急预案编制工作组生产经营单位应结合本单位部门职能和分工，成立以单位主要负责人（或分管负责人）为组长，单位相关部门人员参加的应急预案编制工作组，明确工作职责和任务分工，制定工作计划，组织开展应急预案编制工作。