后格莱斯

Sperber and Wilson’s Idea
They believe that communicative activities are cognitive activities. The base for cognition is relevance of utterances.
人类的交际活动是一种认知活动， 认知的基础是交际中话语的关联性。
Sperber and Wilson’s Idea



The greater the relevance, the less inference, therefore, the higher communicative efficiency. 关联性越大，所需的推理性越小，交际的效 率越高。 The lower the relevance, the more inference, therefore, the lower communicative efficiency. 关联性越小，所需的推理性越大，交际的效 率越低。
Leech
’s Politeness Principles


An example: Parent: Someone’s eaten the icing off the cake. Child: It wasn’t ME. 家长没有直接责备孩子，而是用了一个不定代 词 Someone ，仅仅说“有人”吃了蛋糕上 的糖粉，违反了数量准则，目的是为了维护礼 貌原则。
Sperber and Wilson’s Idea


ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
It is this relevance that makes the recipients able to calculate the reasonable implicature. 正是这种关联使得人们对说话人的意图作 出合理的推导，达到对话语的正确理解。
I. The weak points of Grice’s Cooperative Principle
1. Sperber and Wilson(1986) has challenged the cooperative principle.
2. They questioned it as the overarching principle. 合作原则是否是交际的最高准则？

III. Levinson’s Three Principles of Conversational Implicature


Levinson believes that the understanding and the calculation of pragmatic inferences can be based on three principles: quantity principle, information principle and manner principle. Levinson also divides each principle in terms of Speaker’s Maxim and Recipient’s corollary（说话人准则和听话 人推论）:
Utterance A in（1）implicates that Larry stopped the car by conventional means, such as by using the brake, but utterance B in (1) implicates that Larry has used some non-conventional means to stop the car.
How Horn’s two principles work
1. A: Larry stopped the car. B: Larry caused the car to stop. 2. A: 我想去听语用学讲座。 B: 我不是不想去听语用学讲座。

How Horn’s two principles work
Conversational Implicature and the Co-operative Principles （II）
1. The Weak-points of Grice’s Cooperative Principle 2. Horn and Levinson’s theory on conversational implicature
Sperber and Wilson’s Idea
Cooperative principle in itself can not explain why people are often so indirect in conveying what they mean; and what is the relation between sense and form when non-declarative types of sentence are being considered. 合作原则只解释了字面意义和实际意义之间的 关系，却没有解释为什么人们常要违反合作 原则，以含蓄的、间接的方式表达思想、进 行交流。
Sperber and Wilson’s Idea


5. Communicative efficiency depends on two factors. 交际的效率 涉及到两个因素 One is the amount of information conveyed, the other is the processing amount of information received. 一是传递的信息量，一是对得 到的信息的加工量
II. Horn’s Two Principles of Conversational Implicature
In fact, the quantity principle prescribes the upper limit on the utterance interpretation while the relevance principles prescribes the lower limit on the utterance interpretation.
II. Horn’s Two Principles of Conversational Implicature b)关系原则(R-principle) （基于说话人） Make your contribution necessary 要使你的话语只是必需的 Say no more than you must. (based on the principle of quantity) 不说多于所要求说的话
Sperber and Wilson’s Idea
6. In communication, there is no such a principle as cooperative principle, nor is there observation or flouting of maxims of conversation. 交际中根本不存在什么合作原则，也不存 在有意违反准则的问题。
3. They also questioned about the relationships between the four maxims. 四条准则之间的关系如何？
Sperber and Wilson’s Idea
1. Each participant in communication must make his contributions relevant to the topic or to the information that has gone before. 每一个参加会话的人所说的话都必须和整个话题以 及对方前面所说的话相关联 2. The principle by which we are able to tell coherent utterances from piles of irrelevantly connected utterances is relevance. 我们凭借本能把连贯的语篇或话语和任何堆积起来的 一系列话语加以区分时，所考虑的重要因素便是关联 性。
Sperber and Wilson’s Idea
3. Relevance of one utterance to another makes utterances coherent and meaningful. 一句话与另一句话之间的关联性把它们串成 一个连贯的、有意义的语言整体。 4. But there exist differences of degrees of relevance. 但话语之间 的关联性有程度上的差异。
II. Horn’s Two Principles of Conversational Implicature


In communication, people always tend to convey the greatest information with the least (most economic) utterances. 人们在交际中总是倾向于用最经济的话语来表 达最充分的信息。


How Horn’s two principles work
Utterance A in (2) simply expresses a conventional wish while utterance B has used an indirect way of expressing a wish, therefore it implicates that “he wants to go, but can’t”.
II. Horn’s Two Principles of Conversational Implicature
Based on the quantity principle, the listener wants the speaker to provide adequate information and to say as much as he can. If the information provided has reached an upper limit, it will help the listener to figure out the implicature that the upper limit allows.
An Example



A: What is the time? B1: It’s 10:20 B2: The mail has already come. B1 is the direct answer to A, therefore no inference is called upon. B2 involves a series of inferences before conclusion can be reached.
II. Horn’s Two Principles of Conversational Implicature



a)数量原则(Q-principle) （基于听话人） Make your contribution sufficient 要使你的话语充分 Say as much as you can (based on the principle of relevance) 能说多少就尽量说多少
Sperber and Wilson’s Idea


The speaker not only has to clearly express that he has information to offer, but also to express that what he has conveyed has relevance to the topic concerned. 交际中，说话人不仅要表明他有某种信息要 传递，更要表明他所提供的信息有某种关联。