语言学导论复习资料-推荐下载

Chapter 1Introduction
I. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.
1. If a study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be C
A. prescriptive
B. analytic
C. descriptive
D. linguistic
2. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? D
A. Arbitrariness
B. Displacement
C. Duality
D. Meaningfulness
3. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ___C_________.
A. primary
B. correct
C. secondary
D. stable
4. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because
______D_____.
A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing
B. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information
conveyed.
C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother
tongue.
D. All of the above
5. A historical study of language is a __B__ study of language.
A. synchronic
B. diachronic
C. prescriptive
D. comparative
6. Saussure took a(n) ___A____ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language
from a ________ point of view.
A. sociological, psychological
B. Psychological, sociological
C. applied, pragmatic
D. semantic, linguistic
7. According to F. de Saussure, _C___ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared
by all the members of a speech community.
A. parole
B. performance
C. Langue
D. language
8. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between
__B____ and meanings.
A. sense
B. Sounds
C. objects
D. ideas
9. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations
of the speaker. This feature is called___A___.
A. displacement
B. duality
C. flexibility
D. cultural transmission
10. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next
through __D__ , rather than by instinct.
A. learning
B. teaching
C. books
D. both A and B
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.1.
1.Duality is one of the design features of human language which refers to the
phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.
nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication.
3.The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into
permissible sentences in languages is called __syntax .
4.Human capacity for language has a genetic_ basis, but the details of language
have to be taught and learned.
5.Parole_ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
6.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some
practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as applied _ linguistics.
nguage is productive_ in that it makes possible the construction and
interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.
III. Define the following terms.
1. Syntax:The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form
sentences is called syntax.
2. Applied linguistics:In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the
application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and
learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a
broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution
of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.
3. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there
is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
4. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to
things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past,
present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be
used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the
speaker.
5. Duality:The duality nature of language means that language is a system,
which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the
other of meanings.
6. Design features:Design features refer to the defining properties of human
language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
IV. Answer the following questions.
1. A wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleven postures of the tail that express such emotions as self-confidence, confident threat, lack of tension, uncertain threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a language similar to man’s? If not, Why not?
答案1. No. Hint: Wolf’s way of expressing emotions does not present the defining features of human language. Examine them one by one.
2. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?
答案2. While speech is the vocal/spoken form of language, writing is the written form of language. They belong to different systems though they may
overlap.
That speech is primary over writing is a general principle of linguistic analysis. First, speech existed long before writing systems came into being.
Second, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds.
Third, genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.
However, emphasizing the primacy of speech is by no means to deny the importance of writing, which gives language new scope and uses that
speech does not have. First, with writing, messages can be carried through
space and time. Second, oral message are subject to distortion, either
intentional or otherwise, causing misunderstanding, while written messages
remain exactly the same whether read a thousand years later or ten thousand
miles away.
Everything considered, speech is believed to more representative of human language than writing. Most modern linguistic analysis is thus
focused on speech, different from traditional grammar of the 19th century
and therebefore.
3. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
答案3. First, linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.
Linguistics describes languages as they are and does not lay down rules of
correctness; traditional grammar emphasizes such matters as correctness
and aims to prescribe what is right.
Second, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
Third, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages (Latin patterns and
categories, especially its case system and tense divisions of past, present
and future), while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.
Linguists are opposed to the notion that any one language can provide an adequate framework for the others. They are trying to set up a universal
framework, but that will be based on the features shared by most of the
languages used by mankind.
(Traditional grammar is usually based on earlier grammars of Latin and applied them, often inappropriately, to some other language. For
example, some grammarians stated that English had six cases because Latin
had six cases. )
4. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?
答案4. According to Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the
realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and
rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete
use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it
is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to
the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does
not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from
situation to situation.
According to Chomsky, competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language
user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and
recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. However,
performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic
communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is
perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and
psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc. Chomsky believes
that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not
the performance, which is too haphazard.
Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and
his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at
language from a psychological point of views and to him, competence is a
property of the mind of each individual.
Chapter 2 The Sounds of Language
1.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they
distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. F
2. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. F
3.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.F
4.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. T
5.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of
the amount of information conveyed. T
6.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.T
7.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part
of the tongue that is raised the highest. F
8.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the
consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. F
9.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue
in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. T
10.According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels,
semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. F
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
1.Of all the speech organs, the t _1. tongue _ is the most flexible, and is responsible
for varieties of articulation than any other.
2.English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms
of p__2. place_ of articulation.
3.When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech
sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s_3. stop.
4.S__4. Suprasegmental_ features are the phonemic features that occur above the
level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.
5.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called
s_5. sequential_ rules.
6.The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_6. narrow _ transcription.
7.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i__ 7. intonation _.
8.P_8. Phonology_ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.
9.T__9. Tone_ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.
10.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_10. sentence_ stress.
III. Define the terms below:
1 Phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
2. Allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
3. International phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.
4. Intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
5. Auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.
6. Acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.
7. Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.Phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
IV.1What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?
答案. They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds
answer to the question, or will best complete the sentence.
1.The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.
A. bound morpheme
B. bound form
C. inflectional morpheme
D. free morpheme
2. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.
A. is the sum total of the meaning of its components
B. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemes
C. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase
D. None of the above
3. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.
A. the first element
B. the second element
C. either the first or the second element
D. both the first and the second elements
4. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with
other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
A. Free morphemes
B. Bound morphemes
C. Bound words
D. Words
5. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.
A. lexical
B. morphemic
C. grammatical
D. semantic
6. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.
A. have to be used independently
B. cannot be combined with other morphemes
C. can either be free or bound
D. have to be combined with other morphemes
2.Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
3.Free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units
of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with oth-er morphemes.
4.Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used
indepen-dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or
bound, to form a word.
5.Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it
bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
6.Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes
manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while
derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.
7.Prefix: Prefixes occur at the begin-ning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning of
the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. 8.Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the
original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
9.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes
are added to an existing form to create a word.
pounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or
sometimes more than two words to create new words.
V. Answer the following questions.
1. What are the main features of the English compounds?
Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.
2.Distinguish between phonologically and morphologically conditioned allomorphs.
Give examples.
Morphophonemics is an intermediary level of analysis between phonology and morphology in which the phonological regularities in the framework of morphology, especially the systematic phonological variants of morphemes and the conditions of their occurrence are described. 1) Phonological conditioning of allomorphs. The distribution of the allomorphs of a morpheme is stated in terms of their phonetic environment, e.g. the phonetic variations of the past tense morphemes, -ed, as /d/ in stayed, /t/ in heaped, and /id/ in needed. 2) Morphological conditioning of allomorphs. The morphologically conditioned allomorphs of a morpheme are regarded as irregular in contrast to the phonologically conditioned allomorphs which are regarded as regular. For instance, it is the particular morphemes rather than the sounds of the words that determine the plural forms of nouns. E.g. child: children, foot: feet.
3. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.
Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.
Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.
4. What have you learned about the topic of morphology, can you put them into practice in you English learning?
(This is an open question. No answer is provided there.
Chapter 4 Syntax
l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T7.T
8.F9.F10.T11.F12.T13.T14.T
1.Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the
combination of morphemes into words.
2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.
3.Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one
adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.
4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the
system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.
5.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of
sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
6.In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.
7.Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to
the same syntactic category.
8.Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are
allowed for.
9.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed,
namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.
10.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.
11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and
phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.
12.A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.
13.It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences
at the level of D-structure.
14.WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to
interrogative.
plex 20.embedded 21.open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.
15.A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and
stands alone as its own sentence.
16.A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to
form a complete statement, question or command.
17.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.
18.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says
something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.
19.A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the
other.
20.In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an
e_______ clause.
21.Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.
22.A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should
stay adjacent to each other.
23.P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or
another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.
24.The theory of C_____ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and
object positions.
25.D26.D27.A28.29.A
30.A31.D32.C33.D34.B
25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.
A. right
B. wrong
C. grammatical
D. ungrammatical
26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.
A. coordinator
B. particle
C. preposition
D. subordinator
27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.
A. recursive
B. grammatical
C. social
D. functional
28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.
A. how words and phrases form sentences
B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of words
C. how people produce and recognize possible sentences
D. All of the above.
29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.
A. transformational rules
B. generative rules
C. phrase structure rules
D. x-bar theory
30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.
A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions
B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase
C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions
D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary
31. The sentence structure is ________.
A. only linear
B. Only hierarchical
C. complex
D. both linear and hierarchical
32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.
A. large
B. small
C. finite
D. infinite
33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.
A. lexical
B. morphological
C. linguistic
D. combinational
34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.
A. Generative
B. Transformational
C. X-bar
D. Phrase structure
IV. Define the following terms.
35.Syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It
consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.
36.Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of
words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
37.Coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word
called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".
38.Syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to
a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrasal category) that performs a
particular grammatical function.
39.Grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are
called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom.
40.Linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic
rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.
41.Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type
into another type.
42.D-structure: D-structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement
takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.
V. Answer the following questions.
43. What are the basic components of a sentence?
Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.
Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate (compound) sentence, and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:
John reads extensively.
A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called
47. What is NP movement? Illustrate it with examples.
NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:
(A) The man beat the child.
(B) The child was beaten by the man.
B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.
Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:
(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.
(D) They seem quite fit for the job.
These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.
Chapter 5 Semantics
1. Define the following terms briefly.
semantics naming theory truth-conditional semantics
behaviourist theory use theory sense
reference conceptual meaning connotative meaning
lexical field lexical gap componential analysis
semantic feature synonymy antonymy
hyponymy meronymy semantic role。