中国文化概况复习重点资料

一、名词解释
1、the Grand Canal
The most f amous man-made canal in China is the Grand Canal between Beijing and Hangzhou,1801km in length.It Passes through the city of Tianjin and f our provinces and links f ive major rivers.The canal was open to navigation over 1000 years ago.It played and important role in f acilitating trade between the south and the north and was regarded as the country's transportation and inf orm ation"highway"before the advent of the railway.
2、the White Horse Temple
The White Horse Temple,located 21 kilometres east of the Louyang City, Henan Province,was the f irst of f i cially built Buddhist temple in China in the Eastern Han Dynasty.It was named af ter the white horse that carried the Buddhist scriptures from India to Luoyang, then the capital of the country.
3、the Book of Songs
The Book of Songs is a collection of China's 305 oldest poems f rom the early Western Zhou Dynasty to the middle Spring and Autumn Period, and is regarded as the earliest realistic literature in China.
4、the Four Literary Eminences
The Four Literary Eminences ref er to the f our pre-eminent poets of the early Tang Dynasty, Wang Bo, Y ang Jiong, Luo Binwang, and Lu Zhaolin, the pioneers of Tang poetry.Their poems, in a ref ined language, boast beautif ul tonal patterns and rhyme schemes.
5、Beijing Opera
Beijing Opera is regarded as China's national opera.Singing, recitation,acting, and acrobatic f ighting are the f our artistic means and the f our basic skills of Beijing Opera.
6、Shaanxi Opera
Shanxi Opera，the oldest of all the Chinese operas that are still in existence today, is the typical opera popular of Shaanxi Province.
7、Y ue Opera（越剧）
Y ue Opera is one type of traditional local operas that originated in Shengxian County,Zhejiang Province, but it is popular throughout Zhejiang Province and Shanghai as well as in many large and medium-sized cities throughout the country.
8、Y ue Opera(粤剧）
Y ue Opera is one type of traditional local operas,popular in Guangdong and Guangxi provinces and in Chinese communities in South Asia and America.
9、Private Schools
A private school refers to a school set up by a family, generally with just one teacher who gave individual tuition, and with neither set textbooks nor specif ied time span of study.
10、Official Schools
Off icial Schools began during the Western Zhou Dynasty, and were sponsored by the off ici al constitution called xiangxue.Only children of nobles were admitted.The off icial schooling system included a central school and local schools in diff erent admin istrative regions.The teaching materials were cent ered on The Four Books and The Five Classics.
11、Ping-Pong Diplomacy
In April 1971, at the 31st World Table Tennis Tournament in Japan, the Chinese team invited the United States table tennis(Ping-Pong)team to visit China.In 1972, the Chinese table tennis team accepted the invitation to pay return visit to the United States.The f riendly exchange between the table tennis players of the two countries opened the door to warmer relations between the table tennis players of the two countries opened the door to warmer relations between the Chinese and American nations, and become known as "Ping-Pong Diplomacy".
12、Spring Festival
Spring Festival, also called the Chinese New Y ear,is China's most important f estival that falls on the 1st day of the 1st lunar month each year.Family members gather just as they do f or Christmas in the West.
13、Lantern Festival
The Lantern Festival, celebrated on the 15t h day of the f irst lunar month, is closely related to the Spring Festival.It marks the end of the New Y ear cel ebrations, f ollowing which lif e returns to normal.
14、the Silk Road
The Silk Road was the main trade route running through Asia in ancient times.It started f rom the Weishui V alley in the east and ended on the east coast of the Mediterranean,f rom where it led to various places around Europe.From the Western Han Dynasty on,China and the West was f ormed, and cultural exchanges and f ri endly visits were promoted.
15、Chinese batik
Batik is a traditional Chinese f olk art, which combines painting and dyeing.It presents a variety of ethnic styles and is most popular among the Buyi, the Miao and the Y ao ethnic group.
16、Huabiao
Huabiao are paired ceremonial columns erected in front of palace or tomb, usually carved with dragon and phoenix patterns, with a transverse-engraved stone slab on its top.
17、the Bund
The 1.5 km belt along the Huangpu River between Waibaidu Bridge and East Y an'an Road is called the Bund.Here, those European-style buildings, once housed f oreign consulates,banks ,commercial f irms and newspaper off ices, are still in use today.When evening comes, the banks of the Huangpu River are busy with strolling young couples and throngs of f oreign tourists.
二、简答
1、The development of ancient C hinese philosophy
In general,ancient Chinese philosophy progresses through the f ollowing periods:
①The philosophy in pre-Qin times
The philosophy in pre-Qin times was marked by the emergence of various anci ent philosophical views.The most inf luential schools were Conf uci anism,Taoism, Mohism and Legalism.
②The orthodox philosophy during the Han Dynasty
③Metaphysics during the Wei and Jin dynasties
④The Buddhist philosophy during the Sui and Tang dynasties
⑤Neo-Conf uci anism in Song and Ming dynasties
⑥Application philosophy in the Ming and Qing dynasties
2、The Features of C hinese food
①colour, aroma, and taste
②cooling method
③seasonings
④Y in-yang principle
⑤Medicinal f unction
⑥Eight Regional Cuisines
4、The classification of C hinese Tea
Although there are hundreds of varieties of Chinese tea, they can be classi f i ed into f ive basic categories according to the different techinque involved in processing the tea.The f ive types are green tea, black tea, oolong tea,compressed tea, and scented tea.Some minor types are white tea and yellow tea.
The Development of C hinese Philosophy（中国哲学的发展）
⏹The philosophy in Pre-Qin times (先秦子学)
⏹The orthodox philosophy during the Han Dynasty (两汉经学)
⏹Metaphysics during the Wei and Jin dynasties (魏晋玄学)
⏹The buddhist philosophy during the Sui and Tang dynasties (隋唐佛学)
⏹Neo-confucianism in Song and Ming dynasties (宋明理学)
⏹Application philosophy in the Ming and Qing dynasties (明清实学)
Chinese Religions（中国的宗教）
⏹Indigenous（本土的）：Taoist Religion（道教）
When the Eight Immortals cross the sea,each demongstrates his/her divine power(八仙过海，各显神通).
Dragon-Tiger Mountain is recognised as the most sacred mountain of the Taoist religion.It is the birthplace of the Taoist religion.
⏹Foreign：Buddhism，Islam，Christianity
Buddhism(佛教)
▪During the Sui and Tang dynasties, Buddhism entered its golden age.
▪The theory of Buddhism is based on the theory of samsara (轮回)，meaning that living beings orbit around the six spheres of heaven, hell and earth, just like an ever-turning wheel. The path of a Buddhist is to achieve enlightment.
▪The cornerstone(观点) of Buddhist philosophy is the view that all lif e is suffering.
▪The doctrine of Four Noble Truths (四谛)：lif e is suf f ering, the cause of suffering is desire, the answer is to quench (抑制)desire, the way to this end is to f ollow the Eight-Fold Path (八正道).
▪The Four Heavenly Kings(四大天王) the statue of Maitreya(弥勒佛：laughing Buddha)
The Eighteen Arhats(十八罗汉)
▪Buddhism Temples
The First Buddhist Temple—The White Horse Temple
⏹The White Horse Temple, located 21 km east of the Luoyang City, Henan Province, was the f irst off i cially built Buddhist
temple in China in the Eastern Han Dynasty.
⏹It was named af ter the white horse that carri ed the Buddhist scriptures f rom India to Luoyang, then the capital of the country. The f amous Buddhist mountains:of the many Buddhist mountains, mount Wutai,mount Emei,mount Putuo and mount Jiuhua are accepted as the f our sacred Buddhist mountains in China.
Classical Literature
Dating back to 1000 B.C, the f our civilization of China, India, Egypt and Greece have produced verse in different f orms and f or di ff erent pueposes.chinese verse centred on human lif e and religion and has been one of the two orthodox genres of Chinese literature(the other one is prose).
Poetry, one of the earliest artistic f orms, originated f rom f olk songs bef ore the existence of written Chinese. Its contents evolved out of people’s everyday lif e, and ref l ected their labor and entertainment. The Book of Songs (《诗经》) and Poetry of the South (《楚辞》) are regarded as the two peaks of China’s earliest literary.
The Book of Songs (《诗经》)：
A collection of China’s 305 oldest poems f rom the Early Western Zhou Dynasty to the middle Spring and Autumn Period; regarded as the earliest realistic literature in China.
Poetry of the South （《楚辞》）：
•Poetry of the South is derived f rom the songs of the southern state of Chu during the Warring States Period.
•It pioneered romanticism in Chinese poetry.
•The verse of Poetry of the South is f reer than those of The Book of Songs. It is not f ixed to f our characters per line, and the character of“xi” (兮) is of ten put in the middle or the end of some lines.
The Prose of the Pre-Q in Period (先秦子学)
▪The prose in the pre-Qin period includes historical prose (历史散文) and philosophical prose (诸子散文).
▪Historical prose ：The Book of History《尚书》；Spring and Autumn Annals《春秋》；Zuo’s Commentary 《左传》；
Intrigues of the Warring States 《战国策》；Discourses of the States 《国语》
▪Philosophical prose：Lao Zi (Dao De Jing), Mo Zi, Mencius, Zhuang Zi,The Analects of Conf ucius(老子，《道德经》)
Han Dynasty Literature（汉代文学）
▪hanfu (汉赋)
▪Representative Hanf u：On Faults of Qin 《过秦论》；Records of the Grand Historian《史记》
▪yuefu folk songs (汉乐府民歌)
It f eatures f ive-character lines and ref lects the reality and lif e of lower-class working people.
▪Outstanding Y uef u Folk songs （乐汉府民歌）：Southeast the Peacock Flies 《孔雀东南飞》；The Ballads of Mulan 《木兰诗》
The Literature in the Wei, Jin, Sout hern and Northern Dynasties（魏晋南北朝）
▪A new genre
The stories recording spirits and anecdotes (志人志怪小说)
▪Outstanding works of this period
The Peach Blossom Spring 《桃花源记》
The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons《文心雕龙》
The Tang Poems（唐诗）
•The Complete Anthology of Tang Poems《全唐诗》（The biggest-ever collection of Chinese poetry.）
•The development of poet ry in the Tang Dynasty can be cl assif i ed into f our stages: Early Tang, High Tang, Mid Tang and late Tang
•Li Bai（李白）, the “Celestial Poet (诗仙)”, has long been regarded the greatest romantic poet in Chinese literature.
•In his poems, imagination, exaggeration, diction and sonorous rhythms are blended eff ortlessly.
•Thinking in the Silent Night 《静夜诗》
•Hard is the Road to Shu 《蜀道难》
•Dreaming of Sightseeing in the Tianmu Mountains《梦游天姥吟留别》
•Du Fu（杜甫）and his poems
•Du Fu, the “Saint Poet (诗圣)”, has been considered as the greatest realistic poet in Chinese literature.He developed a depressing and meticulous literary style.
•“Three off icers”(三吏) :The Xin’an Off icer 《新安吏》;The Shihao Off icer《石壕吏》;Off i cer at Tongguan Pass《潼关吏》
•“Three Partings” (三别) :Parting of the Newly-wed《新婚别》;Parting of the Old《垂老别》；Parting of the Homeless《无家别》
Poets in two categories: f rontier poets (边塞诗人), represented by Gao Shi and Cen Shen; pastoral poets (田园诗人) represented by Meng Haoran and Wangwei.
Fiction in the Ming and Q ing Dynasty（明清小说）
▪Four f amous Chinese classics of literature：Romance of the Three Kingdoms 《三国演义》；Water Margin《水浒传》；Journey to the West《西游记》；Dream of the Red Mansions《红楼梦》（explicit）
▪Townsf olk literature
Three V olumes of Words and Two V olumes of Slapping 《三言二拍》
▪Satirical novel
The Scholars 《儒林外史》
Strange Tales f rom a Scholar’s Studio 《聊斋志异》
Great Writers of the 20th Century（20世纪伟大的作家）
•Two peaks of Chinese modern literature
The May 4th Movement（五四运动）in 1919and the opening-up policy in 1978 have produced two peaks of literary prosperity.
Eight great writers of the 20th century：Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, Mao Dun, Ba Jin, Laoshe, Cao Y u, Shen Congwen and Ai Qing
Traditional Operas
Beijing Opera（京剧）
•Originally Beijing Opera was a form of local theatre. It then spread across the country and becam e the national opera of China.
•Singing, recitation, acting, and acrobatic f ighting (唱、念、做、打) are the f our artistic means and the f our basic skills of Beijing Opera.
•Each action by the perf ormer is highly symbolic. Feelings and ideas are of ten expressed through these symbolic motions. Sheng, Dan, Jing, and Chou
•The characters of Beijing Opera are classi f ied according to sex, age, disposition, prof ession, and social status.
•There are f our major roles in Beijing Opera today: sheng (male), dan (f emal e), jing (painted f ace, male) and chou (clown). Other Major Traditional Chinese Opera ：Kunqu Opera；Shaanxi Opera；Chuan Opera；Y ue Opera；Huangmei Opera；Y ue Opera
The Development of Traditional Education （传统教育的发展）
Private Schools
⏹A private school ref ers to a school set up by a f amily, clan, or teacher that generally had just one teacher who gave individ ual
tuition, and that had no set textbooks and no specif i ed time span of study.
⏹In the Spring and Autumn Period, private schools prevailed and many scholars of different schools of thought spread their
teaching in this way. Among them, the private school run by Conf ucius was the largest and most inf luential.
Official Schools
⏹Off i cial schools began during the Western Zhou Dynasty, and were sponsored (创办) by the off icial constitution called
Xiangxue (乡学: off i cial institutions). Only children of nobles were admitted.
⏹The off icial schooling system included a central school and local schools in dif ferent administrative regi ons.
⏹The teaching materials were cent ered on the Four Books and the Five Classics (四书五经).{ Four Books：The Great Learning
《大学》；The Doctrine of Mean ；《中庸》The Analects of Conf ucius《论语》；Mencius《孟子》；Five Classics：The Book of Poems 《诗经》The Book of History《尚书》；The Book of Rites《礼记》；The Book of Changes《易经》；The Spring and Autumn Annals《春秋》}
Higher school
Undergraduate studies cover basic courses, speci alty basic courses, and specialty courses. college and university students also have a wide choi ce of extracurri cular(课外)activities and every institution of higher learning has a student association practicing “self-managem ent,self-education,and self-servi ce.”
Ancient Science and Technology
The Four Major Inventions：Compass；Papermaking；Gunpowder；Printing
A compass vehicle (指南车) was an ancient Chinese vehicle equipped with many gear wheels and a wooden f igure that always pointed south no matter which direction the vehicle went. It’s an earlier and more primitive f orm of the compass.
Traditional C hinese Medicine（TCM）
Traditional Chinese painting, Beijing Opera, and traditional Chinese medicine are known throughout the world as the three treasures of China.
Traditional Chinese medicine is very diff erent from Western Medicine in its means of diagnosis, treatment and its composition of drugs and prescriptions(药方).
•Listening, smelling, inquiring, observing, and f eeling the pulse (望、闻、问、切) are f our diagnostic (诊断的) methods in traditional Chinese medicine.
Li Shizhen (李时珍) of the Ming Dynasty, whose monument al masterpiece, Compendium of Meteria Medica (本草纲目)，eight hundred and thirty-f ive years earlier than the next pharmacopeia(药典)in the world。

Traditional Physical Activities
1.Martial arts (Wushu 武术)
Modern martial arts consist of f ive categories: Boxing; Weapon exercises; Sparring exercises; Actual combat; Teamwork
2. Distinguished Chinese Martial Arts
Shaolin Boxing：It is the representative boxing style of the Long Boxing. Characterized by sturdiness (坚定), f ast attacks, and coordinated (协调的) f orward and backward moves. Its serial moves are mostly short and straight.
Shadow boxing：A school of Chinese popular martial arts marked f or slow and gentle movements that are designed f or def ense, strengthening of physique and prevention of diseases.
Q igong（气功）,also called deep breathing exercises, is practiced by the Chinese on a regular basis to keep f it. Literally “qi”means “air”implying “lif e f orce”. The purpose of qigong is to coordinate the health of the mind and body.
National physical fitness：Dragon boat racing;Dragon and lion dance;Kite Flying;Y angge;Horse racing;Tug-of-War (拔河) ; Rope Skipping (跳绳);Radio broadcasting callisthenics (广播体操)
Rings (奥运五环)：They represent the f ive inhabited continents, although no particular ring is meant to represent any speci f ic continent. The rings are interlaced (交织) to represent the idea that the Olympics are universal, bringing athletes f rom the entire world together.
Chinese Outstanding Competitive Sports
Table Tennis（乒乓球）
Table tennis is very popular throughout China and is popularly known as the“National Ball Game”of China.
“ping-pong diplomacy”(乒乓外交):In April 1971,af ter the 31st world table tennis tournament in Japan, the Chinese team invited the united states table tennis team to visit China. In 1972, the Chinese table tennis team accepted the invitation to pay a return visit to the United States. the f riendly exchange between the Chinese and American nations, and became known as “ping-pong diplomacy”.
Spring Festival(春节)
•China’s most important f estival f alls on the 1st day of the 1st lunar month each year. Family members gather just as they do
f or Christmas in the West.
•In fact, with so many people returning home, it is the busiest time f or transport ation systems.
•Its Origin:Spring Festival is also called guonian, which means keeping the monster Nian away. There are many legends about the origin of Nian. A popular legend f rom ancient times described Nian as a f ierce monster resembling a bull with a lion’s head. During winter, when f ood was scarce Nian would leave his mountain lair (兽穴) to eat local villagers or drive them from their homes.
•Spring Festival Couplets（春联）The Spring Festival Gala（春晚）
•Spring Festival Eve：Houses are brightly lit and a large sumptuous f amily dinner is served. Dishes such as chicken, f ish and tof u must be included, f or in Chinese, their pronunciations, respectively Ji, yu and douf u, mean “auspicious, abundant and blessed”. Niangao means “higher and higher, one year af ter another.”
•Jiaozi, or dumpling, means “bidding f arewell to the old and ushering in the new” (辞旧迎新)
Lantern Festival（元宵节）
•The Lantern Festival, celebrated on the 15th day of the f irst lunar month, is closely related to the Spring Festival. It mark s the end of the New Y ear cel ebrations, f ollowing which li f e returns to normal. The most prominent activity of the Lantern Festival is the grand display of beautif ul lanterns.
Activities：Guessing Riddles；Y uanxiao（tangyuan）；lighting and lanterns(彩灯)
Culinary culture烹饪文化)
The features of Chinese Food：Colour, Aroma, and Taste ，with taste being the most important.Colour refers not only to the beauti f ul color of the f ood, but also to the layout and design.
Cooking Methods:Time and temperature play an important role in cooking.
Seasonings:Taste mainly depends on the seasonings. There are m any tastes—salty (salt, soy sauce), sweet (sugar, honey), sour (vinegar), pungent (chili, ginger, scallion 葱), f ragrant (sesam e oil香油, coriander 香菜, wine), prickled (麻的) (prickly ash 花椒) and tangy (monosodium glutamate or MSG味精) and bitter (dried tangerine 陈皮, bitter apricot kernel 苦杏仁).sometimes the seasonings are complex.
Yin-yang Principle(阴阳准则):Each f ood has its own characteristics of yin or yang. Y in f oods are thin, cooling and low in calories. Y ang f oods are rich, spicy, warming and high in calories. Boiling f ood makes them yin; f rying them makes them yang.
Eight Regional Cuisines（八大菜系）：
•鲁菜：Shandong Cuisine, also known as Lu Cai, is f amous f or its qualities of freshness, clear colours, dedication to f ragrance and pure tastes.（Y ellow River carp in sweet and sour sauce糖醋黄河鲤鱼；bird’s nest soup燕窝汤；Dezhou stewed chicken 德州扒鸡）
•川菜：Sichuan Cuisine, also known as Chuan Cai, is f amous f or its many f lavors, especi ally f or its hot and pungent f lavoring.
(hot pot火锅；twice-cooked pork回锅肉；spicy diced chicken with peanuts宫保鸡丁)
•粤菜：Guangdong Cuisine is known as Y ue Cai Tasting clean, light, crisp and f resh.
It usually has f owl (家禽) and other meats to produce its unique dishes. （roast piglet烤乳猪；shark’s f in soup鱼翅羹）•闽菜：Fujian Cuisine, also known as Min Cai, is noted f or its light taste and sweet and sour f lavour. （tonic soup with shark’s
f in and other delicacies佛跳墙）
•苏菜：Jiangsu Cuisine, also known as Su Cai, has characteristically sweet taste. （Jinling salted dried duck金陵盐水鸭;Triple combo duck三套鸭）
•浙菜：Zhejiang Cuisine, also known as Zhe Cai, has won a reputation f or f reshness, tenderness, sof tness, and smoothness in its dishes with mellow（柔和的）f ragrance.（Dongpo pork东坡肉;Hangzhou beggar’s chicken叫花子鸡；West Lake f ish in vinegar sauce西湖醋鱼；shelled shrimps with Longjing tea leaves龙井虾仁）
•徽菜：Anhui Cuisine, also known as Hui Cai, is highly distinctive not only f or its elaborate choices of cooking ingredients but also f or its strict control of the cooking process. The f ood is slightly spicy and salty.(stewed snapper炖笛鲷；Huangshan braised pigeon黄山炖鸡)
•湘菜：Hunan Cuisine, also known as Xiang Cai, is akin to that of the chili-rich Sichuan dishes. It is also characterised by a dense pungent f lavor. Chili, pepper and shallot are necessities in this cuisine. The main cooking methods are braising,double-boiling,steaming and stewing.(dong’an chicken东安子鸡；peppery and hot chicken麻辣子鸡)
Table Manners （餐桌礼仪0
Arrangement of seats：Special guests and the elderly sit on the north side of the table or directly f acing the entrance to the room.
Toasts ：Some other toasts can be of fered: “Toast f or your health”, “Toast to our f riendship”, etc.
The courses：Serving order is f rom cold to hot. Hot entrees (主菜) should be served starting on the lef t of the seat across f rom the main guests. Hosts tend to over-order f ood to avoid embarrassment should all the f ood be consumed.
Chinese Tea （中国的茶）
The Chinese have a common saying, “Seven things in the house: f irewood, rice, oil, salt, soy sauce, vinegar and tea”(柴米油盐酱醋茶).
•Tea Classif ication：The f ive types are green tea (绿茶), black tea (红茶), oolong tea (乌龙茶), compressed tea (砖茶: brick tea), and scented tea (花茶). Some minor types are white tea and yellow tea.
绿茶：Green tea is the most natural of all Chinese teas. Green tea has the longest history with now the largest production volume and broadest production area.
乌龙茶：Oolong tea sits half way between green tea and black tea in the sense that it's half- f erm ented. Aroma ranges from light to medium. Oolong tea is the most previous.
红茶和绿茶的区别：
The diff erence is that green tea keeps the original color of tea leaves without f ermentation during processing, whereas black tea is ferment ed bef ore baking. Black tea is so named because the tea liquid and tea leaves are reddish black. It tastes sweet and can facilitate the f ostering of yang energy in the human body and erase the greasiness of the stomach.
Compressed tea: Compressed tea can be stored f or years or even decades. Aged Compressed tea has a gentle f lavor.
Tea Etiquette（茶礼仪）
•When you pour tea, the rule of“f ull cup f or wine and half cup f o r tea”should be observed.
Wine Feasts :arm-crossed wine(交杯酒)
Drinkers’Wager Game （行酒令）
These can be classif ied into three categories:general games,Literary games and contest games.
•General games
•Ladies attending banquets may play general games such as telling jokes, solving riddles and passing down a f lower to the beats of a drum (击鼓传花).
Embroidery (刺绣)
Embroidery in China includes:Shu Embroidery (蜀绣) f rom Sichuan, Su Embroidery (苏绣) f rom Suzhou, Xiang Embroidery (湘绣) from Hunan Y ue Embroidery (粤绣) f rom Guangdong. Shu embroidery is f amous f or its simplicity, Su f or its delicate stitches,Xiang
f or its rich colours,and Y ue its complicated patterns.
Batik (蜡染)：Batik or wax printing is a traditional Chinese f olk art, which combines painting and dying. It presents a variety of ethnic styles and is most popular among the Buyi, the Miao and the Y ao ethnic groups.
The Silk Road（丝绸之路）：The Silk Road was the main trade route running through Asia in ancient times. It started f rom the Weishui V alley (渭水流域) in the east and ended on the east coast of the Mediterranean (地中海), from where it led to various places around Europe. From the Western Han Dynasty on, China’s silk was exported via this route to the West, and thus a closer link between China and the West was f ormed, and cultural exchanges and friendly visits were promoted.
Chinese Bridges
The Stone Arch Bridge (石拱桥)：Zhaozhou Bridge by the mason (石匠) Li Chun.
The Zigzag Bridge (曲折桥):As a landscaping structure, the zigzag bridge is f ound in some gardens or suburban parks. It is intended to give an interesting scenic f eature on lakes and ponds.Such a bridge may have three, f ive or more zigzags. The Nine-Bend Bridge in Y uyuan Garden of Shanghai’s old town is a typical example. Crossing 30 metres of the lake, the bridge winds more than 100 metres because of its nine twists and turns.
The Pavilion Bridge (亭桥) :A component part of the art of landscape gardening, the pavilion bridge is of ten built over the surface of a quiet lake, f orming a small scenic area and providing sightseers with a place of rest, sheltered f rom the sun and rain.
Pagodas(塔) :Chinese pagodas come in various sizes and shapes. Some resemble towers, others pavilions and still others are similar to pyramids. Some stand alone, and others have been built in clusters.
Chinese Bridges
Traditional Chinese bridges, with their distinctive characteristics, varying building materials and diff erent f orms, are an essential legacy of the nation. They also occupy an important position in the world history of bridge building.
China has inherited innumerable bridges f rom her past. There are, it is said 4 million bridges if one counts the stone arch bridges alone. In the southern regions of rivers and lakes, the landscape is dotted with bridges of various sizes and descript ions.
The Stone Arch Bridges（石拱桥）
The f irst stone arch bridge nam ed Lurenqi ao(Wayfarers’Bridge) was built in the year of 282, near the ancient Luoyang Pal ace. However, Anji Bridge is the most f amous stone arch bridge in China. It spans the Jiaohe River in Zhaoxian County, Hebei Province, and
is better known as Zhaozhou Bridge af ter the anci ent name of the county. Built at the end of the sixth century, by the mason(石匠)Lichun, Zhaozhou Bridge is still being used today, making it one of the bridges with the longest service life in the world today.
On wide rivers and lakes, multiple-arch bridges were erected in stone. One of them is Lugouqiao or Marco Polo Bridge. Built in the years from 1189 to 1192 in the southern vicinity of Beijing, it is 265 metres long and comprises 11 arches with spans ranging from 16 to 20 metres. What makes the bridge f amous is the stone lions engraved on the balustrades(扶栏) on both sides. The 485 stone lions are lively and exquisite with dif ferent expressions and postures.
Stone arch bridges are strong and sturdy and are built in a great variety of shapes. Their material is of ten available locally and is highly resistant to weathering. They have long been used as landscaping structures in China. A splendid example is Jade Belt Bridge in the Summer Palace in Beijing. A stone bridge of a single span, it has a high arched back rather like the hump of a camel. Flanked by f inely carved white marbl e balustrades, it is a picturesque decoration to the place.
The Z igz ag Bridge(曲折桥)
As a landscaping structure, the zigzag bridge is f ound in some gardens or suburban parks. It is intended to give an interesting scenic feature on lakes and ponds.
Such a bridge may have three, f ive or more zigzags. The Nine-Bend Bridges in Y uyuan Garden of Shanghai’s old town is a typical example. Crossing 30 metres of the lake, the bridge winds more than 100 metres because of its nine twists and turns.
The Pavilion Bridge(亭桥)
A component part of the art of landscape gardening, the pavilion bridge is of ten built over the surf ace of a quiet place, f orming a small scenic area and providing sightseers with a place of rest, shelter f rom the sun and rain.
The Five-Pavilion Bridge in Y angzhou City, Jiangsu Province, is a f ine example of this style. Built in 1757, resembling a belt worn on the narrow waist of Slender West Lake, it has f ive pavilions. One pavilion is higher than the other f our, two on each side in perfect symmetry. The middle pavilion is the only double eaved structure. All pavilions have their f our corners upturned, with rows of titles under a crown roof. The pavilions are joined by short covered corridors, which have yellow-glazed roof tiles and green curving ridge tiles, creating a striking colour contrast.
Inside, the ceilings are decorated with colourf ul sunken panels(嵌板) and the beams and columns are carved in beauti f ul patterns.
In contrast, to the exquisite pavilions, the bridge’s supporting piers(支墩) look sturdy and rugged (粗糙的).The combination of bridge and pavilion is a masterpiece of structural complexity.
Another well-known pavilion bridge, built in 1916, is Chengyang Bridge, also known as Wind-and-Rain Bridge, on the Linxi River in the Dong Autonomous County of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region.
Its wooden body,70 metres long by 10 metres wide, rests on piers built entirely of large stone blocks. Standing above are f ive pagoda-like pavilions connected by a long covered corridor f orming a covered bridge.
The f ive-story pavilions have multiple upturned eaves as if they are about to take f light. The wall panels in the pavilions and corridors are carved with popular Dong motif s, showing the charact eristics of this ethnic group.
There are a large number of bridges with pavilions and corridors in China, particularly in the south. The buildings on some bridges are so large that they are used as meeting halls or trading markets.
Typical Chinese Structures and Ornaments
There is a variety of typical Chinese structures and ornaments and each exemplif i es China’s rich architectural heritage.
Chinese Stone Lions
In China, the lion is regarded as the king of animals and ruler of the f orest, and so it has long been used as a symbol of power and grandeur. Also, it is believed that a lion ornament can offer protection from evil spirits.
In f ront of the gates of traditional palace halls, old government off ices, mansions, temples and other houses of style, a pai r of stone lions are of ten seen standing guards. Carved f rom stone (some may be gilded or cast in iron or bronze), the male is on the lef t, his right paw resting on a ball, and lioness on the right, her lef t paw f ondling a cub. The ball symbolizes the unity of the empire, and the cub with the lioness represents thriving off spring.
Stone lions were also used to indicate the ranks of off icials by the number of lumps in the curly mane of the lion. Houses of。