Existential SentenceLecture28

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英语语法

Lecture 2 and 3 Subject-verb Concord主谓一致Basic terms:concord /agreement, subject-verb concord / agreement (SV agreement), grammatical concord, notional concord, principle of proximity, disease names, game names, subject names, coordinate subject, expressions of quantity as subject, expressions of definite quantity, expression of indefinite quantity, nominal clause, non-finite clause, relative clause, cleft-sentence, existential sentence2.1 Guiding principles指导原则:1). Grammatical concord语法一致：He goes to school on foot.Few students are really lazy.2).notional concord意义一致: The audience was enormous.The audience were greatly moved at the words.3).principle of proximity就近原则[动词单复数依其紧挨着的作（真）主语的名词的单复数]：Either my brothers or my father is coming.Either my father or my brothers are coming.Not only one, but all, of us are hoping to be there.There is no easy answer to the question which principle will be used in a given sentence. Sometimes the usage counts.The following are rules for different types of subjects or sentences.2.2 Problems of concord with nouns ending in -s:*1).disease names and game names ending in –s:2).subject names ending in –ics （physics,mathematics, athletics, tactics，etc. ）: usu sing.指学科时常跟单数动词Mathematics is the study of numbersEthics（伦理学）deals with moral conduct（道德行为）.Exceptions: 这类名词指学科以外的意义时一般多用复数：The acoustics（音响效果，而非―声学‖）in the new concert hall are faultless.Government statistics（统计数字，而非―统计学‖）indicate that prices have gone down.有的单复数动词均可：My mathematics(运算能力) is/are rather shaky(靠不住的).3).geographical names ending in -s (The United States, the United Nations, the Netherlands )几类以-s结尾的地理名称:*4. Other nouns ending in –sa. things of 2 parts: usu. pl.b. Some plural nouns ending in –s are usually followed by plural verbs. These nouns include archives, arms, clothes, contents etc. (for more words see p.32)e.g. The contents of this book are most fascinating.High wages often result in high prices.His thanks are most profuse.Exceptions: His whereabouts （行踪）were /was known only to his personal staff.The dramatics （舞台艺术）of the performance were /was marvelous.c. nouns ending in –ings: Usu Pl. The findings show that he is guilty. Her sufferings are dreadful.Exceptions: Sing. /Pl. : Tidings,doings: Where is/are the doings(那东西) to open this with?d.nouns which end in –s and whose singular and plural number share the same form (单复数同形)are followed by singular or plural verbs according to different senses（意义）of these nouns:A series of pre-recorded tapes has been prepared for language lab use.There are two series of readers: one for beginners and one for advanced students.Note:单复数同形名词另有fish, deer等，参见第4讲有关部分。

Lecture29

29.2 It as introductory word of cleft sentences
1) Cleft sentence defined A cleft sentence is an emphatic construction with non-referring it as nonformal subject. It is also called because it is formed by dividing a single statement into two separate parts each with a verb of its own. It + be + focal element + that/ whowhoclause
2) Introductory it in cleft sentences vs anticipatory it
The introductory it of a cleft sentence is functionally different from an anticipatory it: the introductory it does not stand for any extraposed subject, while an anticipatory it does. 3) Pseudo-cleft sentences PseudoA pesudo-cleft sentence is essentially an pesudoSVC construction with a what-clause as whatsubject. Eg. I gave her a handbag. →What I did was (to) give her a handbag.

Existential Sentence and It-petterns

Existential SentenceI.Structural Properties (结构特征)Task 1: Read the following sentences and note the notional subject and predicator in each existential sentence.1.There is a cherry tree in my garden.2.There are roses in the flower beds.3.There have been many such accidents.4.Was there anyone around?5.There will be a huge crowd at the gate, won’t there?6.There can’t have been much traffic so late at night.7.There used to be a church round the corner.8.There’s going to be a storm.9.There arose in his imagination visions of World Empire.10.Behind the house (there) lies a river.Task2: Identify the basic types of the following and transform them into existential sentences.1.( ) No one was waiting.2.( ) Something must be wrong.3.( ) Plenty of people are getting promotion.4.( ) Something is causing her distress.5.( ) Two bulldozers have been knocking the place flat.6.( ) Was anyone around?7.( ) A girl is putting the kettle on.Task3 Exercise 28A p327sentences.1.They planned for there to be another meeting.2.Jane was relying on there being another opportunity.3.Members like there to be plenty of choices.4.There being a bus stop so near the house is a great advantage.5.It was unusual for there to be few people in the streets.6.There having been no rain, the ground was dry.Task2 Exercise28B p329Task3 Exercise28C p329Keys:I. Structural Properties (结构特征)Task2: Identify the basic types of the following and transform them into existential sentences.1.(SV) There was no one waiting.2.(SVC) There must be something wrong.3.(SVO) There are plenty of people getting promotion.4.(SV oO) There’s something causing her distress.5.(SVOC) There have been two bulldozers knocking the place flat.6.(SV A) Was there anyone around?7.(SVOA) There’s a girl putting the kettle on.II. Non-finite Existential SentencesTask1 Read the following sentences and try to find the uses of non-finite existential sentences.1.There to be: uses as prepositional complement (if the preposition is for, it usuallytakes the “there to be” form as a complementation).2.There being: used as prepositional complement (With other prepositions, thecomplementation usually takes the “there being” form).3.There to be: used as object (this applies more often than not to the “there to be”form. There are only a limited number of verbs that can take a “there to be” form as object. These verbs include expect, mean, intend, want, like, prefer, hate, etc.).4.There being: used as subject5.For there to be: used as subject (As subject, the “there being” form is commonlyused; when “there to be” form is used as subject, it is introduced by for, eg: For there to be few people in the street was unusual. )6.There being: acts as adverbial1.It’s illegal to drive without a license.2.It was Jim that /who called this morning.3.It is surprising that Mary should have won the first place.4.It may have been at Christmas that Jim gave Mary a handbag.5.It is very warm and wet in South China these days.6.It seemed a long time before my turn came.7.It was pleasant meeting you in Longde that day.8.I made it clear that I didn’t want to speak to him.9.It happened that Xiao Li was the only witness.10.It looked as if the college is very small.11.Hop it. You are in the way here.12.If you break the law, you can’t get away with it.I Empty itTask1 Translate the following sentences, using “it” wherever possible.1.冬天，天色晚得早。

存在句练习及答案

存在句Rephrase these sentences so as to begin each with existential there:1.I ought to see another student.2.It is certain there is trouble at the factory.3.People believed that an ancient city lay somewhere in the mountains.4.We should have a stronger light on the staircase.5.I’m sure that a mistake has been made.Fill each gap with there to be or there being:6.John asked about _______ another meeting.7.It’s essential for _______ more houses built next year.8.________ no further business, the Chairman closed the meeting.9.People hate _______ queues everywhere.Translate the following into existential sentences or the finite existential clauses into the non-finite:10.Mary didn’t agree that there was no need for mothers to go out to work. (BEGIN: Marydidn’t agree about…)11.Were you disappointed because there had not been more applause? (BEGIN: Were youdisappointed at…)12. A plant needs light and water.13.We have no objection to anyone holding a meeting here.14.It is believed that there is/are a number of wounded on both sides.15.People say there is trouble on the border.16.One day it rained from morning till nightKeys:1.There’s another student (that) I ought to see.2.There’s certain to be trouble at the factory.3.There were people who believed that an ancient city lay somewhere in themountains.4.There should be a stronger light on the staircase.5.There must have been a mistake.6.there being7.there to be8.There being9.there to be10.Mary didn’t agree about there being no need for mothers to go out to work.11.Were you disappointed at there not having been more applause?12.There is no plant that doesn’t need light and water.13.We have no objection to there being a meeting here.14.There is/are believed to be a number of wounded on both sides.15.There is said to be trouble on the border.16.There was a day when it rained from morning till night.。

英汉语言对比-习题·+答案

英汉语言对比Synthetic vs. AnalyticⅠ. Answer QuestionsDirections: Answer the Questions in English briefly, with examples if necessary. 1.What are synthetic languages(综合语)? How are they characterized?According to Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, A synthetic language is “Characterized by frequent and systematic use of inflected forms to express grammatical relationships”2.What are analytical languages（分析语）? How are they characterized?According to The Random House College Dictionary, An analytic language is “Characterized by a relatively frequent use of function words, auxiliary verbs and changes in words order to express syntactic relations, rather than of inflected forms”.3.Why English language is more flexible in word order（语序）? Why is it not so inChinese?Because word order is more connected with the formal changes. If the form change is more flexible, the word order is more flexible. Chinese language is an analytic language, the word order cannot be change at random, in which the relationship between the words are closely related with word order and function words.4.What is the usual word order in English sentences? What are the nine types ofinversion in English sentences?The usual word order in English sentence is Subject-Verb-Object. The nine types of inversion in English sentences include: interrogative inversion, imperative inversion, exclamatory inversion, hypothetical inversion, balance inversion, link inversion, signpost inversion, negative inversion, metrical inversion.1. 5.What are the E—C differences in formal words（形式词）?English language is featured in its abundant function words, of which is article. Articles are frequent employed. To use an article or not, and to use a definite one or an indefinite one, makes great difference in expression of meaning. Auxiliary are more frequently used in Chinese. Chinese language contains auxiliary for tense, structural and mood. This last category is especially unique in the language for the richness for delineation of emotions, like the letters 呀、啦、哦、嘛、呢，and others.6.How many kinds of formal words （形式词）are there in English language?2.There are five types of formal words, that is:i.article, including a, an, and the;ii.preposition, like on, in, to, for, as, at, of, with, from, across, etc.;iii.auxiliary verb, like will, do, have;iv.coordinator, including and, but, or;subordinator, like unless, after, for, due to, etc.7.Why Chinese is called Tone Language（声调语言）?Chinese tone can be used for indicating the change of meaning and is not suitable for expressing the certainty, completeness, independence or finality.Ⅱ. Fill in the BlanksDirections: Fill in the blanks with the best answer you have found in the textbook.1.11.综合语的特征是经常性、系统性的运用曲折形式来表现语法关系为特征的语言，分析语的特征是分析语的特征是相对频繁地使用功能词，助词和改变词序来表达句法关系，而不用曲折形式来表达。

法律逻辑学讲义lecture

小论文： “我看法律逻辑”
（测验第一季）
要求：
1.可以自选角度，也可以另行自拟题目； 2.观点要明确，条理应清晰； 3.言之有理，持之有故； 4.须独立完成。
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2020年1月6日星期一
命题论
命题的一般特征
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一、命题的一般特征
2020年1月6日星期一
1．符号、语句、命题与判断
1.1.符号符号（sign，symbol），亦称指号或记
■ 所谓分歧，就是不一致。 ■ 任何分歧都可归约为两种：
信念分歧（the disagreement in beliefs）态度分歧（the disagreement in attitudes）
延伸阅读：[美]查尔斯·L·斯蒂文森著：《伦理学与语言》，姚新中等译，中国社会科学出版社1991年版。
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陈述与语句，有时不作严格区分。例如：
① 昨天两路镇发生一起车祸 ② 那束玫瑰很好看
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1.3.命题（proposition）
命题，就是具有真假值的语句，换言之，就是一些或真（true）或假（false）的句子。
命题的真和假称为命题的真值（truth value，简称为truth）。传统逻辑是二值逻辑，其经典命题必须是具有真、假两种逻辑值的语句。
判断总是同认识主体（断定者）相联系的（即“必问出处”），而命题则不涉及认识主体（即“不问来路”）。
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2020年1月6日星期一
2.命题的不同分类
2.1.描述命题与评价命题
法国哲学家笛卡尔（R. Descartes）最先根据命题的内容及性质不同作这种区分；
后来，英国哲学家休谟（D. Hume）对此进行过深入的探讨。

Existential Sentence

(2)The predicator may also be realized by “modal+be/have been”.eg:
There must be no more money wasted . Mustn’t there be another reason for his behavior? There can/can’t be very little doubt about his guilt. There can’t have been much traffic so late at night. There used to be a church round the corner.
(4)Apart from this,there are at least three classes of semantically-related verbs that can act as predicator.
Verbs of existence and position.such as exist,live,stand,lie Verbs of motion,such as come,go,walk Verbs of emergence or development ,such as:appear,arise ,emerge ,develop,happe n,occur,etc.
Non-finite existential clauses
A non-finite existential clauses is one whose predicator is a non-finite verb phrase .There are two types of non-finite existential clauses : There to be/(to have been) +NP+locative/temporal adverbial There being/having been +NP+locative/temporal adverbial

存在句(There be)

• Behind the village flows a murmuring stream.
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• Eg. There can be very little about his guilt. • There are many desks in the classroom. • There used to be a hospital round the corner. • There appears to be no doubt about it. • There stands a house behind the tree. • Behind the tree (there )stands a house.
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存在句的谓语动词
• 存在句的谓语动词主要是动词be的某种形式，分限定形式和非限定形式。
• 限定形式：一般现在时、一般过去时、现在完成体、过去完成体和情态助动词+不定式。除be外，某些表示存在意义的不及物动词如：exist, remain, occur, stand, lie等，能用于there存在句。地点状语前移，there 可省。
• There arose in his imagination visions of a world empire.
• Long, long ago, there lived six blind men in India.
• The existential sentence can be inverted by shifting the locative adverbial to the initial place of the sentence.
Long, long ago, there lived a king. 2). 然后有人敲门。

Lecture28

The predicator or predicate verb of an existential sentence is commonly a form of the verb be, finite or nonnonfinite, simple or perfective. The, predicator may also be realized by “modal + be/have been ” or “semisemiauxiliary + be” be” Eg. There can be very little doubt about his guilt. There can’t have been much traffic so canIntroductory there
Introductory there functions as formal subject not only in statements but also in questions, where the formal subject and operator are inverted. 2) Notional subject The notional subject, which is actually the focus of information, is usually a noun phrase with indefinite specific reference. The determiners include the indefinite article, the zero article, and other indefinite determiners such as some, any, no, several, many, much, more, (a)few, (a) little, less, another, a lot of, plenty of, a number of, enough, etc..

第6讲和第7讲存在句和IT句

It’s important for there to be a fire-escape.
2. There being a bus stop so near the house is a great advantage. 在房子附近有公交车站是个很大的优势。 3. 他们计划再开一次会议。
They planned for there to be another meeting.
This is the fastest train there is to Beijing.
This is the fastest train that there is to Beijing.
Lecture Seven It-Patterns
Three types of sentence with non-referring it as formal subject: 1) sentences with it (empty it) as formal subject denoting time, distance, and atmospheric conditions; 2) sentences with anticipatory it (anticipatory it) as subject; 1) cleft sentences introduced by it (introductory it).
A Lead-in
24. ____ to be nobody working in the room when the fire broke out. A. There happened B. It happened C. There being D. It took place
Lecture Six Existential Sentence

大学英语专业语法课件11句子类型-Sentence_Types

Negative Statements
• Consider more examples involving negation. • I don’t think that she is right. (= I think that she is not right.) • We don’t expect he will come. (= We expect he will not come.) • We couldn’t believe it is true. (= We believe it is not true.) • I don’t feel I can stand it much longer. (= I feel I cannot stand it much longer.) • The above examples show that transporting not of the main clause to the objective clause doesn’t change its meaning at all. However, it would be preferable to put not in the main clause other than in the objective clause.
• John didn’t come because of Mary. Two possible scopes of the negation render the sentence ambiguous • Negating the adverbial: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry. • Negating the predicate: Mary was the reason why John didn’t come. • I don’t love her because of her beauty. • He isn’t happy on accis good health.

章振邦语法精讲-朱磊版

Knowledge is power.
2) 冠词的习惯用法
1.Why is there ___ traffic on the streets in June than in May? A. less B. fewer C. few D. little
2.There are trees on ___ side of the street. A. such a B. both C. some D. each
5. To the dinner party all her ___ were invited. A. relation B. relations C. a relation D. the relations
6. The effort and expense needed for this project bore ___.
first, second, third,
double, twice, three times this, that, these, those,
next, last, other, another,
one-third, two-fifth,
my, your, his, her, their,
one, two, three, several, such
what, such (a/an)
Mike’s, my friend’s
many, much, more, most,
some, any, no, enough,
(a) few, (a) little,
every, each, either, neither, fewer, (the) fewest, less, (the) least,

英语语法 Statement, Question, Command, Exclamation

Devices for negative reinforcement also include "never, never", "never + auxiliary do" and some set expressions, e.g.. 1 shall never, never go there again. I never did like her, you know. You won't catch me doing that again. I'll be hanged if I'll do any such thing.

To reinforce a statement, another set of devices are available for use. These include emphasizers, reinforcement tags, double negatives as well as rhetorical questions. e.g.: Many people will certainly lose their jobs. That was a trap, that was. That kind of result is not impossible. Isn't it lovely weather today?

In negatively-orientated questions, there usually occur non-assertive words. If a negative question contains assertive forms, it is biased towards positive orientation, e.g. Haven't you heard from him already? Don't you always go to work at eight? Contracted negative questions sometimes suggest an emotion of admiration, e.g. Isn't it a beautiful lake? This is in essence not a question but a reinforced positive statement that is used to express exclamation.

英语专业语法专业术语

All sessions take place on both Mondays and Wednesdays (18-1)Week 1-3 (No lessons)Week 4 Introduction to the course: English Grammar (syllabus, teaching plan, description of assessment, self-introduction) / Introduction: Grammatical Hierarchy // Sentence structureWeek 5 Subject-verb Concord (I), (II)Week 6 Noun and noun phrase // Genitive nounWeek 7 (Sports meeting 27th, Oct.)Week 8 Determiners (I), (II)Week 9 Pronoun (I), (II) //Verb and Verb Phrase // Tense and aspect (I), (II)Week 10 Verb and Verb Phrase // Tense and aspect (I), (II)Week 11 Means of expressing future time / Passive voice (I), (II)Week 12 Subjunctive mood / Auxiliaries (I), (II)Week 13 Infinitive (I), (II), / -ing participle, / -ed participleWeek 14 Adjective and adjective phrase / adverb and adverb phrase / Comparison and comparative construction / preposition and prepositonal phraseWeek 15 Statement, question, command, exclamation / Existential sentence / It-pattern / CoordinationWeek 16 Subordination (I), (II) / Relative clause/ conditional sentence / direct and indirect speechWeek 17 Modification / substituion / ellipsisWeek 18 Postponement, fronting and inversion / From sentence to textWeek 19-20 Testing WeeksOutline for each weekWeek 4 Introduction to the course: English Grammar (syllabus, teaching plan, description of assessment, self-introduction) / Introduction: Grammatical Hierarchy // Sentence structure1. Introduction: Grammatical Hierarchy (Introduction Section)Grammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each ran is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. Thus the sentence is a grammatical unit that consists of one or more than one clause; the clause, one or more than onegrammatical unit while the morphem is the minimum or the lowest rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents—the morphemes.0.1 MerphemesThe morphese is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morpheses fall into two categories: free morphemes and bound morpheses.1) Free morphemes2) Bound morphemes3) Allomorphs0.2 WordsThe word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways:1) Classification in terms of word-formation2) Classification in terms of grammatical function0.3 PhrasesThe phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of word organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.1) The noun phrase2) The verb phrase3) The adjective phrase4) The adverb phrase5) The preepositonal phrase0.4 ClausesThe clause is composed of one or more than more phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.2) Simple and complex clauses3) Main and subordinate clauses4) Finite and non-finite clauses5) Verbless clauses0.5 SentencesThe sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can stand by its and perform a communicative function.1) Full and minor sentences2) Simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences2. Sentence structure (Lecture 1)Owing to the fact that sentences in authentic language differ structurally in thousands of ways, what is described here as sentence structure, sentence elements, or sentence patterns is only concerned with the simple sentence, or rather with the clause.1.1 Clause elementAs has been pointed out before, the clause or the simple sentence is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of ―subject +predicate‖. That is to say, the clause or the simple sentence is not just an agglomeration of phrase; it is a group of phrases organized into a con struction of ―subject +predicate‖.1) Subject and predicate2) Two ways of sentence analysis1.2 Basic clause types and their transformation and expansionIn terms of the different combinations of clause elements, English clauses can be classified into seven types. Innumberable authentic sentences are structured on the basis of these clause types.1) Basic clause types2) Transformation and expansion of basic clause typesThe basic clause types and their variants can also be expanded levels, and these larger units can again be expanded throughWeek 5 Subject-verb Concord (I), (II)Lecture 2: Subject-verb Concord (I)By subject-verb concord is meant agreement between subject and predicate verb in number.2.1 Guiding principlesThere are three principles guiding subject-verb concord; they are principles of grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity.1) Grammatical concordThe principle of grammatical concord refers to the rule that the verb must match its subject in number. If the subject is plural, the verb should take the plural form; if, on the other hand, the subject is singular or is a mass noun, the verb should take the singular form, eg:Both boys have their own merits.Every girl comes on time.Much effort is wasted.Difficulties arise when this principle comes into conflict with the other two principles: principle of notional concord and principle of proximity.2) Notional concordThe principle of notional concord refers to the rule that the verb can sometimes agree with the subject according to the notion of number rather than to the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that notion, eg:The government have asked the country to decide by a vote.Fifteen miles seems like a long walk to me.3) ProximityThe principle of proximity denotes agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject, eg:Either my brothers or my father is coming.No one except his own supporters agree with him.Neither Julia nor I am going.Note that grammatical concord is the basic principle, but when the subject is realized by a collective noun, a coordinate form or an2.2 Problems of concord with nouns ending in –sThere are quite a few nouns that end in –s but which are not countable. Some of these nouns are treated as singular, some as plural, and some either as singular or as plural. All this can be dealt with under the following headings.1) Disease and game names ending in –sNames of disease ending in –s are mostly treated as singular, but there are a few such names (as measles and rickets) which can be used either as singular or as plural.Game anmes ending in –s are generally used as singular with the exception of cards which is usually treated as plural.2) Subject names ending in –icsNames of subjects ending in –ics are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names. Compare:Acoustics is the science of sound.The acoustics in the new concert hall are faultless.Economics is a required course for all the students.The economics of the project are still being considered.3) Geographical names ending in –sGeographical names such as the names of archipelagos, mountain ranges, straits and falls are generally used as plural, except for a few treated as singular when used as country names, eg:The Himalayas have a magnificent variety of plant and animal life.The Straits of Gibraltar have not lost their strategic importance.In early January 1976, the Netherlands was hit by its worst storm since 1953.4) Other nouns ending in –sNames for things made of two parts such as scissors, pincers, etc are usually used as plural. But when they are preceded by such unit nouns as a pair of and two pairs of, the number form of the following verb is generally determined by the number marker of the unit noun.Nouns usually taking plural endings such as archives, arms and clothes are generally used as plural with the exception of whereabouts, dramatics, etc which may be treated either as plural or as singular.Nouns ending in –ing such as clippings, diggings, etc are generally used as plural with the exception of tidings which can be used both ways.There are also nouns such as barracks and headquarters whose singular and plural number share the same form. These nouns are2.3 Problems of concord with collective nouns as subjectCollective nouns are singular in form but plural in meaning. The choice between grammatical and notional concord is mostly dictated by usage.1) Collective nouns usually used as pluralThese include people, police, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin, etc.:The Chinese people are a great people.Domestic cattle provide us with milk, beef and hides.2) Collective nouns usually used as singularThese include foliage, machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise, etc.:All the merchandise has arrived undamaged.All the machinery in the factory is made in China.3) Collective nouns used either as plural or as singularThere are collective nouns that can be used either as plural or as singular. The choice of the verb form following such nouns depends on the exact meaning of the noun in a specific context. When the noun is used in the sense of a collective as a whole, the verb takes the singular form. If, on the other hand, the noun is used in the sense of the individuals that make the collective, the verb takes the plural form. Compare:The anti-crime committee is to make its report tomorrow.The committee are divided in opinion about this problem.That group of soldiers is a top-notch fighting unit.That group of soldiers have the best ratings of individual performance.4) A committee of, etc + plural nounWhen a plural noun is preceded by a committee of / a board of / a panel of, the verb usually takes the singular form, eg.:A committee of finve men and three women is to consider the matter.The board of directors is responsible for the management of the company.Lecture 3: Subject-verb Concord (II)This lecture deals with problems of concord with a coordinate construction, a quantitative expression, or a nominal clause as subject.3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subjectThe following rules are to be observed in the case of a coordinate subject.1) Coordination with ―and‖ or ―both … and‖Coordination by ―and‖ or ―both … and‖ is usually treated as plural when it refers to two or more than two persons / things, but it is treated as singular when it refers to only one person or thing. Compare:Both Pauline and Bob have gone fishing on Miramar Lake.Rain, hail and wind have caused an estimated $ 200,000,000 damage to crops and liverstock.The secretary and treasurer was absent from the meeting.Ham and eggs is a good breakfast.2) Coordination with ―or‖ / ―either … or‖, ―nor‖ / ―neither … nor‖, ―not only … but also‖Here the problem of concord is generally deal with according to the principle of proximity. But in informal style, items coordinated by ―neither … nor‖ or ―not only … but also‖ can sometimes be regarded as plural, eg:My sisters or my brother is likely to be at home.Either my father or my brothers are coming.Neither the players nor the coach was / (were) overconfident.Not only the switches but also the old wiring has / (have) been changed.3.2 Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subjectQuantitative expresssions fall into two categories: definite and indefinite.1) Concond with expression of definite quantity as subject2) Concorn with expression of indefinite quantity as subject3.3 Other problems of subject-vern concordThere are other problems of subject-verb concord that are worth mentioning.1) Problems of concord with a nominal clause as subjectWhen the subject is a nominal clause introduced by what, who, which, how, why, whether, etc, the verb usually takes the singular form. Bu t when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and or both … and, a plural verb is required.2) Subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause as subjectWhen subject is a non-finite clause, the verb of the main clause usually takes the singualr form. But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and, the verb of the main clause takes the singualr form when the subject refers to one thing, and the plural form when the subect refers to separate things.3) Subject-verb concord in relative clausesIn the construction of ―one of + plural noun + relative clause‖, the principle of grammatical concord is generally observed. Sometimes, especially in British English, in order to lay emphasis on ―one‖, the verb can be also take the singular for m. When ―one”is proceded by ―the‖ or ―the only‖, the verb can only be singular.4) Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentencesIn cleft-sentences, subject-verb concord in that- / who-clause is generally determined by the number of the focal element functioning as subject in the clause. There is one point that should be noted: When the focal element is ―I‖, the verb TO BE in the follo wing who- / that-clause usually agrees whti ―I‖ in both person and number; if, on the other hand, the focal element is ―me‖ instead of ―I‖, the verb TO BE in the following who- / that-clause should take the third person singular number.5) Subject-verb concord in existential sentencesIn existential sentences, subject-verb concord is generally determined by the numb er of the ―notional subject‖, but in informal style, expecially in spoken language, the verb often agrees with the ―formal subject‖ and takes the singular form, even thoug h the notional subject is plural. When the notionaly subject is a coordinate construction, the verb form goes with the first coordinate element of the notional subject, singular or plural.Week 6 Noun and noun phrase // Genitive nounLecture 4 Noun and Noun PhraseAs has been pointed out, the noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. It is the noun head that determines the way the noun phrase is organized.4.1 Classification of nouns and function of noun phrases1) Classification of nounsNouns can be classified according to word formation, lexical meaning and grammatical form.a) Simple, compound and derivative nounsAccording to word formation, nouns can be divided into simple, compound and derivative nouns. A simple noun is a noun that contains only one free morpheme (e.g. man, chair, land, faith). A compound noun is a noun that is composed of two or more morphemes (mostly free morphemes) (eg: armchair, farmland, seaside, roommate). A derivative noun is a noun that comes from a verb, an adjective or a simple noun with affix (prefix, or suffix, eg.: arrangement, greatness, patriotism, forget-me-not).b) Proper and common nounsAccording to lexical meaning, nouns fall into two major categories: proper nouns and common nouns. A proper noun is a name used for a particular person, place or thing, and spelt with a capital initial letter (eg: Anderson, Britain, The New York Times). A common noun is a name common to a class of people, things or abstract ideas. Common nouns can be further classified into individual, collective, material, and abstract nouns (eg: boy, tiger, family, team, water, air, honesty, glory).c) Count and noncount nounsAccording to grammatical form, noun can be divided into two classes: count nouns and noncount nouns. A count noun (or countable noun) is a noun that has a plural and which can collocate with numbers and with such determiners as a(No, many, few, these, those, several. etc. (eg: a car, two cars, many cars, several cars). A noncount noun (or uncountable noun) is a noun that cannot go with the above-mentioned words (eg: bread, furniture, merchandise).2) Function of noun phrasesThe noun phrase can function as all the elements in a sentence except the predicate verb:Children at play seldom remember what time it is. (Subject)That was an attractive little black chair. (Subject complement)In the hall I saw some extremely valuable pictures. (object)They elected him chairman of the board. (object complement)Mr Brown, director of the coal mine, should be responsible for the accident. (appositive)Teachers should be concerned about the students’ moral culture. (prepositional complementation)He returned last night. (adverbial)A photo is taken each time this button is pushed. (conjunction)(Keys to 4A: 1. description 2.arrangement 3.attendance 4.peculiarity 5.expectation 6.argument 7.dependence 8.originality 9.exaggeration 10.measurement 11.purity 12.persistence 13.extension 14.statement 15.generosity 16.entrance 17.loneliness 18.forgetfulness 19.happiness 20.seriousness)4.2 Number forms of nounsNumber is a grammatical distinction which determines whether a noun or determiner is singular or plural.1) Regular and irregular pluralIndividual nouns are all countable and therefore have singular and plural forms. The singular form of an individual noun, which shares the same form as the base of the word, can take such determiners as a(n) and one (eg: a/ one desk, an / one article).The plural form of an individual noun can be regular or irregular. The regular plural is formed by adding –s or –es tho the base,ending of the noun (eg: tooth—teeth, man—men, mouse—mice, child—children, ox—oxen).irregular plurals also include some words of foreign origin, borrowed from Greek, Latin or French. The plural forms of these borrowed words are known as ―foreign plurals‖, eg:basis—bases, criterion—criteria, stratum—strata, alumnus—alumniSome borrowed words have two plural forms: a foreign plural and an English plural, eg:medium—media—mediumsindex—indices—indexesformula—formulae—formulascurriculum—curricula—curriculumsFor some nouns, their singular and plural number share the same form, eg:A deer—ten dear, one fish—several fish, a Japanese—a group of Japanese, an aircraft—a hundred aircraft2) Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper nouna) Number forms of the collective nounSome collective nouns are countable, some are not. Countable collective nouns behave just like individual nouns. An uncountable collective noun has no plural form. If we want to count the number, we will have to use a kind of individual noun related semantically to the collective (eg: a piece of furniture, two articles of equipment)b) Number forms of the material nounMaterial nouns are generally uncountable and have no plural forms. But there are some such items that cen be used either uncountably or countably. When used to mean the material itself, they are uncountable, but when used in other senses, for example, two coffees in the sense of ― two cupfuls of coffee‖, they are countable, behaving just like individual nouns.. There are als o material nouns that can take plural endings, for example, sands/w aters in the sense of ―large expanse of sand or water‖ and foods/fruits in the sense of ―a variety of food or fruit‖; these nouns, though ending in –s, remain uncountable.c) Number forms of the abstract nounAbstr5act nouns are mostly uncountable. They cannot take such determiners as a(n)/ one or plural forms. But there are a few abstract nouns (eg: a victory—two victories) that are countable like individual nouns. There are also abstract nouns that have plural endings but which are uncountbale.In the case of some abstract nouns, the mere addition of a plural ending has the effect of changing the meaning of the base.We meet once a year to exchange our teaching experience. (经验)We told each other our experiences in foreign countries.（经历）d) Number forms of the proper nounProper nouns are unique reference and therefore have no plural forms, except for such proper names as the United States, the Philipines, the Netherlands, etc which are themselves plural in form. When a proper noun takes a plural endings, it takes on some characteristics of a common noun, eg:Have you invited the Browns?There are two Miss Smiths/Misses Smith in our class.4.3 PartitivesPartitives, also called unit nouns, are commonly used to denote a part of a whole or the quantity of an undifferentiated mass. Both count and noncount nouns can enter partitive constructions. With plural count nouns, partitive constructions can denote the idea of ―a group‖, ―a pack‖, etc. With noncount nouns, such constructions can achieve countability. Partitives fall into the following categories:1) General partitives2) Partitives related to the shape of things3) Partitives related to volume4) Partitives related the state of action5) Partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks, etc.Week 7 (Sports meeting, 27th, Oct. Friday)Week 8 Determiners (I), (II) // Pronoun (I), (II)Lecture 6Determiner (I)Words that precede any premodifying adjectives in a noun phrase and which denote such referential meanings as specific reference, generic reference, definite quantity or indefinite quantity are referred to as determiners.Determiners, as a class of words, include: articles (definite article, indefinite article, zero article), possessive determiners, genitive nouns, demonstrative determiners, relative determiners, interrogative determiners, indefinite determiners, cardinal and ordinal numerals, fractional and multiplicative numerals, and other quantifiers.The head of a noun phrase limits the choice of determiners, and when more than one determiner occurs in the noun phrase, there is the problem of word order between determiners.6.1 Collocations between determiners and nounsThe choice of determiners is closely related to what might be called the three classes of nouns: singular count nouns, plural count2) Determiners with singular count nouns only3) Determiners with plural count nouns only4) Determiners with noncount nouns only5) Determiners with singulars and plural count nouns only6) Determiners with singular and noncount nouns only7) Determiners with plural and noncount nouns only6.2 Collocations between determinersAs has been mentioned before, besides the collocations between determiners and nouns, there is the problem of word order between determiners if a noun phrase contains more than one determiner.1) Central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminersAccording to their potential position, determiners fall into three subclasses: central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers.2) Word order of three subclasses of determinersWhen a noun phrase contains all three subclas ses of determiners, their normal order is ―predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer(s)‖:All the four studentsAll these last few daysBoth his two sisters6.3 A comparative study of some determiner usage1)many, much, a lot of, lots of, plenty of2)(a) few, (a) little3)some, any4)all, both, every, each, either, either, neither, anyII. Lecture 7Determiners (II) ArticlesEnglish has two articles: the definite and the indefinite article. As we know, all English common nouns have article contrast, so with plural count nouns and noncount nouns, the absence of an article signals the presence of another kind of article—the zero article. It is in this sense that we may also say that English has three articles—the definite, the indefinite, and the zero article.7.1 Generic and specific referenceIn discussing the use of articles, we must distinguish between generic and specific reference.1) Generic referenceWhen we say the reference is generic, we are talking about any member representative of a class of people or things. All the three forms of article (the, a(n), and zero) can be used generically to refer to the member of a class as a whole.2) Specific referenceSpecific reference is different from generic reference in that it does not refer to a class of people or things in general but to a particular specimen of the class. Specific reference falls into two kinds: definite specific reference and indefinite specific reference.3) Anaphoric, cataphoric and situational referenceDefinite specific reference can be anaphoric, cataphoric, or situa tional. The word anaphoric means ―pointing backward‖. When what is referred to occurs in a previous context and the definite article has to point backward for its meaning, this is known as ―anaphoric reference‖. The anaphoric use of the definite article is called ―anaphoric THE‖. Eg.He ordered a book some time ago. The book has now arrived.His car struck a tree; you can still see the mark on the tree.Catephoric reference is also a kind of definite specific reference. The word cataphoric means ―pointing forward‖. When the referential meaning of the definite article is determined by what follows the article and the head, and the article has to point forward for its own interpretation, that is cataphoric reference. The cataphoric use of the definite artic le is called ―cataphoric THE‖. Eg.Is this the train for Shanghai?This is the place where I first met her.Situational reference is a kind of definite specific reference that depends not on any referent that has occurred in the context but solely on the common knowledge shared by speaker and hearer or on a specific situation in which the reference is made clear. Situational reference is most commonly denoted by the definite article, but in certain situations the same function can also be performed by zero. Eg.What’s on the radio?How’s the cough today?Shut the door, please.common nouns, but also because there are too many exceptions to the rules guiding the use of articles. As a matter of fact, the choice of an article in quite a few idiomatic expressions is just a matter of usage which is difficult or even impossible to explain in terms of a few grammatical rules. The following is a brief description of the use of articles with different classes of noun.1) article in use with proper noun2) article in use with common noun3) other uses of articlesWeek 9 Pronoun (I), (II)Lecture 8Pronouns (I)Pronouns are a varied closed-calss words with nominal function. English has a developed pronoun system, comprising personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflective pronouns, reciprocal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, relative pronouns, and indefinite pronouns. The present lecture will deal with the concord of pronouns (and corresponding determiners) with their antecedents in number, gender and person.8.1 Pronoun concord in numberPersonal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflective pronouns, and corresponding determiners have their singular and plural forms. The number contrast of pronouns differs from that of nouns in that pronoun number contrast is morphologically unrelated, as in I / we, he /they, as opposed to the typical regular formation of noun plurals: boy / boys.The choice of pronoun number forms is generally determined by the number of its antecedent, that is to say, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. Here are a few points that merit our attention.1) Pronoun concord with every-, some-, any- compounds as antecedentWhen the antecedent is compound such as everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, the pronoun and the corresponding determiner usually follow the principle of grammatical concord and take the singular form. But in informal style, they can follow the principle of notional concord and take the plural form, esp. when the antecedent is everybody or everyone. Note that with everything, something, anything and nothing, the pronoun and corresponding determiner can only take the singular form.Anybody can attend the meeting if he is interested.Everybody talked at the top of his voice.Everyone was clapping their hands.Anything on the table can be thrown away, can’t it?。

大学英语语法之existentialsentence.ppt

Existential Sentence
There+ be + NP+ Locative Expression (+ Temporal Expression)
Subject
1. Formal subject and notional(real) subject the determiners of notional subject include: (1) the indefinite article; (2) the zero article; (3) other indefinite determiners such as some, any, no, several, many, much, more, (a) few, (a) little, less, another, a lot of, plenty of, a number of, enough, as well as the cardinal numerals.
ＳＶＯＯ：A girl has been telling me her troubles.
→There has been a girl telling me her troubles. ＳＶＣ： Someone is painting the door green.
→There is someone painting the door green. ＳＶＡ： Is anyone in the room? →Is there anyone
1. Verb in the sevesnebnasticesnencteenc.e patterns is
progressive aspect (进行体)，we could transform that into the existential sentence with –ing participle

Existential Sentence(Syntactic phenomenon)

b. Object This applies to “there to be” form. There are only a limited number of verbs that can take a “there to be” form as object. These verbs include “expect, mean, intend, want, like, prefer, hate,” etc. ★ Members like there to be plenty of choice.
Two types: ♠ There to be /to have been + NP + locative/temporal adverbial ♠ There being/ having been + NP + locative/temporal adverbial
These forms can be used as: a. Prepositional complementation If the preposition is “for”, it usually takes the “there to be” form as complementation. With other prepositions, the complementation usually takes the “there being” form. E.g.: ★ They planned for there to be another meeting. ★ John was relying on there being another opportunity.
地点/时间地点时间状语
Apart from the verb “be”, there are at least three classes of semantically-related verbs that can act as predicator. ♠Verbs of existence and position: exist, live, stand, lie ♠ Verbs of motion: come, go, walk ♠ Verbs of emergence or development: appear. arise, develop, occur, emerge. E.g.: ★ There was no one waiting. ★ Long, long ago, there lived six blind men in India.

Existential Sentence

There + be + Subject +adv./attr.
There is a telephone box on the corner. There is not much doubt about his guilt. Is there anything for me to do? There is a textbook, a dictionary and some notebooks on the desk. There is no great difficulty, is there?
�
IV. Non-finite form of "there be"
A. "there being"
There being a bus stop so near my house is a great advantage. (sub.) There being no further business , I declared the meeting closed. (adv.) There having been no rain, the ground was dry. John was relying on there being another chance. There is now some hope of there being a settlement of the dispute. (prep. obj.)
live, seem, appear, exist, remain, stand, lie, come, happen, occur, arise……
III. Non-predicate phrase in Existential S.

Effective sentences2

Clarity
Try to avoid:
Vague and wrong references of pronouns (代词的模糊和错误指称代词的模糊和错误指称) 代词的模糊和错误指称 Unspecified comparison (不具体的比不具体的比较) Lack of necessary details (必要细节的必要细节的缺乏) 缺乏 Confusing shifts (模糊的转换模糊的转换) 模糊的转换
Ann told her classmate Jane that she had won the first prize. Ann told her classmate Jane, “ I have won the first prize.” Ann told her classmate Jane, “ You have won the first prize.” The student used some mixed figures of speech in his writing, which the teacher disapproved of .
Try to avoid : 1. Run-on sentences（不间断句子、逗（不间断句子、号谬误句子、串句）号谬误句子、串句） 2. Fragmentary sentences（破句、不完（破句、整句子）整句子） 3. Faulty parallelism （错误平行结构）错误平行结构） 4. Misplaced modifiers（错置修饰语）（错置修饰语） 5. Dangling modifiers（垂悬修饰语（
Incomplete sentences
Du Fu was one of the greatest poets. Du Fu was one of the greatest poets of the Tang Dynasty. Du Fu was one of the greatest poets in China.

《新编英语语法教程》主要章节语法术语

《新编英语语法教程》主要章节语法术语Introduction: Grammatical Hierarchy (导论—语法层次)2. Parts of speech (word class)3. Phrases词组4. Clause分句5. Sentence句子1. Morpheme词素Free morpheme 自由词素Bound morpheme 粘附词素Allomorph 词素变体Noun phraseVerb phraseAdjective phraseAdverb phrasePreposition phraseConjunctionLecture 1 Sentence Structure（L1）Sentence elements:S (subject) 主语V (predicate verb)谓语动词O (object)宾语C (complement)补足语A (Adverbial)状语1. Two ways of sentence analysis1) SVOSentenceClauseNP VP NPSubject Predicate verb ObjectAll the man have done their best.Sentence = Subject + Predicate (Predicate Verb + Object, Complement, Adverbial, etc.)●句子由主语和谓语构成，进一步把谓语剖析为谓语动词、宾语、补语、状语等。

2) Subject + Predicate (= operator + predication)SentenceClauseSubject PredicateOperator PredicationAll the man have done their best.●句子由主语和谓语构成，进一步把谓语剖析为操作词（operator）和述谓成分（predication）。

英语语法 Statement, Question, Command, Exclamation【优质P

The other way is to use some intensifying expressions such as on earth, the devil, the hell, the goodness, in the world, in heaven's name, etc to convey emotional feelings of surprise, indignation, etc, e.g.:
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To reinforce a statement, another set of devices are available for use. These include emphasizers, reinforcement tags, double negatives as well as rhetorical questions.
A New English Grammar Coursebook
英语语法
November, 2010
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Lecture 27 Statement, Question, Command, Exclamation
Teaching Aims:
1. To know some basic concepts about sentences and can tell them correctly.
Key Points: 1. The usage of statement 2. The usage of question
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1. Statements
1) Positive statements These include such attitudinal disjuncts as I think, I guess, I suppose, I suspect, I'm afraid, if I'm not mistaken, If I might say so, if you please, if you don't mind, etc. e.g.: Teaching 16 hours a week, I'm afraid, is too much for me. We have met before, if I'm not mistaken.