曼昆《经济学原理》第6版 微观经济学分册 第7章 课后习题答案p157p159
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第15章 垄 断)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第15章垄断课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1．垄断企业（monopoly firms）（西北大学2006研）答：垄断企业指一种没有相近替代品的产品的唯一卖者的企业。
垄断是这样一种状态：在某一市场上只存在一个厂商，这一厂商在这个市场上拥有绝对的权力，它控制该市场的全部供给，从而能决定价格和销售数量。
此外，该厂商还控制着所有有关市场与价格的信息。
垄断从分配的角度来看是垄断者得到了全部利益而消费者一无所获。
在各种类型的市场中，垄断市场一般被认为是效率最低的市场，而且阻碍了技术进步。
但是，有的西方学者认为，垄断厂商资金雄厚，可以从事革新生产技术的长期研究。
2．自然垄断（natural monopoly）（西北大学2003、2005研；深圳大学2012研）答：自然垄断指某些行业或部门为了有效生产而只需要一个生产者或厂商的市场状况。
这种行业可能始终呈现规模经济的特征，若由两家或两家以上的厂商生产将产生较高的平均成本、造成社会资源的浪费。
自然垄断部门一般有电力、石油、天然气、自来水和电信等行业。
自然垄断的形成，使得一个大规模厂商能够依靠自己的规模经济来降低生产成本，使得规模经济的益处由该厂商充分加以利用。
自然垄断有时来源于某些地理条件。
在自然垄断的部门中，政府通常对厂商加以认可，以批准该厂商进入该行业经营，或者在不利后果发生之前进行制止，以免损害公共利益。
政府管制自然垄断部门的原因在于：①如果自然垄断行业内竞争性厂商过多，会造成经济资源的巨大浪费。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(同名1326)
第4篇公共部门经济学第10章外部性10.1 复习笔记跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
1．外部性的含义外部性是指一个经济主体的行为对其他人产生了影响，但并不为此承担相应成本或获得相应收益。
外部性分为正的外部性和负的外部性。
正的外部性是指经济主体的行为对其他人产生了好的影响，但并没有获得相应收益；负的外部性是指经济主体的行为对其他人产生了不好的影响，但并没有为此承担相应成本。
2．外部性与经济效率外部性的影响会造成私人成本和社会成本，或私人收益与社会收益之间的不一致，因此容易造成市场失灵，使市场无效率。
负外部性使生产的社会成本大于私人成本，所以社会供给曲线位于市场供给曲线之上，市场生产的数量大于社会合意的数量，该产品的生产出现过剩。
正外部性使生产的社会收益大于私人收益，所以社会价值曲线位于市场需求曲线之上，市场生产的数量小于社会合意的数量，该产品的生产出现短缺。
3．解决外部性的方法（1）科斯定理科斯定理是揭示市场经济中产权安排、交易成本和资源配置效率之间关系的原理。
其内容是：在交易费用为零时，只要产权初始界定清晰，并允许经济当事人进行谈判交易，就可以导致资源的有效配置。
科斯定理在于说明，只要假设条件成立，市场势力就足够大，从而外部性问题总能通过市场自身来解决，而不需要政府的干预。
（2）私人解决外部性的方法①用道德规范和社会约束来解决；②慈善行为；③通过依靠有关各方的私利来解决外部性问题；④利益各方签订合约。
私人经济主体可能通过以上方式解决外部性问题，但在现实中，由于一些限制性因素，使得私人主体并不能很好地解决外部性引起的问题。
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解【讲解】
目 录第一部分 笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解[视频讲解]第1篇 导 言第1章 经济学十大原理1.1 复习笔记1.2 课后习题详解1.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第2章 像经济学家一样思考2.1 复习笔记2.2 课后习题详解2.3 考研真题详解第3章 相互依存性与贸易的好处3.1 复习笔记3.2 课后习题详解3.3 考研真题详解第2篇 市场如何运行第4章 供给与需求的市场力量4.1 复习笔记4.2 课后习题详解4.3 考研真题详解第5章 弹性及其应用5.1 复习笔记5.2 课后习题详解5.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第6章 供给、需求与政府政策6.1 复习笔记6.2 课后习题详解6.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第3篇 市场和福利第7章 消费者、生产者与市场效率7.1 复习笔记7.2 课后习题详解7.3 考研真题详解第8章 应用：赋税的代价8.1 复习笔记8.2 课后习题详解8.3 考研真题详解第9章 应用：国际贸易9.1 复习笔记9.2 课后习题详解9.3 考研真题详解第4篇 公共部门经济学第10章 外部性10.1 复习笔记10.2 课后习题详解10.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第11章 公共物品和公共资源11.1 复习笔记11.2 课后习题详解11.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第12章 税制的设计12.1 复习笔记12.2 课后习题详解12.3 考研真题详解第5篇 企业行为与产业组织第13章 生产成本13.1 复习笔记13.2 课后习题详解13.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第14章 竞争市场上的企业14.1 复习笔记14.2 课后习题详解14.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第15章 垄 断15.1 复习笔记15.2 课后习题详解15.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第16章 垄断竞争16.1 复习笔记16.2 课后习题详解16.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第17章 寡 头17.1 复习笔记17.2 课后习题详解17.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第6篇 劳动市场经济学第18章 生产要素市场18.1 复习笔记18.2 课后习题详解18.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第19章 收入与歧视19.1 复习笔记19.2 课后习题详解19.3 考研真题详解第20章 收入不平等与贫困20.1 复习笔记20.2 课后习题详解20.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第7篇 深入研究的论题第21章 消费者选择理论21.1 复习笔记21.2 课后习题详解21.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第22章 微观经济学前沿22.1 复习笔记22.2 课后习题详解22.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第二部分 模拟试题及详解曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）模拟试题及详解（一）曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）模拟试题及详解（二）第一部分 笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解[视频讲解]第1篇 导 言第1章 经济学十大原理1.1 复习笔记1．经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
曼昆微观经济学课后练习英文答案(第七章)
rketsWHAT’S NEW IN THE SIXTH EDITION:There are no major changes to this chapter.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:the link between buyers’ willingness to pay for a good and the demand curve.how to define and measure consumer surplus.the link between sellers’ costs of producing a good and the supply curve.how to define and measure producer surplus.that the equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes total surplus in a market.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 7 is the first chapter in a three-chapter sequence on welfare economics and market efficiency. Chapter 7 employs the supply and demand model to develop consumer surplus and producer surplus as a measure of welfare and market efficiency. These concepts are then7CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THEEFFICIENCY OF MARKETSutilized in Chapters 8 and 9 to determine the winners and losers from taxation and restrictions on international trade.The purpose of Chapter 7 is to develop welfare economics—the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being. Chapters 4 through 6 employed supply and demand in a positive framework, which focused on the question, “What is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market” This chapter now addresses the normative question, “Is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market the best possible solution to the resource allocation problem, or is it simply the price and quantity that balance supply and demand” Students will discover that under most circumstances the equilibrium price and quantity is also the one that maximizes welfare.KEY POINTS:Consumer surplus equals buyers’ willingness to pay for a good minus the amount theyactually pay for it, and it measures the benefit buyers get from participating in a market.Consumer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the demand curve and above the price.Producer surplus equals the amount sellers receive for their goods minus their costs of production, and it measures the benefit sellers get from participating in a market.Producer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the price and above the supply curve.An allocation of resources that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus is said to be efficient. Policymakers are often concerned with the efficiency, as well as the equality, of economic outcomes.The equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus.That is, the invisible hand of the marketplace leads buyers and sellers to allocateresources efficiently.Markets do not allocate resources efficiently in the presence of market failures such as market power or externalities.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Definition of welfare economics: the study of how the allocation of resources affectseconomic well-being.Students often are confused by the use of the word “welfare.” Remind themthat we are talking about social well-being and not public assistance.II. Consumer SurplusA. Willingness to Pay1. Definition of willingness to pay: the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for agood.2. Example: You are auctioning a mint-condition recording of Elvis Presley’s firstalbum. Four buyers show up. Their willingness to pay is as follows:If the bidding goes to slightly higher than $80, all buyers drop outexcept for John. Because John is willing to pay more than he has to forthe album, he derives some benefit from participating in the market.3. Definition of consumer surplus: the amount a buyer is willing to pay for a goodminus the amount the buyer actually pays for it.4. Note that if you had more than one copy of the album, the price in the auctionJohn and Paul would gain consumer surplus.B. Using the Demand Curve to Measure Consumer Surplus1. We can use the information on willingness to pay to derive a demand curve for therare Elvis Presley album.2. At any given quantity, the price given by the demand curve reflects thewillingness to pay of the marginal buyer. Because the demand curve shows thebuyers’ willingness to pay, we can use the demand curve to measure consumersurplus.Figure 23. Consumer surplus can be measured as the area below the demand curve and above theprice.C. How a Lower Price Raises Consumer SurplusFigure 31. As price falls, consumer surplus increases for two reasons.a. Those already buying the product will receive additional consumer surplusbecause they are paying less for the product than before (area A on the graph).b. Because the price is now lower, some new buyers will enter the market andreceive consumer surplus on these additional units of output purchased (area Bon the graph).D. What Does Consumer Surplus MeasureIt is important to stress that consumer surplus is measured in monetaryterms. Consumer surplus gives us a way to place a monetary cost on1. Remember that consumer surplus is the difference between the amount that buyersare willing to pay for a good and the price that they actually pay.2. Thus, it measures the benefit that consumers receive from the good as the buyersthemselves perceive it.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price ceilings from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for two-bedroom apartments in your town. Draw in a price ceiling below the equilibriumprice.III. Producer SurplusA. Cost and the Willingness to Sell1. Definition of cost: the value of everything a seller must give up to produce agood.You will need to take some time to explain the relationship between theproducers’ willingness to sell and the cost of producing the good. Therelationship between cost and the supply curve is not as apparent as the2. Example: You want to hire someone to paint your house. You accept bids for thework from four sellers. Each painter is willing to work if the price you will pay exceeds her opportunity cost. (Note that this opportunity cost thus represents willingness to sell.) The costs are:3. Bidding will stop when the price gets to be slightly below $600. All sellers willdrop out except for Grandma. Because Grandma receives more than she would require to paint the house, she derives some benefit from producing in the market.4. Definition of producer surplus: the amount a seller is paid for a good minus theseller’s cost of providing it.5. Note that if you had more than one house to paint, the price in the auction wouldend up being higher (a little under $800 in the case of two houses) and bothGrandma and Georgia would gain producer surplus.B. Using the Supply Curve to Measure Producer Surplus1. We can use the information on cost (willingness to sell) to derive a supply curvefor house painting services.Price Sellers Quantity Supplied$900 or more Mary, Frida, Georgia, Grandma4$800 to $900Frida, Georgia, Grandma3$600 to $800Georgia, Grandma2$500 to $600Grandma1less than $500None02. At any given quantity, the price given by the supply curve represents the cost ofthe marginal seller. Because the supply curve shows the sellers’ cost(willingness to sell), we can use the supply curve to measure producer surplus.3. Producer surplus can be measured as the area above the supply curve and below theprice.Figure 4Figure 5C. How a Higher Price Raises Producer Surplus1. As price rises, producer surplus increases for two reasons.a. Those already selling the product will receive additional producer surplusbecause they are receiving more for the product than before (area C on thegraph).b. Because the price is now higher, some new sellers will enter the market andreceive producer surplus on these additional units of output sold (area D onthe graph).D. Producer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of producers, much likeFigure 6ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price floors from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for anagricultural product such as corn. Draw in a price support above the equilibriumprice.Then go through:IV. Market EfficiencyA. The Benevolent Social Planner1. The economic well-being of everyone in society can be measured by total surplus,which is the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus:Total Surplus = Consumer Surplus + Producer SurplusTotal Surplus = (Value to Buyers – Amount Paid by Buyers) + (Amount Received by Sellers – Cost to Sellers)Because the Amount Paid by Buyers = Amount Received by Sellers:2. Definition of efficiency: the property of a resource allocation of maximizing thetotal surplus received by all members of society .3. Definition of equality: the property of distributing economic prosperity uniformlythe members of society .B. Evaluating the Market EquilibriumTotal Surplus = Value to Buyers Cost to SellersFigure 7Now might be a good time to point out that many government policies involvea trade-off between efficiency and equity. When you evaluate government Pretty Woman, Chapter 6. Vivien (Julia Roberts) and Edward (Richard Gere)negotiate a price. Afterward, Vivien reveals she would have accepted a lower price, while Edward admits he would have paid more. If you have done a good job of introducing consumer and producer surplus, you will see the1. At the market equilibrium price:a. Buyers who value the product more than the equilibrium price will purchase theproduct; those who do not, will not purchase the product. In other words, thefree market allocates the supply of a good to the buyers who value it mosthighly, as measured by their willingness to pay.b. Sellers whose costs are lower than the equilibrium price will produce theproduct; those whose costs are higher, will not produce the product. In otherwords, the free market allocates the demand for goods to the sellers who canproduce it at the lowest cost.2. Total surplus is maximized at the market equilibrium.Figure 8a. At any quantity of output smaller than the equilibrium quantity, the value ofthe product to the marginal buyer is greater than the cost to the marginalseller so total surplus would rise if output increases.b. At any quantity of output greater than the equilibrium quantity, the value ofthe product to the marginal buyer is less than the cost to the marginal sellerso total surplus would rise if output decreases.3. Note that this is one of the reasons that economists believe Principle #6: Marketsare usually a good way to organize economic activity.It would be a good idea to remind students that there are circumstanceswhen the market process does not lead to the most efficient outcome.Examples include situations such as when a firm (or buyer) has market powerC. In the News: Ticket Scalping1. Ticket scalping is an example of how markets work to achieve an efficient outcome.2. This article from The Boston Globe describes economist Chip Case’s experiencewith ticket scalping.D. Case Study: Should There Be a Market in Organs1. As a matter of public policy, people are not allowed to sell their organs.a. In essence, this means that there is a price ceiling on organs of $0.b. This has led to a shortage of organs.2. The creation of a market for organs would lead to a more efficient allocation ofresources, but critics worry about the equity of a market system for organs.V. Market Efficiency and Market FailureA. To conclude that markets are efficient, we made several assumptions about how marketsworked.1. Perfectly competitive markets.2. No externalities.B. When these assumptions do not hold, the market equilibrium may not be efficient.C. When markets fail, public policy can potentially remedy the situation.SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. Figure 1 shows the demand curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P1 and theconsumer surplus that results from that price is denoted CS. Consumer surplus isthe amount a buyer is willing to pay for a good minus the amount the buyeractually pays for it. It measures the benefit to buyers of participating in amarket.Figure 1 Figure 22. Figure 2 shows the supply curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P1 and theproducer surplus that results from that price is denoted PS. Producer surplus isthe amount sellers are paid for a good minus the sellers’ cost of providing it(measured by the supply curve). It measures the benefit to sellers ofparticipating in a market.Figure 33. Figure 3 shows the supply and demand for turkey. The price of turkey is P1,consumer surplus is CS, and producer surplus is PS. Producing more turkeys thanthe equilibrium quantity would lower total surplus because the value to themarginal buyer would be lower than the cost to the marginal seller on thoseadditional units.Questions for Review1. The price a buyer is willing to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve areall closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness topay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and abovethe price, which equals the price that each buyer is willing to pay minus theprice actually paid.2. Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related.The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producersurplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals theprice received minus each seller's costs of producing the good.Figure 43. Figure 4 shows producer and consumer surplus in a supply-and-demand diagram.4. An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes total surplus, the sum ofconsumer surplus and producer surplus. But efficiency may not be the only goal of economic policymakers; they may also be concerned about equity the fairness of the distribution of well-being.5. The invisible hand of the marketplace guides the self-interest of buyers andsellers into promoting general economic well-being. Despite decentralized decision making and self-interested decision makers, free markets often lead to anefficient outcome.6. Two types of market failure are market power and externalities. Market power maycause market outcomes to be inefficient because firms may cause price and quantity to differ from the levels they would be under perfect competition, which keeps total surplus from being maximized. Externalities are side effects that are not taken into account by buyers and sellers. As a result, the free market does not maximize total surplus.Problems and Applications1. a. Consumer surplus is equal to willingness to pay minus the price paid.Therefore, Melissa’s willingness to pay must be $200 ($120 + $80).b. Her consumer surplus at a price of $90 would be $200 − $90 = $110.c. If the price of an iPod was $250, Melissa would not have purchased one becausethe price is greater than her willingness to pay. Therefore, she would receiveno consumer surplus.2. If an early freeze in California sours the lemon crop, the supply curve for lemonsshifts to the left, as shown in Figure 5. The result is a rise in the price oflemons and a decline in consumer surplus from A + B + C to just A. So consumersurplus declines by the amount B + C.Figure 5 Figure 6In the market for lemonade, the higher cost of lemons reduces the supply oflemonade, as shown in Figure 6. The result is a rise in the price of lemonade anda decline in consumer surplus from D + E + F to just D, a loss of E + F. Note thatan event that affects consumer surplus in one market often has effects on consumersurplus in other markets.3. A rise in the demand for French bread leads to an increase in producer surplus inthe market for French bread, as shown in Figure 7. The shift of the demand curve leads to an increased price, which increases producer surplus from area A to areaA +B + C.Figure 7The increased quantity of French bread being sold increases the demand for flour, as shown in Figure 8. As a result, the price of flour rises, increasing producer surplus from area D to D + E + F. Note that an event that affects producer surplus in one market leads to effects on producer surplus in related markets.Figure 84. a. Bert’s demand schedule is:Price Quantity DemandedMore than $70$5 to $71$3 to $52$1 to $33$1 or less4Bert’s demand curve is shown in Figure 9.Figure 9b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Bert buys two bottles of water. Hisconsumer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He values his first bottle of water at $7, but pays only $4 for it, so has consumer surplus of $3. Hevalues his second bottle of water at $5, but pays only $4 for it, so hasconsumer surplus of $1. Thus Bert’s total consumer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2, Bert buys threebottles of water, an increase of one. His consumer surplus consists of both areas A and B in the figure, an increase in the amount of area B. He getsconsumer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($7 value minus $2 price), $3 from the second bottle ($5 value minus $2 price), and $1 from the third bottle ($3 value minus $2 price), for a total consumer surplus of $9. Thus consumersurplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2.5. a. Ernie’s supply schedule for water is:Price Quantity SuppliedMore than $74$5 to $73$3 to $52$1 to $31Less than $10Ernie’s su pply curve is shown in Figure 10.Figure 10b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Ernie sells two bottles of water.His producer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He receives $4 for his first bottle of water, but it costs only $1 to produce, so Ernie has producer surplus of $3. He also receives $4 for his second bottle of water, which costs $3 to produce, so he has producer surplus of $1. Thus Ernie’s total producer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6, Ernie sells threebottles of water, an increase of one. His producer surplus consists of bothareas A and B in the figure, an increase by the amount of area B. He getsproducer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($6 price minus $1 cost), $3 from the second bottle ($6 price minus $3 cost), and $1 from the third bottle ($6price minus $5 price), for a total producer surplus of $9. Thus producersurplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6.6. a. From Ernie’s supply schedule and Bert’s demand schedule, the quantitydemanded and supplied are:Only a price of $4 brings supply and demand into equilibrium, with anequilibrium quantity of two.b. At a price of $4, consumer surplus is $4 and producer surplus is $4, as shownin Problems 3 and 4 above. Total surplus is $4 + $4 = $8.c. If Ernie produced one less bottle, his producer surplus would decline to $3, asshown in Problem 4 above. If Bert consumed one less bottle, his consumersurplus would decline to $3, as shown in Problem 3 above. So total surpluswould decline to $3 + $3 = $6.d. If Ernie produced one additional bottle of water, his cost would be $5, but theprice is only $4, so his producer surplus would decline by $1. If Bert consumed one additional bottle of water, his value would be $3, but the price is $4, so his consumer surplus would decline by $1. So total surplus declines by $1 + $1 = $2.7. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for stereos results in ashift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 11. As a result, the equilibrium price of stereos declines and the equilibrium quantity increases.Figure 11b. The decline in the price of stereos increases consumer surplus from area A to A+ B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D. Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. Soproducer surplus changes by the amount F + G – B, which may be positive ornegative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while thedecline in the price reduces producer surplus. Because consumer surplus risesby B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.c. If the supply of stereos is very elastic, then the shift of the supply curvebenefits consumers most. To take the most dramatic case, suppose the supplycurve were horizontal, as shown in Figure 12. Then there is no producer surplus at all. Consumers capture all the benefits of falling production costs, withconsumer surplus rising from area A to area A + B.Figure 128. Figure 13 shows supply and demand curves for haircuts. Supply equals demand at aquantity of three haircuts and a price between $4 and $5. Firms A, C, and D should cut the hair of Ellen, Jerry, and Phil. Oprah’s willingness to pay is too low and firm B’s costs are too high, so they do not participate. The maximum totalsurplus is the area between the demand and supply curves, which totals $11 ($8 value minus $2 cost for the first haircut, plus $7 value minus $3 cost for the second, plus $5 value minus $4 cost for the third).Figure 139. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in ashift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases.The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A toA +B +C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Figure 14 Figure 15Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producersurplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G –B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increasesproducer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus.Because consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.b. Because typewriters are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price ofcomputers means that people substitute computers for typewriters, shifting the demand for typewriters to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is adecline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of typewriters.Consumer surplus in the typewriter market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Typewriter producers are sad about technological advances in computers because their producer surplus declines.c. Because software and computers are complements, the decline in the price andincrease in the quantity of computers means that the demand for softwareincreases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16.The result is an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumersurplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B, a net change of A– C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, sosoftware producers should be happy about the technological progress incomputers.Figure 16d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richestpeople, because his company produces a lot of software that is a complementwith computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.10. a. With Provider A, the cost of an extra minute is $0. With Provider B, the costof an extra minute is $1.b. With Provider A, my friend will purchase 150 minutes [= 150 – (50)(0)]. WithProvider B, my friend would purchase 100 minutes [= 150 – (50)(1)].c. With Provider A, he would pay $120. The cost would be $100 with Provider B.Figure 17d. Figure 17 shows the friend’s demand. With Provider A, he buys 150 minutes andhis consumer surplus is equal to (1/2)(3)(150) – 120 = 105. With Provider B, his consumer surplus is equal to (1/2)(2)(100) = 100.e. I would recommend Provider A because he receives greater consumer surplus.11. a. Figure 18 illustrates the demand for medical care. If each procedure has aprice of $100, quantity demanded will be Q1 procedures.Figure 18b. If consumers pay only $20 per procedure, the quantity demanded will be Q2procedures. Because the cost to society is $100, the number of proceduresperformed is too large to maximize total surplus. The quantity that maximizes total surplus is Q1 procedures, which is less than Q2.c. The use of medical care is excessive in the sense that consumers get procedureswhose value is less than the cost of producing them. As a result, theeconomy’s total surplus is reduced.d. To prevent this excessive use, the consumer must bear the marginal cost of theprocedure. But this would require eliminating insurance. Another possibility would be that the insurance company, which pays most of the marginal cost of the procedure ($80, in this case) could decide whether the procedure should be performed. But the insurance company does not get the benefits of the procedure, so its decisions may not reflect the value to the consumer.。
曼昆《经济学原理》第6版 微观经济学分册 第7章 课后习题答案p157p159
第三篇市场和福利第七章消费者、生产者与市场效率问题与应用1．Melissa用120美元购买了一个iPod，并得到了80美元的消费者剩余。
A．她的支付意愿是多少？答：消费者剩余等于支付意愿减去付出的价格。
因此，梅莉莎须支付200 美元($120 + $80)。
B．如果她在降价销售时买了售价为90美元的iPod，她的消费者剩余会是多少？答：此时，她的消费者剩余为：200-90 =110 美元。
C．如果iPod的价格是250美元，她的消费者剩余会是多少？答：如果iPod 的价格是250 美元，其价格大于梅莉莎的支付愿意，因此她不会再买，这时的消费者剩余就为零。
2．加利福尼亚早来的寒流使柠檬变酸。
柠檬市场上消费者剩余会有什么变动？柠檬水市场上消费者剩余会有什么变动？用图形说明你的答案。
答：柠檬变酸，消费者对柠檬的评价下降，需求曲线向左下方移动。
在其他条件不变的情况下，消费者剩余减少。
如图7－2(a)所示，柠檬质量下降，使需求曲线从D1下降到D 2，△APE是原先的消费者剩余，△A′P′E′是变动后的消费者剩余，△APE>△A′P′E′。
由于柠檬价格的下降，柠檬水的投入成本减少，柠檬水的价格也下降。
在其他条件不变的情况下，柠檬水市场上消费者剩余增加，如图7－2(b)所示。
图7－2 寒流的影响3．假设对法国面包的需求增加。
在法国面包市场上，生产者剩余会发生什么变动？在面粉市场上，生产者剩余会发生什么变动？用图形说明你的答案。
答：由于需求增加，在其他条件不变的情况下，法国面包的价格会上升，市场上的生产者剩余增加。
如图7 －3(a)，价格从P1 上升到P2 ，销量从Q 1上升到Q 2，生产者剩余从面积P1BE1增加到面积P2BE2 。
由于面包产量上升，它的生产要素面粉的需求量也会上升。
在其他条件不变的情况下，面粉价格上升，市场上的生产者剩余增加。
如图7－3(b)所示，生产者剩余从面积P1BE1增加到面积P2BE2 。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(第17章 寡头)
第17章寡头17.1 复习笔记跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
1．不完全竞争（1）概述竞争和垄断是市场结构的极端形式。
当市场上有许多提供基本相同产品的企业时就出现了竞争；当市场上只有一家企业时就出现了垄断。
但许多行业介于这两种极端之间，这些行业中的企业有竞争对手，同时又没有面临着使它们成为价格接受者的激烈竞争。
经济学家把这种状况称为不完全竞争。
（2）不完全竞争市场的两种类型寡头是只有少数几个卖者的市场，每个卖者都提供与其他企业相似或相同的产品。
因此，市场上任何一个卖者的行动都对其他卖者的利润有重大的影响。
垄断竞争描述一个有许多出售相似但不相同产品的企业的市场结构。
在垄断竞争的市场上，每家企业都垄断着自己生产的产品，但许多其他企业也生产争夺同样顾客的相似但不相同的产品。
2．寡头（1）卡特尔卡特尔指企业之间就有关生产与价格达成协议并以一致方式行事的企业集团。
寡头市场一旦形成了卡特尔，市场实际就是由一个垄断者提供服务，而且卡特尔不仅必须就总产量水平达成一致，而且还要就每个成员的生产量达成一致。
（2）寡头的均衡合作并达到垄断的结果会使寡头的状况更好，但由于他们追求自己的私利，最后不能达到垄断结果，因而并不能使他们共同的利润最大化。
每一个寡头都有增加生产并占有更大市场份额的诱惑，当他们每一个都努力这样做时，总产量增加了，而价格下降了。
当寡头企业个别地选择利润最大化的产量时，它们生产的产量大于垄断但小于竞争时的产量水平。
寡头价格低于垄断价格，但高于竞争价格（竞争价格等于边际成本）。
（3）寡头数量如何影响市场结果①寡头市场中增加产量的两种效应：a．产量效应：由于价格高于边际成本，在现行价格时每多销售1单位产品将增加利润。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
第8章应用：赋税的代价8.1 复习笔记跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
1．赋税的无谓损失（1）无谓损失的含义无谓损失指当税收（或其他某种政策）扭曲了市场结果时所引起的总剩余的减少。
对一种物品征税使该物品买者与卖者的福利减少，而且，消费者剩余和生产者剩余的减少常常超过了政府筹集到的收入。
（2）无谓损失与经济效率市场通常可以有效地配置稀缺资源。
这就是说，供求均衡使市场上买者和卖者的总剩余最大化。
但是，当税收提高了买者的价格而降低了卖者的价格时，它对买者的激励是比没有税收时少消费，而对卖者的激励是比没有税收时少生产。
当买者和卖者对这些激励做出反应时，市场规模缩小到其最优水平之下。
因此，税收扭曲了激励，并引起市场资源配置无效率。
（3）无谓损失与贸易的好处当政府对一种物品收税时，销售量减少。
结果，买者和卖者之间一些潜在的贸易好处没有得到实现，这些贸易好处的损失就引起了无谓损失。
2．无谓损失的决定因素供给和需求的价格弹性决定无谓损失的大小，价格弹性衡量供给量和需求量对价格变动的敏感程度。
税收造成无谓损失，是因为它使买者和卖者改变自己的行为。
税收提高了买者支付的价格，因此他们的消费少了。
同时，税收降低了卖者得到的价格，因此他们的生产少了。
由于行为的这些变动，市场规模缩小到最优水平之下。
需求和供给弹性衡量买者和卖者对价格变动的反应程度，从而决定了税收在多大程度上扭曲了市场结果。
因此，供给和需求弹性越大，税收的无谓损失也就越大。
（1）供给弹性当供给比较缺乏弹性时，税收的无谓损失小；当供给比较富有弹性时，税收的无谓损失大。
曼昆微观经济学课后练习英文答案(第七章)
rketsWHAT’S NEW IN THE SIXTH EDITION:There are no major changes to this chapter.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:the link between buyers’ willingness to pay for a good and the demand curve.how to define and measure consumer surplus.the link between sellers’ costs of producing a good and the supply curve.how to define and measure producer surplus.that the equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes total surplus in a market.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 7 is the first chapter in a three-chapter sequence on welfare economics and market efficiency. Chapter 7 employs the supply and demand model to develop consumer surplus and producer surplus as a measure of welfare and market efficiency. These concepts are then7CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THEEFFICIENCY OF MARKETSutilized in Chapters 8 and 9 to determine the winners and losers from taxation and restrictions on international trade.The purpose of Chapter 7 is to develop welfare economics—the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being. Chapters 4 through 6 employed supply and demand in a positive framework, which focused on the question, “What is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market” This chapter now addresses the normative question, “Is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market the best possible solution to the resource allocation problem, or is it simply the price and quantity that balance supply and demand” Students will discover that under most circumstances the equilibrium price and quantity is also the one that maximizes welfare.KEY POINTS:Consumer surplus equals buyers’ willingness to pay for a good minus the amount they actually pay for it, and it measures the benefit buyers get from participating in a market.Consumer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the demand curve and above the price.Producer surplus equals the amount sellers receive for their goods minus their costs of production, and it measures the benefit sellers get from participating in a market.Producer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the price and above the supply curve.An allocation of resources that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus is said to be efficient. Policymakers are often concerned with the efficiency, as well as the equality, of economic outcomes.The equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus.That is, the invisible hand of the marketplace leads buyers and sellers to allocate resources efficiently.Markets do not allocate resources efficiently in the presence of market failures such as market power or externalities.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Definition of welfare economics: the study of how the allocation of resources affectseconomic well-being.Students often are confused by the use of the word “welfare.” Remind themthat we are talking about social well-being and not public assistance.II. Consumer SurplusA. Willingness to Pay1. Definition of willingness to pay: the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for agood.2. Example: You are auctioning a mint-condition recording of Elvis Presley’s firstalbum. Four buyers show up. Their willingness to pay is as follows:If the bidding goes to slightly higher than $80, all buyers drop outexcept for John. Because John is willing to pay more than he has to forthe album, he derives some benefit from participating in the market.3. Definition of consumer surplus: the amount a buyer is willing to pay for a goodminus the amount the buyer actually pays for it.4. Note that if you had more than one copy of the album, the price in the auctionJohn and Paul would gain consumer surplus.B. Using the Demand Curve to Measure Consumer Surplus1. We can use the information on willingness to pay to derive a demand curve for therare Elvis Presley album.2. At any given quantity, the price given by the demand curve reflects thewillingness to pay of the marginal buyer. Because the demand curve shows the buyers’ willingness to pay, we can use the demand curve to measure consumer surplus.Figure 23. Consumer surplus can be measured as the area below the demand curve and above theprice.C. How a Lower Price Raises Consumer SurplusFigure 31. As price falls, consumer surplus increases for two reasons.a. Those already buying the product will receive additional consumer surplusbecause they are paying less for the product than before (area A on the graph).b. Because the price is now lower, some new buyers will enter the market andreceive consumer surplus on these additional units of output purchased (area Bon the graph).D. What Does Consumer Surplus MeasureIt is important to stress that consumer surplus is measured in monetaryterms. Consumer surplus gives us a way to place a monetary cost on1. Remember that consumer surplus is the difference between the amount that buyersare willing to pay for a good and the price that they actually pay.2. Thus, it measures the benefit that consumers receive from the good as the buyersthemselves perceive it.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price ceilings from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for two-bedroom apartments in your town. Draw in a price ceiling below the equilibriumprice.III. Producer SurplusA. Cost and the Willingness to Sell1. Definition of cost: the value of everything a seller must give up to produce agood.You will need to take some time to explain the relationship between theproducers’ willingness to sell and the cost of producing the good. Therelationship between cost and the supply curve is not as apparent as the2. Example: You want to hire someone to paint your house. You accept bids for thework from four sellers. Each painter is willing to work if the price you will pay exceeds her opportunity cost. (Note that this opportunity cost thus represents willingness to sell.) The costs are:3. Bidding will stop when the price gets to be slightly below $600. All sellers willdrop out except for Grandma. Because Grandma receives more than she would require to paint the house, she derives some benefit from producing in the market.4. Definition of producer surplus: the amount a seller is paid for a good minus theseller’s cost of providing it.5. Note that if you had more than one house to paint, the price in the auction wouldend up being higher (a little under $800 in the case of two houses) and both Grandma and Georgia would gain producer surplus.B. Using the Supply Curve to Measure Producer Surplus1. We can use the information on cost (willingness to sell) to derive a supply curvefor house painting services.Price Sellers Quantity Supplied$900 or more Mary, Frida, Georgia, Grandma4$800 to $900Frida, Georgia, Grandma3$600 to $800Georgia, Grandma2$500 to $600Grandma1less than $500None02. At any given quantity, the price given by the supply curve represents the cost ofthe marginal seller. Because the supply curve shows the sellers’ cost (willingness to sell), we can use the supply curve to measure producer surplus.3. Producer surplus can be measured as the area above the supply curve and below theprice.Figure 4Figure 5C. How a Higher Price Raises Producer Surplus1. As price rises, producer surplus increases for two reasons.a. Those already selling the product will receive additional producer surplusbecause they are receiving more for the product than before (area C on thegraph).b. Because the price is now higher, some new sellers will enter the market andreceive producer surplus on these additional units of output sold (area D onthe graph).D. Producer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of producers, much like Figure 6ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price floors from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for an agricultural product such as corn. Draw in a price support above the equilibriumprice.Then go through:IV. Market EfficiencyA. The Benevolent Social Planner1. The economic well-being of everyone in society can be measured by total surplus,which is the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus:Total Surplus = Consumer Surplus + Producer SurplusTotal Surplus = (Value to Buyers – Amount Paid by Buyers) + (Amount Received by Sellers – Cost to Sellers)Because the Amount Paid by Buyers = Amount Received by Sellers:2. Definition of efficiency: the property of a resource allocation of maximizing thetotal surplus received by all members of society .3. Definition of equality: the property of distributing economic prosperity uniformlythe members of society .B. Evaluating the Market EquilibriumTotal Surplus = Value to Buyers Cost to SellersFigure 7Now might be a good time to point out that many government policies involvea trade-off between efficiency and equity. When you evaluate government Pretty Woman, Chapter 6. Vivien (Julia Roberts) and Edward (Richard Gere)negotiate a price. Afterward, Vivien reveals she would have accepted a lower price, while Edward admits he would have paid more. If you have done a good job of introducing consumer and producer surplus, you will see the1. At the market equilibrium price:a. Buyers who value the product more than the equilibrium price will purchase theproduct; those who do not, will not purchase the product. In other words, thefree market allocates the supply of a good to the buyers who value it mosthighly, as measured by their willingness to pay.b. Sellers whose costs are lower than the equilibrium price will produce theproduct; those whose costs are higher, will not produce the product. In otherwords, the free market allocates the demand for goods to the sellers who canproduce it at the lowest cost.2. Total surplus is maximized at the market equilibrium.Figure 8a. At any quantity of output smaller than the equilibrium quantity, the value ofthe product to the marginal buyer is greater than the cost to the marginalseller so total surplus would rise if output increases.b. At any quantity of output greater than the equilibrium quantity, the value ofthe product to the marginal buyer is less than the cost to the marginal sellerso total surplus would rise if output decreases.3. Note that this is one of the reasons that economists believe Principle #6: Marketsare usually a good way to organize economic activity.It would be a good idea to remind students that there are circumstanceswhen the market process does not lead to the most efficient outcome.Examples include situations such as when a firm (or buyer) has market powerC. In the News: Ticket Scalping1. Ticket scalping is an example of how markets work to achieve an efficient outcome.2. This article from The Boston Globe describes economist Chip Case’s experiencewith ticket scalping.D. Case Study: Should There Be a Market in Organs1. As a matter of public policy, people are not allowed to sell their organs.a. In essence, this means that there is a price ceiling on organs of $0.b. This has led to a shortage of organs.2. The creation of a market for organs would lead to a more efficient allocation ofresources, but critics worry about the equity of a market system for organs.V. Market Efficiency and Market FailureA. To conclude that markets are efficient, we made several assumptions about how marketsworked.1. Perfectly competitive markets.2. No externalities.B. When these assumptions do not hold, the market equilibrium may not be efficient.C. When markets fail, public policy can potentially remedy the situation.SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. Figure 1 shows the demand curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P1and theconsumer surplus that results from that price is denoted CS. Consumer surplus isthe amount a buyer is willing to pay for a good minus the amount the buyeractually pays for it. It measures the benefit to buyers of participating in amarket.Figure 1 Figure 22. Figure 2 shows the supply curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P1and theproducer surplus that results from that price is denoted PS. Producer surplus isthe amount sellers are paid for a good minus the sellers’ cost of providing it(measured by the supply curve). It measures the benefit to sellers ofparticipating in a market.Figure 33. Figure 3 shows the supply and demand for turkey. The price of turkey is P1,consumer surplus is CS, and producer surplus is PS. Producing more turkeys thanthe equilibrium quantity would lower total surplus because the value to themarginal buyer would be lower than the cost to the marginal seller on thoseadditional units.Questions for Review1. The price a buyer is willing to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve areall closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness topay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and abovethe price, which equals the price that each buyer is willing to pay minus theprice actually paid.2. Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related.The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producersurplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals theprice received minus each seller's costs of producing the good.Figure 43. Figure 4 shows producer and consumer surplus in a supply-and-demand diagram.4. An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes total surplus, the sum ofconsumer surplus and producer surplus. But efficiency may not be the only goal ofeconomic policymakers; they may also be concerned about equity the fairness ofthe distribution of well-being.5. The invisible hand of the marketplace guides the self-interest of buyers andsellers into promoting general economic well-being. Despite decentralized decisionmaking and self-interested decision makers, free markets often lead to anefficient outcome.6. Two types of market failure are market power and externalities. Market power maycause market outcomes to be inefficient because firms may cause price and quantityto differ from the levels they would be under perfect competition, which keepstotal surplus from being maximized. Externalities are side effects that are nottaken into account by buyers and sellers. As a result, the free market does notmaximize total surplus.Problems and Applications1. a. Consumer surplus is equal to willingness to pay minus the price paid.Therefore, Melissa’s willingness to pay must be $200 ($120 + $80).b. Her consumer surplus at a price of $90 would be $200 − $90 = $110.c. If the price of an iPod was $250, Melissa would not have purchased one becausethe price is greater than her willingness to pay. Therefore, she would receiveno consumer surplus.2. If an early freeze in California sours the lemon crop, the supply curve for lemonsshifts to the left, as shown in Figure 5. The result is a rise in the price oflemons and a decline in consumer surplus from A + B + C to just A. So consumersurplus declines by the amount B + C.Figure 5 Figure 6In the market for lemonade, the higher cost of lemons reduces the supply oflemonade, as shown in Figure 6. The result is a rise in the price of lemonade anda decline in consumer surplus from D + E + F to just D, a loss of E + F. Note thatan event that affects consumer surplus in one market often has effects on consumersurplus in other markets.3. A rise in the demand for French bread leads to an increase in producer surplus inthe market for French bread, as shown in Figure 7. The shift of the demand curveleads to an increased price, which increases producer surplus from area A to areaA +B + C.Figure 7The increased quantity of French bread being sold increases the demand for flour,as shown in Figure 8. As a result, the price of flour rises, increasing producersurplus from area D to D + E + F. Note that an event that affects producer surplusin one market leads to effects on producer surplus in related markets.Figure 84. a. Bert’s demand schedule is:Price Quantity DemandedMore than $70$5 to $71$3 to $52$1 to $33$1 or less4Bert’s demand curve is shown in Figure 9.Figure 9b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Bert buys two bottles of water. Hisconsumer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He values his first bottleof water at $7, but pays only $4 for it, so has consumer surplus of $3. Hevalues his second bottle of water at $5, but pays only $4 for it, so hasconsumer surplus of $1. Thus Bert’s total consumer surplus is$3 + $1 = $4,which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2, Bert buys threebottles of water, an increase of one. His consumer surplus consists of bothareas A and B in the figure, an increase in the amount of area B. He getsconsumer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($7 value minus $2 price), $3 fromthe second bottle ($5 value minus $2 price), and $1 from the third bottle ($3value minus $2 price), for a total consumer surplus of $9. Thus consumersurplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle ofwater falls from $4 to $2.5. a. Ernie’s supply schedule for water is:Price Quantity SuppliedMore than $74$5 to $73$3 to $52$1 to $31Less than $10Ernie’s su pply curve is shown in Figure 10.Figure 10b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Ernie sells two bottles of water.His producer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He receives $4 for his first bottle of water, but it costs only $1 to produce, so Ernie has producer surplus of $3. He also receives $4 for his second bottle of water, which costs $3 to produce, so he has producer surplus of $1. Thus Ernie’s total producer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6, Ernie sells threebottles of water, an increase of one. His producer surplus consists of bothareas A and B in the figure, an increase by the amount of area B. He gets producer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($6 price minus $1 cost), $3 from the second bottle ($6 price minus $3 cost), and $1 from the third bottle ($6 price minus $5 price), for a total producer surplus of $9. Thus producer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6.6. a. From Ernie’s supply schedule and Bert’s demand schedule, the quantitydemanded and supplied are:Only a price of $4 brings supply and demand into equilibrium, with an equilibrium quantity of two.b. At a price of $4, consumer surplus is $4 and producer surplus is $4, as shownin Problems 3 and 4 above. Total surplus is $4 + $4 = $8.c. If Ernie produced one less bottle, his producer surplus would decline to $3, asshown in Problem 4 above. If Bert consumed one less bottle, his consumer surplus would decline to $3, as shown in Problem 3 above. So total surplus would decline to $3 + $3 = $6.d. If Ernie produced one additional bottle of water, his cost would be $5, but theprice is only $4, so his producer surplus would decline by $1. If Bert consumed one additional bottle of water, his value would be $3, but the price is $4, so his consumer surplus would decline by $1. So total surplus declines by $1 + $1 = $2.7. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for stereos results in ashift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 11. As a result, theequilibrium price of stereos declines and the equilibrium quantity increases.Figure 11b. The decline in the price of stereos increases consumer surplus from area A to A+ B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D. Prior to the shift in supply,producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below theprice). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. Soproducer surplus changes by the amount F + G –B, which may be positive ornegative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while thedecline in the price reduces producer surplus. Because consumer surplus risesby B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C+ D + F + G.c. If the supply of stereos is very elastic, then the shift of the supply curvebenefits consumers most. To take the most dramatic case, suppose the supplycurve were horizontal, as shown in Figure 12. Then there is no producer surplusat all. Consumers capture all the benefits of falling production costs, withconsumer surplus rising from area A to area A + B.Figure 128. Figure 13 shows supply and demand curves for haircuts. Supply equals demand at aquantity of three haircuts and a price between $4 and $5. Firms A, C, and D shouldcut the hair of Ellen, Jerry, and Phil. Oprah’s willingness to pay is too low andfirm B’s costs are too high, so they do not participate. The maximum totalsurplus is the area between the demand and supply curves, which totals $11 ($8value minus $2 cost for the first haircut, plus $7 value minus $3 cost for thesecond, plus $5 value minus $4 cost for the third).Figure 139. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in ashift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, theequilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases.The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A toA +B +C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Figure 14 Figure 15Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area abovethe supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producersurplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G –B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus.Because consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.b. Because typewriters are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price ofcomputers means that people substitute computers for typewriters, shifting the demand for typewriters to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of typewriters.Consumer surplus in the typewriter market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Typewriter producers are sad about technological advances in computers because their producer surplus declines.c. Because software and computers are complements, the decline in the price andincrease in the quantity of computers means that the demand for softwareincreases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16.The result is an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumersurplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B, a net change of A– C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, sosoftware producers should be happy about the technological progress incomputers.Figure 16d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richestpeople, because his company produces a lot of software that is a complementwith computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.10. a. With Provider A, the cost of an extra minute is $0. With Provider B, the costof an extra minute is $1.b. With Provider A, my friend will purchase 150 minutes [= 150 – (50)(0)]. WithProvider B, my friend would purchase 100 minutes [= 150 – (50)(1)].c. With Provider A, he would pay $120. The cost would be $100 with Provider B.Figure 17d. Figure 17 shows the friend’s demand. With Provider A, he buys 150 minutes andhis consumer surplus is equal to (1/2)(3)(150) – 120 = 105. With Provider B,his consumer surplus is equal to (1/2)(2)(100) = 100.e. I would recommend Provider A because he receives greater consumer surplus.11. a. Figure 18 illustrates the demand for medical care. If each procedure has aprice of $100, quantity demanded will be Q1 procedures.Figure 18b. If consumers pay only $20 per procedure, the quantity demanded will be Q2procedures. Because the cost to society is $100, the number of proceduresperformed is too large to maximize total surplus. The quantity that maximizestotal surplus is Q1 procedures, which is less than Q2.c. The use of medical care is excessive in the sense that consumers get procedureswhose value is less than the cost of producing them. As a result, theeconomy’s total surplus is reduced.d. To prevent this excessive use, the consumer must bear the marginal cost of theprocedure. But this would require eliminating insurance. Another possibilitywould be that the insurance company, which pays most of the marginal cost ofthe procedure ($80, in this case) could decide whether the procedure should beperformed. But the insurance company does not get the benefits of the procedure,so its decisions may not reflect the value to the consumer.。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解
第14章竞争市场上 的企业
第13章生产成本
第15章垄断
第16章垄断 竞争
第17章寡头
第19章收入与歧视
第18章生产要素市 场
第20章收入不平等 与贫困
第21章消费 者选择理论
第22章微观 经济学前沿
作者介绍
读书笔记
这是《曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）课后习题详解》的读书笔记模板，可以替换为自己 的心得。
目录分析
第2章像经济学家 一样思考
第1章经济学十大 原理
第3章相互依存性 与贸易的好处
第5章弹性及其应 用
第4章供给与需求 的市场力量
第6章供给、需求 与政府政策
第8章应用：赋税 的代价
第7章消费者、生 产者与市场效率
第9章应用：国际 贸易
第11章公共物品和 公共资源
第10章外部性
第12章税制的设计
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分 册）》（第6版）课后习题详解
读书笔记模板
01 思维导图
03 目录分析 05 读书笔记
目录
02 内容摘要 04 作者介绍 06 精彩摘录
思维导图
关键字分析思维导图
习题
教材
消费者
微观经济 学
企业
习题
供给
微观经 济学
经济学
原理
第章
需求
曼昆经济 学பைடு நூலகம்
市场
经济学家
第篇
收入
应用
税制
内容摘要
本书特别适用于参加研究生入学考试指定考研参考书目为曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》的考生， 也可供各大院校学习曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》的师生参考。曼昆的《经济学原理》是世界上最流 行的初级经济学教材，也被众多院校列为经济类专业考研重要参考书目。为了帮助学生更好地学习这本教材，我 们有针对性地编著了它的配套辅导用书（均提供免费下载，免费升级）：1．曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分 册）》（第6版）笔记和课后习题详解（含考研真题）[视频讲解]2．曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》 【教材精讲+考研真题解析】讲义与视频课程【35小时高清视频】3．曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》 （第6版）课后习题详解4．曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第5版）课后习题详解5．曼昆《经济学原 理（微观经济学分册）》配套题库【名校考研真题（视频讲解）+课后习题+章节练习+模拟试题】6．曼昆《经济 学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）笔记和课后习题详解（含考研真题）[视频讲解]7．曼昆《经济学原理 （宏观经济学分册）》【教材精讲+考研真题解析】讲义与视频课程【27小时高清视频】8．曼昆《经济学原理 （宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）课后习题详解9．曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第5版）课后习题 详解10．曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》配套题库【名校考研真题（视频讲解）+课后习题+章节练习+ 模拟试题】本书是曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）教材的配套e书，参考国外教材的英文答案 和相关资料对曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）教材每章的课后习题进行了详细的分析和解答， 并对个别知识点进行了扩展。课后习题答案久经修改，非常标准，特别适合应试作答和临考冲刺。另外，部分高 校，如武汉大学、深圳大学等，研究生入学考试部分真题就来自于该书课后习题，因此建议考生多加重视。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解-第7章 消费者、生产
第7章 消费者、生产者与市场效率7.1 复习笔记1．消费者剩余（1）消费者剩余等于买者对一种物品的支付意愿减去其实际为此所支付的量。
每一个买者愿意支付的最高价格称为支付意愿（willingness to pay），它衡量买者对物品的评价。
每个买者都希望以低于自己支付意愿的价格购买商品，并拒绝以高于自己支付意愿的价格购买，而且，对于正好等于自己支付意愿的价格购买商品持无所谓的态度。
消费者愿意支付的价格与其实际所支付的价格之间的差额就是消费者剩余。
（2）用需求曲线衡量消费者剩余消费者剩余与一种物品的需求曲线密切相关，通过求出需求曲线以下和价格以上的面积，可以来计算消费者剩余。
（3）价格下降可以增加消费者剩余当一种物品的价格下降时，消费者剩余因两个原因而增加：①原有消费者可以为要购买的量少支付而得到了更多的剩余；②新的买者由于现在价格低于他们的支付意愿而进入市场，新的消费者剩余出现。
（4）消费者剩余衡量买者参与市场中得到的利益，反映了买者的经济福利由于需求曲线是用支付意愿衡量的买者对一种物品的评价，所以，消费者剩余衡量“作为买者自己感觉到的利益”。
因此，如果政策制定者尊重买者的偏好，消费者剩余就是对买者利益的一种恰当衡量。
经济学家普遍认为，除了吸毒等例外情况，买者都是理性的。
而且，买者的偏好应该受到尊重。
2．生产者剩余（1）生产者剩余等于卖者出售其物品得到的量减去它们的生产成本市场上每一个潜在卖者都有某种生产成本。
这种成本是生产者为了生产一种产品所必须放弃的一切东西的价值，并应该解释为生产者生产的机会成本——钱包里的实际支出加生产者时间的价值。
生产成本是卖者为了生产物品所愿意接受的最低值，生产者在提供一定数量的某种产品时实际接受的总支付和愿意接受的最小总支付之间的差额就是生产者剩余。
（2）用供给曲线衡量生产者剩余通过求出价格以下和供给曲线以上的面积，可以来计算生产者剩余。
（3）价格上升可以增加生产者剩余这种生产者剩余的增加由两部分构成：①原有卖者可以为要出卖的量而得到了更多的利益；②一些新卖者进入市场，新的生产者剩余出现。
曼昆微观经济学课后练习英文答案(第七章)
rketsWHAT’S NEW IN THE SIXTH EDITION:There are no major changes to this chapter.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:the link between buyers’ willingness to pay for a good and the demand curve.how to define and measure consumer surplus.the link between sellers’ costs of producing a good and the supply curve.how to define and measure producer surplus.that the equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes total surplus in a market.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 7 is the first chapter in a three-chapter sequence on welfare economics and market efficiency. Chapter 7 employs the supply and demand model to develop consumer surplus and producer surplus as a measure of welfare and market efficiency. These concepts are then utilized in Chapters 8 and 9 to determine the7CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETSwinners and losers from taxation and restrictions on international trade.The purpose of Chapter 7 is to develop welfare economics—the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being. Chapters 4 through 6 employed supply and demand in a positive framework, which focused on the question, “What is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market?” This chapter now addresses the normative question, “Is the equ ilibrium price and quantity in a market the best possible solution to the resource allocation problem, or is it simply the price and quantity that balance supply and demand?” Students will discover that under most circumstances the equilibrium price and quantity is also the one that maximizes welfare.KEY POINTS:Consumer surplus equals buyers’ willingness to pay for a good minus the amount they actually pay for it, and it measures the benefit buyers get from participating in a market. Consumer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the demand curve and above the price.Producer surplus equals the amount sellers receive for their goods minus their costs of production, and it measures the benefit sellers get from participating in a market. Producer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the price and above the supply curve.An allocation of resources that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus is said to be efficient. Policymakers are often concerned with the efficiency, as well as the equality, of economic outcomes.The equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus. That is, the invisible hand of the marketplace leads buyers and sellers to allocate resources efficiently.Markets do not allocate resources efficiently in the presence of market failures such as market power or externalities.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Definition of welfare economics: the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being.II. Consumer SurplusStudents often are confused by the use of the word “welfare.” Remind them that we are talking about social well-being and not public assistance.A. Willingness to Pay1. Definition of willingness to pay: the maximum amount that abuyer will pay for a good.2. Example: You are auctioning a mint-condition recording ofElvis Presley’s first album. Four buyers show up. Theirwillingness to pay is as follows:If the bidding goes to slightly higher than $80,all buyers drop out except for John. Because Johnis willing to pay more than he has to for the album,he derives some benefit from participating in themarket.3. Definition of consumer surplus: the amount a buyer iswilling to pay for a good minus the amount the buyeractually pays for it.4. Note that if you had more than one copy of the album, theover $70 in the case of two albums) and both John and Paul would gain consumer surplus.B. Using the Demand Curve to Measure Consumer Surplus1. We can use the information on willingness to pay to derivea demand curve for the rare Elvis Presley album.2. At any given quantity, the price given by the demand curvereflects the willingness to pay of the marginal buyer.Because the demand curve shows the buyers’ willingness to pay, we can use the demand curve to measure consumersurplus.Figure 23. Consumer surplus can be measured as the area below thedemand curve and above the price.C. How a Lower Price Raises Consumer SurplusFigure 31. As price falls, consumer surplus increases for two reasons.a. Those already buying the product will receive additionalconsumer surplus because they are paying less for theproduct than before (area A on the graph).b. Because the price is now lower, some new buyers willenter the market and receive consumer surplus on theseadditional units of output purchased (area B on thegraph).D. What Does Consumer Surplus Measure?1. Remember that consumer surplus is the difference between the amount that buyers are willing to pay for a good and the price that they actually pay.2. Thus, it measures the benefit that consumers receive from the good as the buyers themselves perceive it.III. Producer SurplusA. Cost and the Willingness to Sell1. Definition of cost: the value of everything a seller mustgive up to produce a good .ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price ceilings from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for two-bedroom apartments in your town. Draw in a price ceiling below the equilibrium price.Then go through:▪ consumer surplus before the price ceiling is put into place. ▪ consumer surplus after the price ceiling is put into place.You will need to take some time to explain the relationship between the producers’ willingness to sell and the cost of producing the good. The relationship between cost and the supply curve is not as apparent as the relationship between the demand curve and willingness to pay.It is important to stress that consumer surplus is measured in monetary terms. Consumer surplus gives us a way to place a monetary cost on inefficient market outcomes (due to government involvement or market failure).2. Example: You want to hire someone to paint your house. Youaccept bids for the work from four sellers. Each painter is willing to work if the price you will pay exceeds heropportunity cost. (Note that this opportunity cost thusrepresents willingness to sell.) The costs are:3. Bidding will stop when the price gets to be slightly below$600. All sellers will drop out except for Grandma. Because Grandma receives more than she would require to paint the house, she derives some benefit from producing in themarket.4. Definition of producer surplus: the amount a seller is paidfor a good minus the seller’s cost of providing it.5. Note that if you had more than one house to paint, theprice in the auction would end up being higher (a little under $800 in the case of two houses) and both Grandma and Georgia would gain producer surplus.B. Using the Supply Curve to Measure Producer Surplus1. We can use the information on cost (willingness to sell) toderive a supply curve for house painting services.Price Sellers QuantitySupplied$900 ormoreMary, Frida,Georgia, Grandma4$800 to$900Frida, Georgia,Grandma3$600 to$800Georgia, Grandma2$500 to$600Grandma1less than$500None02. At any given quantity, the price given by the supply curverepresents the cost of the marginal seller. Because thesupply curve shows the sellers’ cost (willingness to sell), we can use the supply curve to measure producer surplus. Figure 4Figure 53. Producer surplus can be measured as the area above thesupply curve and below the price.C. How a Higher Price Raises Producer Surplus1. As price rises, producer surplus increases for two reasons.a. Those already selling the product will receiveadditional producer surplus because they are receivingmore for the product than before (area C on the graph).b. Because the price is now higher, some new sellers willenter the market and receive producer surplus on theseadditional units of output sold (area D on the graph).D. Producer surplus is used to measure the economic well-beingof producers, much like consumer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of consumers.Figure 6ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price floors from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for anagricultural product such as corn. Draw in a price support above the equilibriumprice.Then go through:▪ producer surplus before the price support is put in place.▪ producer surplus after the price support is put in place.IV. Market EfficiencyA. The Benevolent Social Planner1. The economic well-being of everyone in society can bemeasured by total surplus, which is the sum of consumersurplus and producer surplus:Total Surplus = Consumer Surplus + ProducerSurplusTotal Surplus = (Value to Buyers – AmountPaid by Buyers) +(Amount Received by Sellers – Cost toSellers)Because the Amount Paid by Buyers = AmountReceived bySellers:2. Definition of efficiency: the property of a resource allocation of maximizing the total surplus received by all members of society .3. Definition of equality: the property of distributingeconomic prosperity uniformly the members of society .Total Surplus = Value to Buyers Cost to SellersNow might be a good time to point out that many government policies involve a trade-off between efficiency and equity. When you evaluate government policies, like price ceilings or floors, you can explain them in terms of equity and efficiency.Pretty Woman, Chapter 6. Vivien (Julia Roberts) and Edward (Richard Gere) negotiate a price. Afterward, Vivien reveals she would have accepted a lower price, while Edward admits he would have paid more. If you have done a good job of introducing consumer and producer surplus, you will see the light bulbs go off above your students’ heads as they watch this clip.B. Evaluating the Market EquilibriumFigure 71. At the market equilibrium price:a. Buyers who value the product more than the equilibriumprice will purchase the product; those who do not, willnot purchase the product. In other words, the freemarket allocates the supply of a good to the buyers whovalue it most highly, as measured by their willingnessto pay.b. Sellers whose costs are lower than the equilibrium pricewill produce the product; those whose costs are higher,will not produce the product. In other words, the freemarket allocates the demand for goods to the sellers whocan produce it at the lowest cost.2. Total surplus is maximized at the market equilibrium.Figure 8a. At any quantity of output smaller than the equilibriumquantity, the value of the product to the marginal buyer is greater than the cost to the marginal seller so total surplus would rise if output increases.b. At any quantity of output greater than the equilibriumquantity, the value of the product to the marginal buyer is less than the cost to the marginal seller so totalsurplus would rise if output decreases.3. Note that this is one of the reasons that economistsbelieve Principle #6: Markets are usually a good way toorganize economic activity.C. In the News: Ticket Scalping1. Ticket scalping is an example of how markets work toachieve an efficient outcome.2. This article from The Boston Globe describes economist ChipCase’s experience with ticket scalping.It would be a good idea to remind students that there are circumstances when the market process does not lead to the most efficient outcome. Examples include situations such as when a firm (or buyer) has market power over price or when there are externalities present. These situations will be discussed in later chapters.D. Case Study: Should There Be a Market in Organs?1. As a matter of public policy, people are not allowed tosell their organs.a. In essence, this means that there is a price ceiling onorgans of $0.b. This has led to a shortage of organs.2. The creation of a market for organs would lead to a moreefficient allocation of resources, but critics worry aboutthe equity of a market system for organs.V. Market Efficiency and Market FailureA. To conclude that markets are efficient, we made severalassumptions about how markets worked.1. Perfectly competitive markets.2. No externalities.B. When these assumptions do not hold, the market equilibriummay not be efficient.C. When markets fail, public policy can potentially remedy thesituation.SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. Figure 1 shows the demand curve for turkey. The price ofturkey is P1 and the consumer surplus that results fromthat price is denoted CS. Consumer surplus is the amount abuyer is willing to pay for a good minus the amount thebuyer actually pays for it. It measures the benefit to buyers of participating in a market.Figure 1 Figure 22. Figure 2 shows the supply curve for turkey. The price ofturkey is P1 and the producer surplus that results from that price is denoted PS. Producer surplus is the amount sellers are paid for a good minus the sellers’ cost of providing it (measured by the supply curve). It measures the benefit to sellers of participating in a market.Figure 33. Figure 3 shows the supply and demand for turkey. The priceof turkey is P1, consumer surplus is CS, and producersurplus is PS. Producing more turkeys than the equilibriumquantity would lower total surplus because the value to themarginal buyer would be lower than the cost to the marginalseller on those additional units.Questions for Review1. The price a buyer is willing to pay, consumer surplus, andthe demand curve are all closely related. The height of thedemand curve represents the willingness to pay of thebuyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curveand above the price, which equals the price that each buyeris willing to pay minus the price actually paid.2. Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve areall closely related. The height of the supply curverepresents the costs of the sellers. Producer surplus isthe area below the price and above the supply curve, whichequals the price received minus each seller's costs ofproducing the good.Figure 43. Figure 4 shows producer and consumer surplus in a supply-and-demand diagram.4. An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizestotal surplus, the sum of consumer surplus and producersurplus. But efficiency may not be the only goal ofeconomic policymakers; they may also be concerned aboutequity the fairness of the distribution of well-being.5. The invisible hand of the marketplace guides the self-interest of buyers and sellers into promoting generaleconomic well-being. Despite decentralized decision makingand self-interested decision makers, free markets oftenlead to an efficient outcome.6. Two types of market failure are market power andexternalities. Market power may cause market outcomes to beinefficient because firms may cause price and quantity todiffer from the levels they would be under perfectcompetition, which keeps total surplus from being maximized.Externalities are side effects that are not taken intoaccount by buyers and sellers. As a result, the free marketdoes not maximize total surplus.Problems and Applications1. a. Consumer surplus is equal to willingness to pay minusthe price paid. Therefore, Melissa’s willingness to paymust be $200 ($120 + $80).b. Her consumer surplus at a price of $90 would be $200 −$90 = $110.c. If the price of an iPod was $250, Melissa would not havepurchased one because the price is greater than herwillingness to pay. Therefore, she would receive noconsumer surplus.2. If an early freeze in California sours the lemon crop, thesupply curve for lemons shifts to the left, as shown inFigure 5. The result is a rise in the price of lemons and adecline in consumer surplus from A + B + C to just A. Soconsumer surplus declines by the amount B + C.Figure 5 Figure 6In the market for lemonade, the higher cost of lemonsreduces the supply of lemonade, as shown in Figure 6. Theresult is a rise in the price of lemonade and a decline inconsumer surplus from D + E + F to just D, a loss of E + F.Note that an event that affects consumer surplus in onemarket often has effects on consumer surplus in othermarkets.3. A rise in the demand for French bread leads to an increasein producer surplus in the market for French bread, asshown in Figure 7. The shift of the demand curve leads to an increased price, which increases producer surplus from area A to area A + B + C.Figure 7The increased quantity of French bread being sold increases the demand for flour, as shown in Figure 8. As a result, the price of flour rises, increasing producer surplus from area D to D + E + F. Note that an event that affectsproducer surplus in one market leads to effects on producer surplus in related markets.Figure 84. a. Bert’s demand schedule is:Price QuantityDemandedMore than$7$5 to $71$3 to $52$1 to $33$1 or less4Bert’s demand curve is shown in Figure 9.Figure 9b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Bert buys twobottles of water. His consumer surplus is shown as areaA in the figure. He values his first bottle of water at$7, but pays only $4 for it, so has consumer surplus of $3. He values his second bottle of water at $5, but pays only $4 for it, so has consumer surplus of $1. ThusBert’s total consumer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2,Bert buys three bottles of water, an increase of one.His consumer surplus consists of both areas A and B in the figure, an increase in the amount of area B. He gets consumer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($7 value minus $2 price), $3 from the second bottle ($5 valueminus $2 price), and $1 from the third bottle ($3 value minus $2 price), for a total consumer surplus of $9.Thus consumer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2.5. a. Ernie’s supply schedule for water is:Price Quantity SuppliedMore than$74$5 to $73$3 to $52$1 to $31Less than$1Ernie’s sup ply curve is shown in Figure 10.Figure 10b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Ernie sellstwo bottles of water. His producer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He receives $4 for his firstbottle of water, but it costs only $1 to produce, soErnie has producer surplus of $3. He also receives $4 for his second bottle of water, which costs $3 toproduce, so he has producer surplus of $1. Thus Ernie’s total producer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is thearea of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6,Ernie sells three bottles of water, an increase of one.His producer surplus consists of both areas A and B inthe figure, an increase by the amount of area B. He gets producer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($6 priceminus $1 cost), $3 from the second bottle ($6 priceminus $3 cost), and $1 from the third bottle ($6 priceminus $5 price), for a total producer surplus of $9.Thus producer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water rises from$4 to $6.6. a. From Ernie’s supply schedule and Bert’s demandschedule, the quantity demanded and supplied are:Only a price of $4 brings supply and demand intoequilibrium, with an equilibrium quantity of two.b. At a price of $4, consumer surplus is $4 and producersurplus is $4, as shown in Problems 3 and 4 above. Total surplus is $4 + $4 = $8.c. If Ernie produced one less bottle, his producer surpluswould decline to $3, as shown in Problem 4 above. IfBert consumed one less bottle, his consumer surpluswould decline to $3, as shown in Problem 3 above. Sototal surplus would decline to $3 + $3 = $6.d. If Ernie produced one additional bottle of water, hiscost would be $5, but the price is only $4, so hisproducer surplus would decline by $1. If Bert consumedone additional bottle of water, his value would be $3,but the price is $4, so his consumer surplus woulddecline by $1. So total surplus declines by $1 + $1 = $2.7. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market forstereos results in a shift to the right in the supplycurve, as shown in Figure 11. As a result, theequilibrium price of stereos declines and theequilibrium quantity increases.Figure 11b. The decline in the price of stereos increases consumersurplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D. Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply,producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G – B, which may be positiveor negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Because consumer surplus rises by B + C + D andproducer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplusrises by C + D + F + G.c. If the supply of stereos is very elastic, then the shiftof the supply curve benefits consumers most. To take the most dramatic case, suppose the supply curve werehorizontal, as shown in Figure 12. Then there is noproducer surplus at all. Consumers capture all thebenefits of falling production costs, with consumersurplus rising from area A to area A + B.Figure 128. Figure 13 shows supply and demand curves for haircuts.Supply equals demand at a quantity of three haircuts and a price between $4 and $5. Firms A, C, and D should cut the hair of Ellen, Jerry, and Phil. Oprah’s willingness to pay is t oo low and firm B’s costs are too high, so they do not participate. The maximum total surplus is the area between the demand and supply curves, which totals $11 ($8 value minus $2 cost for the first haircut, plus $7 value minus $3cost for the second, plus $5 value minus $4 cost for the third).Figure 139. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market forcomputers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, theequilibrium price of computers declines and theequilibrium quantity increases. The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Figure 14 Figure 15Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areasB + E (the area above the supply curve and below theprice). After the shift in supply, producer surplus isareas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by theamount F + G – B, which may be positive or negative.The increase in quantity increases producer surplus,while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus.Because consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producersurplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C +D + F + G.b. Because typewriters are substitutes for computers, thedecline in the price of computers means that peoplesubstitute computers for typewriters, shifting thedemand for typewriters to the left, as shown in Figure15. The result is a decline in both the equilibriumprice and equilibrium quantity of typewriters. Consumersurplus in the typewriter market changes from area A + Bto A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surpluschanges from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C +D. Typewriter producers are sad about technologicaladvances in computers because their producer surplusdeclines.c. Because software and computers are complements, thedecline in the price and increase in the quantity ofcomputers means that the demand for software increases,shifting the demand for software to the right, as shownin Figure 16. The result is an increase in both theprice and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in thesoftware market changes from B + C to A + B, a netchange of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C +D + E, an increase of C + D, so software producersshould be happy about the technological progress incomputers.Figure 16d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is onethe world’s richest people, because his companyproduces a lot of software that is a complement withcomputers and there has been tremendous technologicaladvance in computers.10. a. With Provider A, the cost of an extra minute is $0.With Provider B, the cost of an extra minute is $1.b. With Provider A, my friend will purchase 150 minutes [=150 – (50)(0)]. With Provider B, my friend wouldpurchase 100 minutes [= 150 – (50)(1)].c. With Provider A, he would pay $120. The cost would be $100 with Provider B.Figure 17d. Figure 17 shows the friend’s demand. With Provider A,he buys 150 minutes and his consumer surplus is equal to(1/2)(3)(150) – 120 = 105. With Provider B, hisconsumer surplus is equal to (1/2)(2)(100) = 100.e. I would recommend Provider A because he receives greater consumer surplus.11. a. Figure 18 illustrates the demand for medical care.If each procedure has a price of $100, quantity demandedwill be Q1 procedures.曼昆微观经济学课后练习英文答案(第七章)Figure 18b. If consumers pay only $20 per procedure, the quantitydemanded will be Q2 procedures. Because the cost tosociety is $100, the number of procedures performed istoo large to maximize total surplus. The quantity thatmaximizes total surplus is Q1 procedures, which is lessthan Q2.c. The use of medical care is excessive in the sense thatconsumers get procedures whose value is less than thecost of producing them. As a result, the economy’stotal surplus is reduced.d. To prevent this excessive use, the consumer must bearthe marginal cost of the procedure. But this wouldrequire eliminating insurance. Another possibility wouldbe that the insurance company, which pays most of themarginal cost of the procedure ($80, in this case) coulddecide whether the procedure should be performed. Butthe insurance company does not get the benefits of theprocedure, so its decisions may not reflect the value tothe consumer.151 / 31© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.。
曼昆微观经济学课后答案第六版
曼昆微观经济学课后答案第六版【篇一：曼昆《经济学原理》第6版微观经济学分册第3章课后习题答案p63-p66】情况下，生产可能性曲线是直线，而不是外凸的？【重要级别】☆☆☆【难度级别】☆☆☆【考查要点】生产可能性边界定义【参考答案】当生产一种产品的机会成本为常数时，生产可能性曲线是直线而不是外凸的。
2?解释绝对优势和比较优势有什么不同。
【重要级别】☆☆☆☆【难度级别】☆☆☆【考查要点】绝对优势定义；比较优势定义【参考答案】绝对优势和比较优势都是用于衡量不同生产者生产效率差异的概念，绝对优势以生产效率为评价标准，比较优势以机会成本为评价标准。
同一生产者可能同时在两种物品上都具有绝对优势，但不可能同时在两种物品上都拥有比较优势。
绝对优势反映了生产率的高低，比较优势反映了相对机会成本的高低。
3?举例说明一个人在做某件事上有绝对优势，而另一个人有比较优势。
【重要级别】☆☆☆【难度级别】☆☆【考查要点】绝对优势应用；比较优势应用【参考答案】工程师a每小时的工资为500元，一个小时可以把自己的家打扫干净。
b每小时的工资为50元，两个小时可以把与a相同面积的房屋打扫干净。
在此例中，无论是赚钱还是打扫房间，a都拥有绝对优势。
但从比较优势的角度来看，打扫a的家，a的机会成本是500元，而b的机会成本是100元，所以b在打扫房间上具有比较优势。
4?对贸易来说，是绝对优势重要还是比较优势重要?以你对上一道题的答案为例来解释你的推理。
【重要级别】☆☆☆☆【难度级别】☆☆【考查要点】绝对优势应用；比较优势应用【参考答案】对贸易而言，比较优势重要。
如果按照绝对优势，a 和b之间没有从事贸易的可能。
但是如果从比较优势来看，a专门工作而b专门打扫房间，在相同的时间内，a和b都可以获得更高的收入，这样双方的状况都变得更好。
5?一国是倾向于出口还是进口自己有比较优势的物品？解释原因。
【重要级别】☆☆☆☆【难度级别】☆☆【考查要点】比较优势应用【参考答案】倾向于出口自己具有比较优势的产品。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
第15章垄断15.1 复习笔记跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
1．垄断（1）垄断市场指整个行业中只有一个厂商的市场组织。
具体地说，垄断市场的条件主要有这样三点：第一，市场上只有一个厂商生产和销售商品；第二，该厂商生产和销售的商品没有任何相近的替代品；第三，其他任何厂商进入该行业都极为困难或不可能。
（2）产生垄断的原因垄断的基本原因是进入壁垒，即垄断者能在其市场上保持唯一卖者的地位，是因为其他企业不能进入市场并与之竞争。
进入壁垒又有三个主要来源：①垄断资源。
生产所需要的关键资源由一家企业拥有。
②政府管制。
政府给予一个企业排他性地生产某种产品或劳务的权利。
③自然垄断。
某个企业能以低于大量生产者的成本生产产品。
2．垄断者的生产和定价决策（1）需求曲线垄断厂商所面临的需求曲线就是市场的需求曲线，它是一条向右下方倾斜的曲线，即垄断厂商的销售量和市场价格成反方向变动。
这条向右下方倾斜的需求曲线表示垄断厂商可以通过改变销售量来控制市场价格，即以减少销售量来抬高价格或者以增加销售量来降低价格。
（2）垄断者的收益垄断厂商的边际收益（MR）曲线也是向右下方倾斜的，且位于平均收益（AR）曲线的下方，这表示在每一个销售量上厂商的边际收益都小于平均收益。
之所以出现MR AR<，是因为只要平均量下降，边际量就总是小于平均量。
垄断者的边际收益与竞争企业大不相同。
当垄断者增加它销售的数量时，这对总收益（P Q⨯）有两种效应：①产量效应：销售的产量越多，因此Q越大。
②价格效应：价格下降，因此P降低。
曼昆微观经济学课后练习英文答案（第七章）
曼昆微观经济学课后练习英⽂答案（第七章）rketsWHAT’S NEW IN THE SIXTH EDITION:There are no major changes to this chapter.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:the link between buyers’ willingness to pay for a good and the demand curve.how to define and measure consumer surplus.the link between sellers’ costs of producing a good and the supply curve.how to define and measure producer surplus.that the equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes total surplus in a market.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 7 is the first chapter in a three-chapter sequence on welfare economics and market efficiency. Chapter 7 employs the supply and demand model to develop consumer surplus and producer surplus as a measure of welfare and market efficiency. These concepts are then7CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THEEFFICIENCY OF MARKETSutilized in Chapters 8 and 9 to determine the winners and losers from taxation and restrictions on international trade.The purpose of Chapter 7 is to develop welfare economics—the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being. Chapters 4 through 6 employed supply and demand in a positive framework, which focused on the question, “What is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market” This chapter now addresses the normative question, “Is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market the best possible solution to the resource allocation problem, or is it simply the price and quantity that balance supply and demand” Students will discover that under most circumstances the equilibrium price and quantity is also the one that maximizes welfare.KEY POINTS:Consumer surplus equals buyers’ willingness to pay for a good minus the amount theyactually pay for it, and it measures the benefit buyers get from participating in a market.Consumer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the demand curve and above the price.Producer surplus equals the amount sellers receive for their goods minus their costs of production, and it measures the benefit sellers get from participating in a market.Producer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the price and above the supply curve.An allocation of resources that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus is said to be efficient. Policymakers are often concerned with the efficiency, as well as the equality, of economic outcomes.The equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus.That is, the invisible hand of the marketplace leads buyers and sellers to allocateresources efficiently.Markets do not allocate resources efficiently in the presence of market failures such as market power or externalities. CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Definition of welfare economics: the study of how the allocation of resources affectseconomic well-being.Students often are confused by the use of the word “welfare.” Remind themthat we are talking about social well-being and not public assistance.II. Consumer SurplusA. Willingness to Pay1. Definition of willingness to pay: the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a good.2. Example: You are auctioning a mint-condition recording of Elvis Presley’s first album. Four buyers show up. Their willingness to pay is as follows:If the bidding goes to slightly higher than $80, all buyers drop outexcept for John. Because John is willing to pay more than he has to forthe album, he derives some benefit from participating in the market.3. Definition of consumer surplus: the amount a buyer is willing to pay for a good minus the amount the buyer actually pays for it.4. Note that if you had more than one copy of the album, the price in the auctionJohn and Paul would gain consumer surplus.B. Using the Demand Curve to Measure Consumer Surplus1. We can use the information on willingness to pay to derive a demand curve for the rare Elvis Presley album.2. At any given quantity, the price given by the demand curve reflects thewillingness to pay of the marginal buyer. Because the demand curve shows the buyers’ willingness to pay, we can use the demand curve to measure consumer surplus.Figure 23. Consumer surplus can be measured as the area below the demand curve and above the price.C. How a Lower Price Raises Consumer SurplusFigure 31. As price falls, consumer surplus increases for two reasons.a. Those already buying the product will receive additional consumer surplusbecause they are paying less for the product than before (area A on the graph).b. Because the price is now lower, some new buyers will enter the market andreceive consumer surplus on these additional units of output purchased (area Bon the graph).D. What Does Consumer Surplus MeasureIt is important to stress that consumer surplus is measured in monetaryterms. Consumer surplus gives us a way to place a monetary cost on1. Remember that consumer surplus is the difference between the amount that buyersare willing to pay for a good and the price that they actually pay.2. Thus, it measures the benefit that consumers receive from the good as the buyersthemselves perceive it.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price ceilings from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for two-bedroom apartments in your town. Draw in a price ceiling below the equilibriumprice.III. Producer SurplusA. Cost and the Willingness to Sell1. Definition of cost: the value of everything a seller must give up to produce agood.You will need to take some time to explain the relationship between theproducers’ willingness to sell and the cost of producing the good. Therelationship between cost and the supply curve is not as apparent as the2. Example: You want to hire someone to paint your house. You accept bids for thework from four sellers. Each painter is willing to work if the price you will pay exceeds her opportunity cost. (Note that this opportunity cost thus represents willingness to sell.) The costs are:3. Bidding will stop when the price gets to be slightly below $600. All sellers willdrop out except for Grandma. Because Grandma receives more than she would require to paint the house, she derives some benefit from producing in the market.4. Definition of producer surplus: the amount a seller is paid for a good minus theseller’s cost of providing it.5. Note that if you had more than one house to paint, the price in the auction wouldend up being higher (a little under $800 in the case of two houses) and bothGrandma and Georgia would gain producer surplus.B. Using the Supply Curve to Measure Producer Surplus1. We can use the information on cost (willingness to sell) to derive a supply curvefor house painting services.Price Sellers Quantity Supplied$900 or more Mary, Frida, Georgia, Grandma4$800 to $900Frida, Georgia, Grandma3$600 to $800Georgia, Grandma2$500 to $600Grandma1less than $500None02. At any given quantity, the price given by the supply curve represents the cost ofthe marginal seller. Because the supply curve shows the sellers’ cost(willingness to sell), we can use the supply curve to measure producer surplus.3. Producer surplus can be measured as the area above the supply curve and below theprice.Figure 4Figure 5C. How a Higher Price Raises Producer Surplus1. As price rises, producer surplus increases for two reasons.a. Those already selling the product will receive additional producer surplusbecause they are receiving more for the product than before (area C on thegraph).b. Because the price is now higher, some new sellers will enter the market andreceive producer surplus on these additional units of output sold (area D onthe graph).D. Producer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of producers, much likeFigure 6ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price floors from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for anagricultural product such as corn. Draw in a price support above the equilibriumprice.Then go through:IV. Market EfficiencyA. The Benevolent Social Planner1. The economic well-being of everyone in society can be measured by total surplus,which is the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus:Total Surplus = Consumer Surplus + Producer SurplusTotal Surplus = (Value to Buyers – Amount Paid by Buyers) + (Amount Received by Sellers – Cost to Sellers) Because the Amount Paid by Buyers = Amount Received by Sellers:2. Definition of efficiency: the property of a resource allocation of maximizing thetotal surplus received by all members of society .3. Definition of equality: the property of distributing economic prosperity uniformlythe members of society .B. Evaluating the Market EquilibriumTotal Surplus = Value to Buyers Cost to SellersFigure 7Now might be a good time to point out that many government policies involvea trade-off between efficiency and equity. When you evaluate government Pretty Woman, Chapter 6. Vivien (Julia Roberts) and Edward (Richard Gere)negotiate a price. Afterward, Vivien reveals she would have accepted a lower price, while Edward admits he would have paid more. If you have done a good job of introducing consumer and producer surplus, you will see the1. At the market equilibrium price:a. Buyers who value the product more than the equilibrium price will purchase theproduct; those who do not, will not purchase the product. In other words, thefree market allocates the supply of a good to the buyers who value it mosthighly, as measured by their willingness to pay.b. Sellers whose costs are lower than the equilibrium price will produce theproduct; those whose costs are higher, will not produce the product. In otherwords, the free market allocates the demand for goods to the sellers who canproduce it at the lowest cost.2. Total surplus is maximized at the market equilibrium.Figure 8a. At any quantity of output smaller than the equilibrium quantity, the value ofthe product to the marginal buyer is greater than the cost to the marginalseller so total surplus would rise if output increases.b. At any quantity of output greater than the equilibrium quantity, the value ofthe product to the marginal buyer is less than the cost to the marginal sellerso total surplus would rise if output decreases.3. Note that this is one of the reasons that economists believe Principle #6: Marketsare usually a good way to organize economic activity.It would be a good idea to remind students that there are circumstanceswhen the market process does not lead to the most efficient outcome.Examples include situations such as when a firm (or buyer) has market powerC. In the News: Ticket Scalping1. Ticket scalping is an example of how markets work to achieve an efficient outcome.2. This article from The Boston Globe describes economist Chip Case’s experiencewith ticket scalping.D. Case Study: Should There Be a Market in Organs1. As a matter of public policy, people are not allowed to sell their organs.a. In essence, this means that there is a price ceiling on organs of $0.b. This has led to a shortage of organs.2. The creation of a market for organs would lead to a more efficient allocation of resources, but critics worry about the equity of a market system for organs.V. Market Efficiency and Market FailureA. To conclude that markets are efficient, we made several assumptions about how markets worked.1. Perfectly competitive markets.2. No externalities.B. When these assumptions do not hold, the market equilibrium may not be efficient.C. When markets fail, public policy can potentially remedy the situation.SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. Figure 1 shows the demand curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P1 and the consumer surplus that results from that price is denoted CS. Consumer surplus isthe amount a buyer is willing to pay for a good minus the amount the buyeractually pays for it. It measures the benefit to buyers of participating in amarket.Figure 1 Figure 22. Figure 2 shows the supply curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P1 and the producer surplus that results from that price is denoted PS. Producer surplus is the amount sellers are paid for a good minus the sellers’ cost of providing it (measured by the supply curve). It measures the benefit to sellers of participating in a market.Figure 33. Figure 3 shows the supply and demand for turkey. The price of turkey is P1, consumer surplus is CS, and producer surplus is PS. Producing more turkeys than the equilibrium quantity would lower total surplus because the value to the marginal buyer would be lower than the cost to the marginal seller on those additional units.Questions for Review1. The price a buyer is willing to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve areall closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness topay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and abovethe price, which equals the price that each buyer is willing to pay minus theprice actually paid.2. Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related.The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producersurplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals theprice received minus each seller's costs of producing the good.Figure 43. Figure 4 shows producer and consumer surplus in a supply-and-demand diagram.4. An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes total surplus, the sum ofconsumer surplus and producer surplus. But efficiency may not be the only goal of economic policymakers; they may also be concerned about equity the fairness of the distribution of well-being.5. The invisible hand of the marketplace guides the self-interest of buyers andsellers into promoting general economic well-being. Despite decentralized decision making and self-interested decision makers, free markets often lead to anefficient outcome.6. Two types of market failure are market power and externalities. Market power maycause market outcomes to be inefficient because firms may cause price and quantity to differ from the levels they would be under perfect competition, which keeps total surplus from being maximized. Externalities are side effects that are not taken into account by buyers and sellers. As a result, the free market does not maximize total surplus.Problems and Applications1. a. Consumer surplus is equal to willingness to pay minus the price paid.Therefore, Melissa’s willingness to pay must be $200 ($120 + $80).b. Her consumer surplus at a price of $90 would be $200 ? $90 = $110.c. If the price of an iPod was $250, Melissa would not have purchased one becausethe price is greater than her willingness to pay. Therefore, she would receiveno consumer surplus.2. If an early freeze in California sours the lemon crop, the supply curve for lemonsshifts to the left, as shown in Figure 5. The result is a rise in the price oflemons and a decline in consumer surplus from A + B + C to just A. So consumer surplus declines by the amount B + C.Figure 5 Figure 6In the market for lemonade, the higher cost of lemons reduces the supply of lemonade, as shown in Figure 6. The result is a rise in the price of lemonade and a decline in consumer surplus from D + E + F to just D, a loss of E + F. Note that an event that affects consumer surplus in one market often has effects on consumer surplus in other markets.。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》第6版课后习题详解(1~2章)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》第6版课后习题详解（1~2章）曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》第6版课后练习的详细讲解第一篇导言第一章经济学十大原理一、概念题1.稀缺性稀缺性是指在一定时间内，经济资源的供给相对于人的需求总是不足的，即资源的有限性与人的欲望的无限性之间的矛盾。
2.经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
微观经济学是以单个经济主体为研究对象，研究单个经济主体在面临既定资源约束时如何做出选择的科学；宏观经济学以整个国民经济为研究对象，主要研究经济总量。
3.效率效率是指人们在实践活动中的产出与投入比值或者是效益与成本比值，比值大效率高，比值小效率低。
它与产出或收益大小成正比，与投入或成本成反比。
4.平等平等是指人与人之间的利益关系，利益关系的原则、制度、实践和行为符合社会发展的需要，即经济成果在社会成员之间公平分配的特征。
它是一个历史范畴，根据社会历史条件和社会性质而变化，没有永恒的公平；它也是一个客观范畴。
虽然它的内涵在不同的社会形态中有所不同，对它的理解也有所不同，但它是社会存在的反映，具有客观性。
5.机会成本机会成本是指将一种资源用于某种用途，而未用于其他用途所放弃的最大预期收益。
其存在的前提条件是：①资源是稀缺的；②资源具有多种用途；③资源的投向不受限制。
6.理性人理性人是指为实现自己的目标而做出系统而有目的的努力的人。
他是经济研究中假定的经济活动的主体，在一定条件下具有典型的理性行为。
7.边际变化边际变动是指对行动计划的微小增量调整。
8.激励动机是促使一个人做某事的东西。
9.市场经济市场经济是指由家庭和企业在市场上的相互交易决定资源配置的经济，而资源配置实际上就是决定社会生产什么、生产多少、如何生产以及为谁生产的过程。
10.产权产权是指个人拥有和控制稀缺资源的能力。
它也可以理解为人们对他们交易的物品的所有权，即人们在贸易活动中为经济利益而使自己或他人受益或受损的权力。
曼昆微观经济学课后练习英文答案(第七章)
WHAT’S NEW IN THE SIXTH EDITION:There are no major changes to this chapter.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:➢ the link between buyers’ willingness to pay for a good and the demand curve.➢ how to define and measure consumer surplus.➢ the link between sellers’ costs of producing a good and the supply curve.➢ how to define and measure producer surplus.➢ that the equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes total surplus in a market.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 7 is the first chapter in a three-chapter sequence on welfare economics and market efficiency. Chapter 7 employs the supply and demand model to develop consumer surplus and producer surplus as a measure of welfare and market efficiency. These concepts are then utilized in Chapters 8 and 9 to determine the winners and losers from taxation and restrictions on international trade.The purpose of Chapter 7 is to develop welfare economics —the study of how the allocation ofresources affects economic well-being. Chapters 4 through 6 employed supply and demand in a positive framework, which focused on the question, “What is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market?” This chapter now addresses the normative question, “Is the equ ilibrium price and quantity in a market the best possible solution to the resource allocation problem, or is it simply the price and quantity thatbalance supply and demand?” Students will discover that under most circumstances the equilibrium price and quantity is also the one that maximizes welfare.7CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETSKEY POINTS:• Consumer surplus equals buyers’ willingness to pay for a good minus the amount they actually pay for it, and it measures the benefit buyers get from participating in a market. Consumer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the demand curve and above the price.• Producer surplus equals the amount sellers receive for their goods minus their costs of production, and it measures the benefit sellers get from participating in a market. Producer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the price and above the supply curve.•An allocation of resources that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus is said to be efficient. Policymakers are often concerned with the efficiency, as well as the equality, of economic outcomes.• The equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus. That is,the invisible hand of the marketplace leads buyers and sellers to allocate resources efficiently.• Markets do not allocate resources efficiently in the presence of market failures such as market poweror externalities.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Definition of welfare economics: the study of how the allocation of resources affectseconomic well-being.II. Consumer SurplusA. Willingness to Pay1. Definition of willingness to pay: the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for agood.2. Example: You are auctioning a mint-condition recording of Elvis Presley’s first album. Fourbuyers show up. Their willingness to pay is as follows:If the bidding goes to slightly higher than $80, all buyers drop out except forJohn. Because John is willing to pay more than he has to for the album, hederives some benefit from participating in the market.3. Definition of consumer surplus: the amount a buyer is willing to pay for a goodminus the amount the buyer actually pays for it.4. Note that if you had more than one copy of the album, the price in the auction would end upbeing lower (a little over $70 in the case of two albums) and both John and Paul would gain consumer surplus.B. Using the Demand Curve to Measure Consumer Surplus1. We can use the information on willingness to pay to derive a demand curve for the rare ElvisPresley album.PriceBuyersQuantity DemandedMore than $100 None 0 $80 to $100 John1 $70 to $80 John, Paul2 $50 to $70 John, Paul, George3 $50 or lessJohn, Paul, George, Ringo42. At any given quantity, the price given by the demand curve reflects the willingness to pay ofthe marginal buyer . Because the demand curve shows the buyers’ willingness to pay, we can use the demand curve to measure consumer surplus.Figure 1 “This represents the demand curve for the time machine. Consumer surplus is the difference between what consumers are willing to pay and the amount they actually have to pay. The market price will deter mine who uses the time machine and how much surplus they keep.”“If the price of a time machine ride was $500, three rides would be sold—one to Scott, one to Carol, and one to Steve. Jeanne is not willing to pay $500, so she wouldn’t time travel.”“We c an calculate the consumer surplus of three time trips. Scott would pay $3,000 but only pays $500, leaving $2,500 of net benefits.” (Put these numbers on the board.) “Carol has net benefits of $2,000. Steve has $300 in net benefits. Adding up these net savings gives $4,800 in consumer surplus.”Points for DiscussionThe consumer surplus depends on a good’s selling price and the number of consumers who are willing to purchase the good at that price. The lower the price, the greater the consumer surplus.3. Consumer surplus can be measured as the area below the demand curve and above the price. C. How a Lower Price Raises Consumer Surplus1. As price falls, consumer surplus increases for two reasons.a. Those already buying the product will receive additional consumer surplus because theyare paying less for the product than before (area A on the graph).b. Because the price is now lower, some new buyers will enter the market and receiveconsumer surplus on these additional units of output purchased (area B on the graph).D. What Does Consumer Surplus Measure?1. Remember that consumer surplus is the difference between the amount that buyers arewilling to pay for a good and the price that they actually pay.2. Thus, it measures the benefit that consumers receive from the good as the buyersthemselves perceive it.Figure 2Figure 3It is important to stress that consumer surplus is measured in monetary terms. Consumer surplus gives us a way to place a monetary cost on inefficient market outcomes (due to government involvement or market failure).III. Producer SurplusA. Cost and the Willingness to Sell1. Definition of cost: the value of everything a seller must give up to produce a good .2. Example: You want to hire someone to paint your house. You accept bids for the work fromfour sellers. Each painter is willing to work if the price you will pay exceeds her opportunity cost. (Note that this opportunity cost thus represents willingness to sell.) The costs are:3. Bidding will stop when the price gets to be slightly below $600. All sellers will drop out exceptfor Grandma. Because Grandma receives more than she would require to paint the house, she derives some benefit from producing in the market.4. Definition of producer surplus: the amount a seller is paid for a good minus theseller’s cost of providing it.5. Note that if you had more than one house to paint, the price in the auction would end upbeing higher (a little under $800 in the case of two houses) and both Grandma and Georgia would gain producer surplus.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price ceilings from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for two-bedroom apartments in your town. Draw in a price ceiling below the equilibrium price.Then go through:▪ consumer surplus before the price ceiling is put into place. ▪ consumer surplus after the price ceiling is put into place.B. Using the Supply Curve to Measure Producer Surplus1. We can use the information on cost (willingness to sell) to derive a supply curve for housepainting services.Price Sellers Quantity Supplied$900 or more Mary, Frida, Georgia, Grandma 4$800 to $900 Frida, Georgia, Grandma 3$600 to $800 Georgia, Grandma 2$500 to $600 Grandma 1less than $500 None 02. At any given quantity, the price given by the supply curve represents the cost of the marginalseller. Because the supply curve shows the sellers’ cost (willingness to sell), we can use the supply curve to measure producer surplus.3. Producer surplus can be measured as the area above the supply curve and below the price. Figure 4Figure 5C. How a Higher Price Raises Producer Surplus1. As price rises, producer surplus increases for two reasons.a. Those already selling the product will receive additional producer surplus because theyare receiving more for the product than before (area C on the graph).b. Because the price is now higher, some new sellers will enter the market and receiveproducer surplus on these additional units of output sold (area D on the graph).D. Producer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of producers, much like consumersurplus is used to measure the economic well-being of consumers.Figure 6ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price floors from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for an agriculturalproduct such as corn. Draw in a price support above the equilibrium price.Then go through:▪ producer surplus before the price support is put in place.▪ producer surplus after the price support is put in place.Make sure that you discuss the cost of the price support to taxpayers.Pretty Woman, Chapter 6. Vivien (Julia Roberts) and Edward (Richard Gere)negotiate a price. Afterward, Vivien reveals she would have accepted a lower price,while Edward admits he would have paid more. If you have done a good job ofintroducing consumer and producer surplus, you will see the light bulbs go off aboveyour students’ heads as they watch this clip.IV. Market EfficiencyA. The Benevolent Social Planner1. The economic well-being of everyone in society can be measured by total surplus, which isthe sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus:Total Surplus = Consumer Surplus + Producer SurplusTotal Surplus = (Value to Buyers – Amount Paid by Buyers) + (Amount Received by Sellers – Cost to Sellers)Because the Amount Paid by Buyers = Amount Received by Sellers:2. Definition ofefficiency: the property of a resource allocation of maximizing thetotal surplus received by all members of society .3. Definition of equality: the property of distributing economic prosperity uniformlythe members of society .B. Evaluating the Market EquilibriumTotal Surplus = Value to Buyers Cost to Sellers Figure 7Now might be a good time to point out that many government policies involve atrade-off between efficiency and equity. When you evaluate government policies, like price ceilings or floors, you can explain them in terms of equity and efficiency.1. At the market equilibrium price:a. Buyers who value the product more than the equilibrium price will purchase the product;those who do not, will not purchase the product. In other words, the free marketallocates the supply of a good to the buyers who value it most highly, as measured bytheir willingness to pay.b. Sellers whose costs are lower than the equilibrium price will produce the product; thosewhose costs are higher, will not produce the product. In other words, the free marketallocates the demand for goods to the sellers who can produce it at the lowest cost.2. Total surplus is maximized at the market equilibrium.Figure 8a. At any quantity of output smaller than the equilibrium quantity, the value of the productto the marginal buyer is greater than the cost to the marginal seller so total surpluswould rise if output increases.b. At any quantity of output greater than the equilibrium quantity, the value of the productto the marginal buyer is less than the cost to the marginal seller so total surplus wouldrise if output decreases.3. Note that this is one of the reasons that economists believe Principle #6: Markets are usuallya good way to organize economic activity.It would be a good idea to remind students that there are circumstances when themarket process does not lead to the most efficient outcome. Examples includesituations such as when a firm (or buyer) has market power over price or when thereare externalities present. These situations will be discussed in later chapters.C. In the News: Ticket Scalping1. Ticket scalping is an example of how markets work to achieve an efficient outcome.2. This article from The Boston Globe descri bes economist Chip Case’s experience with ticketscalping.D. Case Study: Should There Be a Market in Organs?1. As a matter of public policy, people are not allowed to sell their organs.a. In essence, this means that there is a price ceiling on organs of $0.b. This has led to a shortage of organs.2. The creation of a market for organs would lead to a more efficient allocation of resources,but critics worry about the equity of a market system for organs.V. Market Efficiency and Market FailureA. To conclude that markets are efficient, we made several assumptions about how markets worked.1. Perfectly competitive markets.2. No externalities.B. When these assumptions do not hold, the market equilibrium may not be efficient.C. When markets fail, public policy can potentially remedy the situation.SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. Figure 1 shows the demand curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P1 and the consumersurplus that results from that price is denoted CS. Consumer surplus is the amount a buyer iswilling to pay for a good minus the amount the buyer actually pays for it. It measures thebenefit to buyers of participating in a market.Figure 1 Figure 22. Figure 2 shows the supply curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P1 and the producersurplus that results from that price is denoted PS. Producer surplus is the amount sellers arepaid for a good minus the sellers’ cost of providing it (measured by the supply curve). Itmeasures the benefit to sellers of participating in a market.Figure 33. Figure 3 shows the supply and demand for turkey. The price of turkey is P1, consumersurplus is CS, and producer surplus is PS. Producing more turkeys than the equilibriumquantity would lower total surplus because the value to the marginal buyer would be lowerthan the cost to the marginal seller on those additional units.Questions for Review1. The price a buyer is willing to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closelyrelated. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers.Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and above the price, which equals theprice that each buyer is willing to pay minus the price actually paid.2. Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of thesupply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the priceand above the supply curve, which equals the price received minus each seller's costs ofproducing the good.Figure 43. Figure 4 shows producer and consumer surplus in a supply-and-demand diagram.4. An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes total surplus, the sum of consumersurplus and producer surplus. But efficiency may not be the only goal of economicpolicymakers; they may also be concerned about equity the fairness of the distribution ofwell-being.5. The invisible hand of the marketplace guides the self-interest of buyers and sellers intopromoting general economic well-being. Despite decentralized decision making and self-interested decision makers, free markets often lead to an efficient outcome.6. Two types of market failure are market power and externalities. Market power may causemarket outcomes to be inefficient because firms may cause price and quantity to differ fromthe levels they would be under perfect competition, which keeps total surplus from beingmaximized. Externalities are side effects that are not taken into account by buyers and sellers.As a result, the free market does not maximize total surplus.Problems and Applications1. a. Consumer surplus is equal to willingness to pay minus the price paid. Therefore,Melissa’s willingness to pay must be $200 ($120 + $80).b. Her consumer surplus at a price of $90 would be $200 − $90 = $110.c. If the price of an iPod was $250, Melissa would not have purchased one because theprice is greater than her willingness to pay. Therefore, she would receive no consumersurplus.2. If an early freeze in California sours the lemon crop, the supply curve for lemons shifts to theleft, as shown in Figure 5. The result is a rise in the price of lemons and a decline inconsumer surplus from A + B + C to just A. So consumer surplus declines by the amount B +C.Figure 5 Figure 6In the market for lemonade, the higher cost of lemons reduces the supply of lemonade, asshown in Figure 6. The result is a rise in the price of lemonade and a decline in consumersurplus from D + E + F to just D, a loss of E + F. Note that an event that affects consumersurplus in one market often has effects on consumer surplus in other markets.3. A rise in the demand for French bread leads to an increase in producer surplus in the marketfor French bread, as shown in Figure 7. The shift of the demand curve leads to an increased price, which increases producer surplus from area A to area A + B + C.Figure 7The increased quantity of French bread being sold increases the demand for flour, as shown in Figure 8. As a result, the price of flour rises, increasing producer surplus from area D to D + E + F. Note that an event that affects producer surplus in one market leads to effects on producer surplus in related markets.Figure 84. a. Bert’s demand schedule is:Price Quantity DemandedMore than $7 0$5 to $7 1$3 to $5 2$1 to $3 3$1 or less 4Bert’s demand curve is shown in Figure 9.Figure 9b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Bert buys two bottles of water. His consumersurplus is shown as area A in the figure. He values his first bottle of water at $7, butpays only $4 for it, so has consumer surplus of $3. He values his second bottle of water at $5, but pays only $4 for it, so has consumer surplus of $1. Thus Bert’s total consumer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2, Bert buys three bottles of water,an increase of one. His consumer surplus consists of both areas A and B in the figure, an increase in the amount of area B. He gets consumer surplus of $5 from the first bottle($7 value minus $2 price), $3 from the second bottle ($5 value minus $2 price), and $1 from the third bottle ($3 value minus $2 price), for a total consumer surplus of $9. Thus consumer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle ofwater falls from $4 to $2.5. a. Ernie’s supply schedule for water is:Price Quantity SuppliedMore than $7 4$5 to $7 3$3 to $5 2$1 to $3 1Less than $1 0Ernie’s supply curve is shown in Figure 10.Figure 10b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Ernie sells two bottles of water. His producersurplus is shown as area A in the figure. He receives $4 for his first bottle of water, but itcosts only $1 to produce, so Ernie has producer surplus of $3. He also receives $4 for his second bottle of water, which costs $3 to produce, so he has producer surplus of $1.Thus Ernie’s total producer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6, Ernie sells three bottles of water,an increase of one. His producer surplus consists of both areas A and B in the figure, anincrease by the amount of area B. He gets producer surplus of $5 from the first bottle($6 price minus $1 cost), $3 from the second bottle ($6 price minus $3 cost), and $1from the third bottle ($6 price minus $5 price), for a total producer surplus of $9. Thusproducer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle ofwater rises from $4 to $6.6. a. From Ernie’s supply schedule and Bert’s demand schedule, the quantity demanded andsupplied are:Price Quantity Supplied Quantity Demanded$2 1 3$4 2 2$6 3 1Only a price of $4 brings supply and demand into equilibrium, with an equilibriumquantity of two.b. At a price of $4, consumer surplus is $4 and producer surplus is $4, as shown inProblems 3 and 4 above. Total surplus is $4 + $4 = $8.c. If Ernie produced one less bottle, his producer surplus would decline to $3, as shown inProblem 4 above. If Bert consumed one less bottle, his consumer surplus would declineto $3, as shown in Problem 3 above. So total surplus would decline to $3 + $3 = $6.d. If Ernie produced one additional bottle of water, his cost would be $5, but the price isonly $4, so his producer surplus would decline by $1. If Bert consumed one additionalbottle of water, his value would be $3, but the price is $4, so his consumer surplus would decline by $1. So total surplus declines by $1 + $1 = $2.7. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for stereos results in a shift to theright in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 11. As a result, the equilibrium price ofstereos declines and the equilibrium quantity increases.Figure 11b. The decline in the price of stereos increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C+ D, an increase in the amount B + C + D. Prior to the shift in supply, producer surpluswas areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amountF +G – B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increasesproducer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Becauseconsumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, totalsurplus rises by C + D + F + G.c. If the supply of stereos is very elastic, then the shift of the supply curve benefitsconsumers most. To take the most dramatic case, suppose the supply curve werehorizontal, as shown in Figure 12. Then there is no producer surplus at all. Consumerscapture all the benefits of falling production costs, with consumer surplus rising fromarea A to area A + B.Figure 128. Figure 13 shows supply and demand curves for haircuts. Supply equals demand at a quantityof three haircuts and a price between $4 and $5. Firms A, C, and D should cut the hair of Ellen, Jerry, and Phil. Oprah’s willingness to pay is too low and firm B’s costs are too high, so they do not participate. The maximum total surplus is the area between the demand and supply curves, which totals $11 ($8 value minus $2 cost for the first haircut, plus $7 value minus $3 cost for the second, plus $5 value minus $4 cost for the third).Figure 139. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to theright in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price ofcomputers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases. The decline in the price ofcomputers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Figure 14 Figure 15Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G.So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G – B, which may be positive ornegative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in theprice reduces producer surplus. Because consumer surplus rises by B + C + D andproducer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.b. Because typewriters are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computersmeans that people substitute computers for typewriters, shifting the demand fortypewriters to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is a decline in both theequilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of typewriters. Consumer surplus in thetypewriter market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producersurplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Typewriterproducers are sad about technological advances in computers because their producersurplus declines.c. Because software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increasein the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The result is an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changesfrom B + C to A + B, a net change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.Figure 16d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richest people, becausehis company produces a lot of software that is a complement with computers and therehas been tremendous technological advance in computers.10. a. With Provider A, the cost of an extra minute is $0. With Provider B, the cost of an extraminute is $1.b. With Provider A, my friend will purchase 150 minutes [= 150 – (50)(0)]. With Provider B,my friend would purchase 100 minutes [= 150 – (50)(1)].c. With Provider A, he would pay $120. The cost would be $100 with Provider B.Figure 17d. Figure 17 shows the friend’s demand. With Provider A, he buys 150 minu tes and hisconsumer surplus is equal to (1/2)(3)(150) – 120 = 105. With Provider B, his consumersurplus is equal to (1/2)(2)(100) = 100.e. I would recommend Provider A because he receives greater consumer surplus.11. a. Figure 18 illustrates the demand for medical care. If each procedure has a price of $100,quantity demanded will be Q1 procedures.Figure 18b. If consumers pay only $20 per procedure, the quantity demanded will be Q2 procedures.Because the cost to society is $100, the number of procedures performed is too large to maximize total surplus. The quantity that maximizes total surplus is Q1 procedures, which is less than Q2.c. The use of medical care is excessive in the sense that consumers get procedures whosevalue is less than t he cost of producing them. As a result, the economy’s total surplus is reduced.d. To prevent this excessive use, the consumer must bear the marginal cost of theprocedure. But this would require eliminating insurance. Another possibility would be that the insurance company, which pays most of the marginal cost of the procedure ($80, in this case) could decide whether the procedure should be performed. But the insurance company does not get the benefits of the procedure, so its decisions may not reflect the value to the consumer.。
(NEW)曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解
目 录第1篇 导 言第1章 经济学十大原理第2章 像经济学家一样思考第3章 相互依存性与贸易的好处第2篇 市场如何运行第4章 供给与需求的市场力量第5章 弹性及其应用第6章 供给、需求与政府政策第3篇 市场和福利第7章 消费者、生产者与市场效率第8章 应用：赋税的代价第9章 应用：国际贸易第4篇 公共部门经济学第10章 外部性第11章 公共物品和公共资源第12章 税制的设计第5篇 企业行为与产业组织第13章 生产成本第14章 竞争市场上的企业第15章 垄 断第16章 垄断竞争第17章 寡 头第6篇 劳动市场经济学第18章 生产要素市场第19章 收入与歧视第20章 收入不平等与贫困第7篇 深入研究的论题第21章 消费者选择理论第22章 微观经济学前沿第1篇 导 言第1章 经济学十大原理一、概念题1．稀缺性（scarcity）答：经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
稀缺性指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有用性与有限性。
人类消费各种物品的欲望是无限的，满足这种欲望的物品，有的可以不付出任何代价而随意取得，称之为自由物品，如阳光和空气；但绝大多数物品是不能自由取用的，因为世界上的资源（包括物质资源和人力资源）是有限的，这种有限的、为获取它必须付出某种代价的物品，称为“经济物品”。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，地球上就存在着资源的有限性和人类的欲望与需求的无限性之间的矛盾。
经济学的一个重要研究任务就是：“研究人们如何进行抉择，以便使用稀缺的或有限的生产性资源（土地、劳动、资本品如机器、技术知识）来生产各种商品，并把它们分配给不同的社会成员进行消费。
”也就是从经济学角度来研究使用有限的资源来生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产的问题。
2．经济学（economics）答：经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
时下经常见诸国内报刊文献的“现代西方经济学”一词，大多也都在这个意义上使用。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第7章 消费者、生产者与市场效率)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第3篇 市场和福利第7章 消费者、生产者与市场效率课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1．福利经济学（welfare economics ）答：福利经济学是一种规范经济学，研究的是整个经济的资源配置与个人福利的关系，特别是市场经济体系的资源配置与福利的关系，以及与此有关的各种政策问题。
福利经济学研究要素在不同厂商之间的最优分配以及产品在不同家庭之间的最优配置。
它的主要特点是：从一定的价值判断出发建立理论体系，在边际效用论的基础上建立福利概念，依据既定的社会目标和福利理论制定经济政策。
20世纪初，西方国家为调和日益尖锐的社会矛盾，福利经济学应运而生。
英国经济学家A ·C ·庇古是福利经济学的创始人和主要代表。
庇古1920年出版的《福利经济学》是福利经济学产生的标志。
庇古的福利经济学有两个基本命题：一是国民收入总量愈大，社会经济福利愈大；二是国民收入分配愈均等，社会经济福利愈大。
由于在1929～1933年的大危机以后，庇古的理论已经不能完全适应需要，因此他的理论被称为旧福利经济学。
与庇古的旧福利经济学相对的是其后出现的新福利经济学，代表人物有勒纳、卡尔多、希克斯等。
2．支付意愿（willingness to pay ）答：支付意愿指买者愿意为某种商品支付的最高价格。
支付意愿是衡量买者对物品的评价，评价越高支付意愿越强，愿意支付的价格越高，反之，评价越低支付意愿越弱，愿意支付的价格越低。
3．消费者剩余（consumer surplus ）（西北大学2004、2006研；华南理工大学2007、2008研；北京工业大学2008研）答：消费者剩余指消费者购买一定数量的某种产品时愿意支付的价格与其实际所支付的价格之间的差额。
曼昆《经济学原理》第6版 微观经济学分册 第7章 课后习题答案p157p159
第三篇市场和福利第七章消费者、生产者与市场效率问题与应用1．Melissa用120美元购买了一个iPod，并得到了80美元的消费者剩余。
A．她的支付意愿是多少？答：消费者剩余等于支付意愿减去付出的价格。
因此，梅莉莎须支付200 美元($120 + $80)。
B．如果她在降价销售时买了售价为90美元的iPod，她的消费者剩余会是多少？答：此时，她的消费者剩余为：200-90 =110 美元。
C．如果iPod的价格是250美元，她的消费者剩余会是多少？答：如果iPod 的价格是250 美元，其价格大于梅莉莎的支付愿意，因此她不会再买，这时的消费者剩余就为零。
2．加利福尼亚早来的寒流使柠檬变酸。
柠檬市场上消费者剩余会有什么变动？柠檬水市场上消费者剩余会有什么变动？用图形说明你的答案。
答：柠檬变酸，消费者对柠檬的评价下降，需求曲线向左下方移动。
在其他条件不变的情况下，消费者剩余减少。
如图7－2(a)所示，柠檬质量下降，使需求曲线从D1下降到D 2，△APE是原先的消费者剩余，△A′P′E′是变动后的消费者剩余，△APE>△A′P′E′。
由于柠檬价格的下降，柠檬水的投入成本减少，柠檬水的价格也下降。
在其他条件不变的情况下，柠檬水市场上消费者剩余增加，如图7－2(b)所示。
图7－2 寒流的影响3．假设对法国面包的需求增加。
在法国面包市场上，生产者剩余会发生什么变动？在面粉市场上，生产者剩余会发生什么变动？用图形说明你的答案。
答：由于需求增加，在其他条件不变的情况下，法国面包的价格会上升，市场上的生产者剩余增加。
如图7 －3(a)，价格从P1 上升到P2 ，销量从Q 1上升到Q 2，生产者剩余从面积P1BE1增加到面积P2BE2 。
由于面包产量上升，它的生产要素面粉的需求量也会上升。
在其他条件不变的情况下，面粉价格上升，市场上的生产者剩余增加。
如图7－3(b)所示，生产者剩余从面积P1BE1增加到面积P2BE2 。
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第三篇市场和福利第七章消费者、生产者与市场效率问题与应用1．Melissa用120美元购买了一个iPod，并得到了80美元的消费者剩余。
A．她的支付意愿是多少？答：消费者剩余等于支付意愿减去付出的价格。
因此，梅莉莎须支付200 美元($120 + $80)。
B．如果她在降价销售时买了售价为90美元的iPod，她的消费者剩余会是多少？答：此时，她的消费者剩余为：200-90 =110 美元。
C．如果iPod的价格是250美元，她的消费者剩余会是多少？答：如果iPod 的价格是250 美元，其价格大于梅莉莎的支付愿意，因此她不会再买，这时的消费者剩余就为零。
2．加利福尼亚早来的寒流使柠檬变酸。
柠檬市场上消费者剩余会有什么变动？柠檬水市场上消费者剩余会有什么变动？用图形说明你的答案。
答：柠檬变酸，消费者对柠檬的评价下降，需求曲线向左下方移动。
在其他条件不变的情况下，消费者剩余减少。
如图7－2(a)所示，柠檬质量下降，使需求曲线从D1下降到D 2，△APE是原先的消费者剩余，△A′P′E′是变动后的消费者剩余，△APE>△A′P′E′。
由于柠檬价格的下降，柠檬水的投入成本减少，柠檬水的价格也下降。
在其他条件不变的情况下，柠檬水市场上消费者剩余增加，如图7－2(b)所示。
图7－2 寒流的影响3．假设对法国面包的需求增加。
在法国面包市场上，生产者剩余会发生什么变动？在面粉市场上，生产者剩余会发生什么变动？用图形说明你的答案。
答：由于需求增加，在其他条件不变的情况下，法国面包的价格会上升，市场上的生产者剩余增加。
如图7 －3(a)，价格从P1 上升到P2 ，销量从Q 1上升到Q 2，生产者剩余从面积P1BE1增加到面积P2BE2 。
由于面包产量上升，它的生产要素面粉的需求量也会上升。
在其他条件不变的情况下，面粉价格上升，市场上的生产者剩余增加。
如图7－3(b)所示，生产者剩余从面积P1BE1增加到面积P2BE2 。
图7－3 法国面包需求增加的影响4．这是一个热天，Bert口干舌燥。
下面是他对一瓶水的评价：对第一瓶评价77美元对第二瓶评价55美元对第三瓶评价33美元对第四瓶评价11美元A．根据以上信息推导出Bert的需求表。
画出他对瓶装水的需求曲线。
答：表7－1 Bert的需求表图7－4 Bert的需求曲线B．如果一瓶水的价格是4美元，Bert会买多少瓶水？Bert从他的购买中得到了多少消费者剩余？在你的图形中标出Bert的消费者剩余。
答：如果价格是4 美元，Bert买2 瓶水。
他从购买中得到了4 美元的消费者剩余。
如图7－5 所示，Bert的消费者剩余是4 美元(7－4+5－4＝4)。
图7－5 Bert的消费者剩余C．如果价格下降到22美元，需求量会有何变化？Bert的消费者剩余会有何变化？用你的图形说明这些变化。
答：如果价格下降到2 美元，需求量增加到3，Bert的消费者剩余增加到9 美元。
如图7—6 所示，Bert的消费者剩余增加到9 美元(7－2+5－2+3－2＝9)。
图7－6 Bert的消费者剩余5．Ernie有一台抽水机。
由于抽大量的水比抽少量的水困难，随着抽的水越来越多，生产一瓶水的成本增加。
下面是他生产每瓶水的成本：第一瓶水的成本11美元第二瓶水的成本33美元第三瓶水的成本55美元第四瓶水的成本77美元A．根据以上信息推导出Ernie的供给表。
画出他的瓶装水的供给曲线。
答：表7－2 Ernie的供给表图7－7 Ernie的供给曲线B．如果一瓶水的价格是4美元，Ernie会生产并销售多少瓶水？Ernie从这种销售中得到多少生产者剩余？在你的图形中标出Ernie的生产者剩余。
答：如果一瓶水的价格是4 美元，Ernie生产并销售2 瓶水。
Ernie的生产者剩余是4 美元，如图7－8 所示。
图7—8 Ernie的生产者剩余C．如果价格上升为6美元，供给量会有什么变化？Ernie的生产者剩余会有何变化？在你的图形中标出这些变化。
答：如果价格上升为6 美元，供给量会上升，Ernie的生产者剩余也上升。
如图7－9 所示，供给量上升为3 瓶，生产者剩余上升为9 美元。
图7—9 Ernie的生产者剩余6．考虑一个由问题4中的Bert作为买者、问题5中的Ernie作为卖者组成的市场。
A．用Ernie的供给表和Bert的需求表找出价格为2美元、4美元和6美元时的供给量和需求量。
这些价格中哪一种能使供求达到平衡??答：这些价格中4 美元一瓶时可使供求均衡。
表7－3 供求表B．在这种均衡时，消费者剩余、生产者剩余和总剩余是多少?答：在这种均衡中，消费者剩余是4 美元，生产者剩余是4 美元，总剩余是8 美元。
C．如果Ernie少生产并且Bert少消费一瓶水，总剩余会发生什么变动?答：总剩余会下降，变成6 美元，因为市场并没有达到有效规模。
D．如果Ernie多生产并且Bert多消费一瓶水，总剩余会发生什么变动?答：总剩余会下降，变成6 美元，因为资源没有有效配置。
7．在过去几十年间，生产平面电视的成本降低了。
我们考虑这一事实的某些含义。
A．用供求图说明生产成本下降对平面电视的价格和销售量的影响。
答：成本下降使供给曲线从S1 向右下方移动到S2 ，平面电视的价格从P 1 下降到P2 ，销售量从Q1上升到Q2 。
图7－10 平面电视供求图B．用你的图形说明消费者剩余和生产者剩余发生了什么变化??答：从图中可以看出，成本下降使消费者剩余增加，从面积AP E 增加到面积AP E 。
生产者剩余也增加了，从面积B1 P1 E1 增加到面积B2 P 2E2 。
C．假定平面电视的供给是非常富有弹性的。
谁从生产成本下降中获益最大？是平面电视的消费者还是生产者?答：假定平面电视的供给非常富有弹性，那么，消费者从生产成本下降中获益最大。
8．有四位消费者愿意为理发支付下列价格：Jerry 7美元Oprah 2 美元Ellen 8 美元Phil 5 美元有四家理发店，其成本如下：A企业：3美元B企业：6美元C企业：4美元D企业：2美元每家店只能为一个人理发。
从效率来看，应该有多少次理发？哪些店应该理发？哪些消费者应该理发？最大可能的总剩余是多少?答：从效率来看，应该有3 次理发。
A、C、D 理发店应理发，Jerry、Ellen 和Phil 应该理发。
Oprah 愿意支付的价格太低而企业B 的成本太高，所以不会参与。
最大可能总剩余是11 美元(8－2+7－3+5－4＝11)。
9．假设技术进步使生产电脑成本降低。
A．用供求图说明电脑市场上价格、数量、消费者剩余和生产者剩余会发生什么变动?? 答：成本下降使供给曲线从S 1 向右下方移动到S 2，电脑市场上价格从P 1 下降到P2 ，销售量从Q1上升到Q2。
消费者剩余从面积AP1 E1增加到AP2 E2 ，生产者剩余从面积P1 E1 B1增加到P2 E2 B2 。
图7－11 电脑市场供求图B．电脑和打字机是替代品。
用供求图说明加法机市场上的价格、数量、消费者剩余和生产者剩余会发生什么变动？电脑技术进步对加法机生产者而言是好事还是坏事?答：由于电脑和打字机是替代品，电脑的销售量增加引起打字机的需求减少，需求曲线从D 1 向左下方移动到D 2，价格从P 1 下降到P2 ，销售量从Q 1 下降到Q2 。
生产者剩余从面积BP1 E 1 减少到面积BP2 E2 ，消费者剩余从面积A1 P1 E1 减少到面积A 2P2 E2 。
电脑技术进步对加法机生产者而言是坏事。
图7－12 加法机市场供求图C．电脑和软件是互补品。
用供求图说明软件市场上的价格、数量、消费者剩余和生产者剩余会发生什么变动? 电脑技术进步对软件生产者而言是好事还是坏事?答：由于电脑和软件是互补品，电脑的销售量增加引起软件的需求减少，需求曲线从D 1 向右上方移动到D2 ，价格从P 1 上升到P2 ，销售量从Q 1 上升到Q 2。
生产者剩余从面积BP1E1增加到面积BP2E2 ，消费者剩余从面积A1P1E1增加到面积A2P2E2。
电脑技术进步对软件生产者而言是好事。
D．上述分析有助于解释为什么软件生产者比尔·盖茨是世界上最富有的人之一吗??答：这种分析有助于解释软件生产者比尔·盖茨是世界上最富有的人之一。
电脑制造成本下降使电脑价格下降，人们对电脑的购买量不断上升。
电脑和软件是互补品。
没有软件，电脑只是一架空壳。
电脑销售量的快速增长必然带来软件业的繁荣，软件开发商的生产者剩余不断增加，比尔·盖茨的个人财富也会随之增加。
图7－13 软件市场供求图10．考虑医疗保险如何影响所进行的医疗服务量。
假设一般的就医治疗成本为100美元，但一个有医疗保险的人只需自付20美元。
他的保险公司支付剩下的80美元。
(保险公司将通过保险费来收回这80美元，但一个人所支付的保险费不取决于他接受多少治疗。
) A．画出医疗市场上的需求曲线（在你的图形中，横轴应该代表治疗的次数）。
标出如果治疗价格为100美元，治疗的需求量。
答：我认为，100 美元可以看做医疗市场达到均衡时的价格。
此时，治疗的需求量是Q 1 人，如图7－14。
图7－14 医疗市场供给图B．在你的图上标出如果消费者每次治疗只支付2200美元，治疗的需求量。
如果每次治疗的社会成本是实际的100美元，而且，如果个人有以上所述的医疗保险，这一治疗数量能使总剩余最大化吗？解释原因。
答：如图7－14 所示，如果消费者每次治疗只支付20 美元，他的需求曲线是一条直线，此时的治疗需求量是Q2 人。
如果每次治疗的社会成本是100 美元，每个人都有医疗保险。
那么，进行Q1 次治疗能使总剩余最大化。
因为市场均衡点正是使市场总剩余最大化的点。
C．经济学家经常指责医疗保险制度引起人们滥用医疗。
给出你的分析，说明为什么医疗保健的使用被认为“滥用”。
答：如图7－14 所示，医疗保险使人们在看病时自己支付的价格大大低于实际应支付的均衡价格。
因此，治疗的需求量大幅上升，造成医疗资源的过度使用。
在Q 的需求量上，阴影部分代表医疗市场的总剩余为负，医疗资源被滥用了。
D．哪种政策可以防止这种滥用?答：对于这种滥用，可以采用一些限制措施。
如规定保险扣除量，即在一定时期内，一定金额以下的医疗费用，保险公司才支付实际治疗费的80%，超过这一限额的医疗费用完全由消费者自己承担。
但是，这种方法也不能完全杜绝医疗滥用，只能是降低滥用的程度，而且，这种方法可能会引起公平问题。