语言学胡壮麟第三版第二章笔记

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 
The definition of phonetics & phonology 
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. 
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems languages. 
Distinction: The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order. 
Ⅰ How speech sounds are made? 
A. Speech organs 
1. 3 cavities pharynx 
oral cavity 
nasal cavity 
2. vocal folds apart: voiceless Close: voiced 
Close tightly: glottal stop 
3. uvula 
B. The IPA 
The The first 
first first version version version of of of the the the International International International Phonetic Phonetic Phonetic Alphabet Alphabet （the the IP A IP A chart chart ）was was published published published in in August,1888. 
Ⅱ Consonants and vowels 
1. Definition 
Consonants Consonants are are are produced produced produced ““by by a a a closure closure closure in in in the the the vocal vocal vocal tract, tract, tract, or or or by by by a a a narrowing narrowing narrowing which which which is is is so so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction ”. 
A vowel is produced without such “stricture stricture”” so that 
“air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose ”. 
The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. 
2. Three factors to describe the features of consonants 
1) V oicing: voiced & voiceless 
2) Manner of articulation: It refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) 
the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other. 
Classification according to manners of articulation 
stop/ plosive fricative lateral tap/ flap nasal 
approximant 
trill 
affricate
3) place place of of of articulation: articulation: articulation: It It It refers refers refers to to to the the the point point point where where where a a a consonant consonant consonant is is is made. made. made. Practically Practically 
consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal fold. 
Classification according to place of articulation bilabial dental post alveolar palatal uvular glottal 
labiodental 
alveolar 
retroflex 
velar 
pharyngea
3. V owels 
1) cardinal vowel: The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, 
are are a a a set set set of of of vowel vowel vowel qualities qualities qualities arbitrarily arbitrarily arbitrarily defined, defined, defined, fixed fixed fixed and and and unchanging, unchanging, unchanging, intended intended intended to to 
provide provide a a a frame frame frame of of of reference reference reference for for for the the the description description description of of of the the the actual actual actual vowels vowels vowels of of of existing existing 
languages. 
2) Classification of vowels 
the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) 
the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) 
the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense Vs. lax or long Vs. short) 
lip-rounding (rounded Vs. unrounded) 
Ⅲ From phonetics to phonology
1. Coarticulation: Coarticulation: When When When simultaneous simultaneous simultaneous or or or overlapping overlapping overlapping articulations articulations articulations are are are involved, involved, involved, we we we call call call the the 
process coarticulation. 
Two types of coarticulation 
1) Anticipatory coarticulation 
If If the the the sound sound sound becomes becomes becomes more more more like like like the the the following following following sound, sound, sound, it it it is is is known known known as as as anticipatory anticipatory 
coarticulation. 
2) Perseverative coarticulation 
If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation. 2. Phone: The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are phones. 
Phoneme: It ’s a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phnemes. 
Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pair. 
Allophone: Variants of the same phonemes. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. 
Ⅳ Phonological Process, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features
1. Assimilation: It is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristic of a 
neighboring sound. 
Two possibilities of assimilation 
1) regressive assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it 
regressive assimilation. 
2) Progressive Progressive assimilation: assimilation: assimilation: It It It is is is the the the converse converse converse process process process in in in which which which a a a preceding preceding preceding sound sound sound is is 
influencing a following sound. 
2. Distinctive Features 
The idea of distinctive features was first developed b Roman Jacobson in the 1940s. 
Ⅴ Suprasegmentals
Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmentals are syllable, stress, tone and intonation. 
1. Syllable onset 
rhyme nucleus 
coda 
2. MOP(maximal onset principle) 
When there is a choice also where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. 
3. Stress 
It refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. 
4. Intonation 
Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. 
5. Tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words 
Supplement 
articulatory phonetics: is the study of the production of speech sounds. 
acoustic phonetics: is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. 
auditory phonetics: is concerned with the perception of speech sounds. 。