formulaiclanguage正式版

1.Introduction
Systemic functional grammar theory proposed by M.A.K.Halliday illustrates that the three contextual factors which decide the feature of a language are field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.Alteration of any factor can incur the transformation of the purpose of communication.（Halliday,1973）As a result,there extends different types of fields of discourse with the variance of languge of the variation of style.In accordance with this, business English can be classified in two types: specialized business English and commmon business English.This essay focuses on the application of the specialized business English, namely the formulaic language of business English.
Business English covers a wide range of fields, thus its diversity and complexity entangle the business English translation. Business English likes a cultural code, by choosing specific words to communicate, you signal that you are a member of a particular culture. However, your language imposes its own barriers on your message.(John, 2004:77) As a result, acquainted with the formulaic language of business English, the translator can accomplish his translation practices with ease. This essay argues formulaic language features in business English and their application tactics on business English translation include words translation,sentences translation and texts translation. By introducing these tactics, this essay can provide translators with a referential theory for standardized business English translation.
2 Overview of Formulaic Language
2.1 Definition of Formulaic Language
When people speaking different languages come together for a common purpose, say business, education or international affairs,they may need to agree on speaking a common language so that they could understand each other.The language chosen is called a lingua franca. The formulaic language hereby exists as a lingua franca for special purpose. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics(Richards.J.C.2005:270) defines formulaic language as “The memorized words sequence that is stored in the form of units and collected in the form of units from memory instead of being completey produced in resource site by using grammar of the language.”Lewis(1993) marks it as lexical chunks while Nattinger & DeCarrico(1992) represents it as lexical phrases and
Sinclair(1991) identifies it as prefabricated phrases. Although the terminologies of formulaic language vary, they have resemblance in the pragmatical facet:the language consists of fixed phrases,semi- fixed phrases, sentence or word patterns so that they can be memorized, preserved and applied in their entirety.
2.2Classification of Formulaic Language
Nattinger & Decarrico(1992) divides the chunks into four types:
(1) Polywords
This kind of chunks are fixed phrases which generally consist of more than one word among which no words can be replaced. For instance, for the most part , by and large, by the way etc.
( 2 ) Institutionalize dexpressions
They are words associations fixed in patterns and pragmatical functions like jargons, proverbs or some social formulas.
(3) Phrasal constraints
This kind refers to some semi-phrases like a year/day/month ago. yours sincerely/truly etc.
(4)Sentence builders
They usually serve as complete sentence frames for expressing some concept. For instance, not only X, but also Y, as is known to all and so on.
3.Formulaic Language Features of Business English
Business English is the English variant of a social function, is a branch of English for specific purpose, is English used in business occasions, and is a kind of Standard English containing a variety of besiness activities and suiting the need of commerce. It is the variety and multiplicity of Business English activities that generate such overwhelming sums of terms in Business English.As English for Special Purpose, the major function of business English is to provide the participant in business activities with information, help them communicate and interact and spur the relevant parties to react correspondingly. (Pan,2004:8) After expierencing a long time of evolution, business English had been developed to be a lingua franca for international commercial affairs. This special language includes a great deal of professional and functional chunks as formulas in math. As a result, the lingua franca for business is labeled as formulaic language. It appears in business English in various patterns:
3.1Words：
words are the most representive formulaic languge in business English. They are professional, half- professional, general words and fixed phrases related to
numerous fields such as international trade, international finance, accounting, international trade law. Most of them cannot be precisely explained by consulting a dictionary for they are either polysemous words or words sharing one meaning. Professional words, generally speaking, refer to words applied for different subjects whose concepts must be accurately expressed. They possess abundant connotations and extentions, characterized by univocality and exclusion of equivocality. Thus they cannot be replaced at discretion.Misapprehension is prone to be made in the International business activities. Consequently, professional words contibute to the avoidance of ambiguity and misunderstanding by precisely representing all kinds of links in business interaction related to varied documents, correspondences, contracts and negociations, etc.(Li,2009) On account of providing the guarantee for the success of international business, they had been accepted as the fixed and standarized expressions, in another word, as formulaic language of business English such as FOB, CIF. Nevertheless, many common words are used as professional business English in which their meanings are changed. For instance, “reference” means “something to consult” in common English but “warrantor” in business English.
3.2 Sentences：
As a standarised language, formulaic languge of business English is characterised by concise, normative and complicated sentences. Language style of business English vary in different fields of discourse. Accuracy and efficiency are required in business English correspondence. Hence there are a large amount of simple sentences in it, which indicates the conciseness of business English.
According to statistics, the sums of words in a sentence in business English correspondence are approximately 10 to 20, less than 30.(Zhang, 2006)In a business English contract, the main sentence style is long and compound sentences whose structures are quit complicated, which reflects the preciseness and formality of business English. It is the clear statement and accurate representation that compose the efficienct communication in business practices.
3.3 Texts
Due to the quick rhythm in business environment, texts under such pressure should be effective, brief and to the point, especially in the business correcepondence. The formulaic texts of business English thereby must be logical in their structures, resonable in meanings and rigorous in styles.They have the features of 7Cs: completeness, conciseness, concreteness, correctness, clearness, courtesy and consideration. According to the different functions of business English in a variety of business scenes, the genre of business English texts can be divided into: daily affairs letter, note and notice, memo, business letter, minute, report, advertisement, contract, bill and document. To conclude, the formulaic texts of business English have three types:
(1)the Formal Style, include report, contract, bill and document.
(2)the Consultive Style, include business letter and daily affairs letter.
(3)the Casual Style, include note and notice, memo and minute.
Generally, the formulaic texts are mainly applied in the first two types.
The business English translation can be identical with all sorts of specific business scenes when the translators are practiced in the formulaic patterns in
business English so as to smoothly and perfectly achieve the expected object of a transaction.(li, 2010)
4. Application Tactics of Formulaic Language in Business English Translation
4.1 Words Translation
Words are the critical elements of translation and the core of formulaic language. An excellent translation cannot be accomplished without a keen awareness of vocanbulary. In business English, there are a large quantity of terms and fixed expressions related to varied fields which are involved in international business. Irretrievable loss or even a lawsuit may be engendered provided that the choice of words are inappropriate. The fomulaic words of business English lay the foundation for a successful translation.
4.1.1 Words Formation
For convenient and efficient purposes, words formation is applied in business English translation in a high frequency. Since Chinese and English belong to two family of language, they differ in the form of phraseology and the habit of language using. It is impossible to entirely preserve the word class of the source language. Consequently, in many instances, words formation leads to a smooth and natural translation.
(1)备忘录中已写明，我方乐意向贵方的用户提供技术服务。

In the
memorandum, our realiness is indicated to provide technical service to your end users. To analys on the surface of the source language, “乐意” is an
adjective in the original sentence, but converted to a noun in the translation.
Another translation can be: As is indicated In the memorandum, we are
readily to provide technical service to your end users. This translation is
grammatically correct but less professional.
(2)这一策略是以消费群中的特定阶层为目标，只经营特定价格范围内的商
品。

This strategy targets a specific segment of buying public by carrying
products only in a specific price range. “目标” is used as a noun in the
original sentence, but converted to a verb in the translation. This is a typical translation of the word “target” in business English.
4.1.2 Appropriate Choice and Collocation of Words
Words translation is the basic part of translation unit. As a result, appropriate choice of words has a significant effect on the translation quality of the sentences, the paragraghs or even of the whole passage. To interpret commercial words, translators need to use formulaic language in a flexible way, which means that they should avoid incorrrect expression in their translation as many words in business English function distinctly in different phrases, fields or contexts. If a translator lacks knowledge of the formulaic discourse of business English, incorrect translation could lead to an unimaginably fault.
Appropriate choice and collocation of words include two tactics:
1. Meaning Analysis
Meaning analysis means the consideration of the common meaning or the professional meaning of a word. The common meaning refers to the meaning suited in literary and social aspect while the professional meaning refers to the meaning applied for different professions. Innumerable words in business English
have those features themselves which represent completely different meanings in different fields. Taking policy for example, in the phrase “a business policy of the company”, policy manifests as its common meaning: the guiding principle. However, it means guarantee document in insurance. There is a meaning comparison of “average” in two sentences as follows:
(1) The common meaning:Industrial averages were
up.工业股票的平均价格在上涨。

(2) The professional meaning:Average is of two kinds: General Average and Particular Average.海损有两种：共同海损和单独海损。

2 .Contextual Analysis
Some words in business English are used as their original meaning. Nevertheless, the associations to them vary as they locate in different contexts or are collocated with different words. Thus it is necessary to ascertain the target language in accordance with the relevant meaning to the context and collocation of the source language. For instance, in business English, “community” generally means “a group of people living together and/or united by shared interests, religion, nationality”. Phrases below demonstrate that although the word “community” presents its meaning as is explained above, its corresponding translations in Chinese differ as the words collocated with it differ.
World community 世界大家庭
International community 国际社会
The European Community 欧洲共同体
The Atlantic Community 大西洋集团
The banking community 金融界
The translation practice hereunder makes a further discussion on contextual analysis.
(1)The traditional problem is that of monetary
conversion.常见的问题是是货币兑换。

“Traditional” means “conventional” in general while in this sentence, its meaning is extended to “common”.
(2)Pricing goods below the competition also expose a business to princing
wars. Competition can match the lower price, leaving both parties out in the cold.商品定价低于竞争价格就会使企业陷入价格战，竞争者会相互压价，导致竞争者两败俱伤。

“Match” means “to compete” here on the face of this sentence. To a close scrutiny, the sourse language intends to express that
competitors can decrease the price to compete with each other according to the context.
4.2 Sentences Translation
Types of sentence in business English are diversfied with different business activities or fields as their functions vary in different business occasions. Inappropriate use of sentence would lead to troubles even barriers in business communication. This section argues the translation tactlcs of formulaic sentences in different business fields.
4.2.1 Simple Sentence
Sentence style determines style of the whole passage. Simple sentences which mostly exist in business correspondings not only briefly express the writer’s
opinions, but also improve the efficiency in the commercial interactions. There are three outstanding features of simple sentence in business formulaic language.
1. Application of lingua franca and constancy in form
Lingua franca mostly appears in business letters so as to save time for business men.These lingua francas in letters now had been accepted by international business as the standard form in corresponding.
(1)按你方的要求，现奉上……As requested we are sending you...
(2) 我方对你方……月……日信件中的……建议很感兴趣。

We note with
interest the suggestion contained in your letter of...
(3) 欣盼你方确认…… We should be glad to have your confirmation that...
Examples above demonstrate that whether the source language or the target language has its own formuaic expressions under the business environfnent.
2. Substitution of phrases for sentences
Some sentences in business contracrts are often substitute by noun phrases, preposition phrases or infinitive phrases to reach clearness, conciseness and accuracy. Examples below are the formulaic ones:
(1)Quality: First Grade, Moisture 11%Minimum and 12%Maximum.
(2)Packing: In Bales.
(3)Insurance: To be covered by the Buyers.
In these sentences abstracted from a business contract, complete sentences are replaced by phrases to convey some tedious iterms with appropriateness.
4.2.2 Complex Sentence
Complex sentence is a synthetical untilization of formulaic discourse and the most difficult part of business English translation while it is frequently applied in business English since the business affairs are mostly declarative and explanative.(jin, 2007:92) It is the parentheses that create the complicated sentence structures. These sentences can not only precisely express complicared content, but also enhance the level of formal language in the whole text by strenthening the major information with the form of word order.
Comprehension to complex sentences is an extremly important part in business English translation because little deviation of comprehension would result in complete misinterpreting to the source language. In English, generally the complex ideas are conveyed in a direct way by using specific lexical relation pronouns to organize all the clauses in a sentence.Thus the main skeleton of the sentence may be very short and attached with a variety of parentheses and clauses. (Business English Translation, Jin Huanrong)So, the first step to translate complex sentences in business English is to find out the skeleton and then to interpret it with respevtive tactics.This section provides some basic tactics on complex sentences of business English translation. The basic tactics for complex sentences are:
1. Dissection of Complex Sentences
When a translator encounters a very long and complex sentence, dissection is the easiest way to understand and to translate the sentence. The sentence can be divided, carved and dissected into several short sentences so as to meet the language style of the target language for the convenience of the readers’ comprehension. For instance：
The American economic system is, organized around a basically private-enterprise, market-oriented economy in which consumers largely determine what shall be produced by spending their money in the marketplace for those goods and services that they want
most.美国的经济是以基本的私有企业和市场导向经济为构架的。

在这种经济中，消费者很大程度上通过在市场上为那些他们最想要的货品和服务付费来决定应该生产什么。

There are two attributive clauses included in this compound sentence in which the following clause is inlayed in the first one. If the two clauses are not divided into two simple sentences, translation of the compound sentence are likely to be stiff and unnatural.
2. Counter-sequence Translation
Some expression sequence of complex sentences in English has great discrepancy with that in Chinese as a large amount of modificators exist in English sentences and mostly they follow the headwords while in Chinese sentences the position of modificators are opposite with that in English. Under such circumstance, the counter-sequence translation is the optimum tactic. For instance:在许可经营模式下，公司无需在国外投入大量资金，也不必支付出口带来的运输成本就可以在外国市场使用自己的技术。

Licensing allows firms to use their technology in foreign markets without a major investment in foreign countries, and without the transportation costs that result from exporting.
In Chinese, condition comes first in a sentence, and then comes the result whereas in English, the result are usually mentioned at the beginning and then the
conditions are introduced by follow. So this sentence should be translated in a counter sequence. In addition, according to the formulaic business English, translators should tackle this sentence with counter-sequence translation so as to make the sentence structure tightly and logically without losing its business-like style.
3. Sentences Combination
The required English sentence styles in business contract is accurateness, briefness, concreteness and clearness. However, the complicated sentence structure in contract enlarges difficulty of meeting these requirements. Sentence combination is an ideal solution to the problem. There is an example as follows:
我行将对本保函项下的任何迟付金额按借款人应用的利率水平交付利息，该付息期间的计算从你方索偿之日起，直至实际付款止（在判决前或判决后）。

We shall pay interest on any amount due hereunder from the date of demand to the date of actual payment(before and after judgement) at the rate or rates which should be applied by the Borrower.
This sentence is abstracted from a Irrevocable Letter of Guarantee in which the formulaic language of busniess English are strictly applied. This translation integrates the several short sentences of the source language to a compound one which expresses the item with the pinciples of accurateness, briefness, concreteness and clearness thus to demonstrates the solemnity of business contract.
4.3 Texts Translation
Text structure of formulaic language in business English is characterized by reasonable logic and coherent sense. Reasonable logic involves rationality in the
sentence structure, the paragragh layout and the text mentality. Coherent sense refers to consistency in the semanteme of every sentence, the content of every paragragh and the track of thinking in the context. Generally, text structure of business English consists of four sections.The first section is Introduction which commonly begins with “Thank you for your letter dated…” or “We are sorry to remind you that...”. The second section is Details which illustrates the concrete proposals and demands. This part is none other than the core of a text. The third section is Conversion which often exists in Claim and Complaint Letters to convey the dissents of a party. The last section is Summary which makes a conclusion for the text.
As is introduced before, the formulaic texts of business English have three types. This essay hereat focuses on the first two types: the Formal Style and the Consultive Style.
(1)有关贵方6月18日的来函，我们多比台布报盘如下：规格52英寸*78英寸，每
打6.80美元；纽约到岸价。

不可撤销信用证即期汇票，分别7月和8月装船，请于星期三前予以答复。

Translation: Referring to your letter of June 18th, we are pleased to make a quotation on the Dobby Tablecloth as the following specified: 52"*78" $6.8 per doz CIF New York; Against L/C available for at sight draft and shipment
July/August equally divided. Please reply by Wednesday here.
This translation above is a model of formulaic language of businses English. It consists of several simple sentences, therefore it reflects the conciseness, courtesy and consideration of business letters and stresses the efficiency in a transaction.
(2)凡因执行本合同有关的一切争议，双方应通过友好协商解决，应提交北京
中国国际贸易促进委员会对外经济贸易仲裁委员会，根据该会《仲裁程序暂行规则》进行仲裁。

仲裁是终局性的，对双方都有约束力。

Translation: All disputes arising out of the performance of , or relating to the Contranct , shall be settled amicably through negociation.In case no settlement can be submitted to the Foreign Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission of the China Council for the Promotion of International Trade, Bejing, China, for arbitration in accordance with its provisional Rules of Procedure. The arbitral award is final and binding upon both parties.
The logical expression is prominently featured in business contracts as the above one. Compared to corresponding, sentences composed business contract are almost long and complex ones which embrace a large quantity of information and underline the details in order to give prominence to the force of law.
5.Conclusion
Due to the influence of its profession, business English is formulized by plenty of formulaic language. Therefore，it is necessary for people who engage in foreign affairs to have a good command of the formulaic language features of business English and interpreting techniques in practical business English translation. Translation tactics of formulaic language in business English can be applied from its specific words, standarized types of sentences and texts on the basis of different kinds of business environment. Only when the interpreters catch hold of these tactics can he achieve the objective of information transfer and social commucation in the international business interaction.
With the deepening integration of China into the global economy, the market-oriented economy will push the constant development of business English translation which in turn explores a broad road to blossom of the market-oriented economy. The continuously evolution of business model breeds more business terms. As a result, translators are required to accumulate and learn business language and put it into practice.
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