修辞学4

However consider the following examples:
Avoid misplaced modifiers
A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase or clause that appears to modify a word which it is not to modify. Prepositional phrases: Adjectival (relative) clauses Dangling and misrelated participles: Limiting modifiers
A sentence violates the principle of unity if it contains ideas that are not closely related. A sentence is also not unified if the thought it contains is not complete.
3 Harmony
Harmony (or euphony) is another characteristic of a well-written sentence. We have already touched on this topic under “Choice of Words”. Here we are concerned with sound over the sentence as a whole; we are looking for a combination of vowels and consonants, and of long or short words, in order to give pleasure to the reader or listener.
Dangling and misrelated participles:
Dangling participial phrases seem not to modify anything, whereas misrelated ones are rather like the adjectival relative clauses we mentioned above --- they appear to modify the wrong thing. Dangling: Walking down the road, there was a nasty accident. Improved: A nasty accident occurred as I was walking down the road. Misrelated: Walking down the road, a bus just missed me. Commentary: Again, we risk being laughed at. Buses don't walk ~, Improved: As I was walking down the road, a bus just missed me.
Limiting modifiers
In written English, you should be careful how you place limiting modifiers such as almost, nearly, only, just, even, hardly, scarcely and simply. They are normally placed immediately before the word or phrase they modify. For example: Peter told me about the accident today. Only Peter told me about the accident today. (No one but Peter told me about the accident today) Peter told only me about the accident today. (He didn't tell anyone else. ) Peter told me today only about the accident/about the accident only. (He told me about the accident but not about anything else. ) Peter told me about the accident only today. (He hadn't told me earlier. ) (cf. spoken English)
▲Avoid repeating a word
Original: He ordered the captain to order the soldiers to preserve good order. Revised: He directed the captain to see that the soldiers preserved good order.
▲Avoid incomplete constructions
Often it is preferable in English to delete a repeated element. For example:
“John plays the piano and plays the violin”. “John plays the piano and violin”.
▲Avoid repeating similar sounding words
Part Four
Construction of English Sentences
five basic criteria for effective sentence construction
Clarity, Unity, Harmony, Emphasis, Conciseness
2. Unity
Unity is the essential of sentence structure. A unified sentence is the expression in words of a single complete thought, its aim being to produce a single effect.
Adjectival (relative) clauses
The adjectival or relative clause should be placed close to the antecedent as possible. Otherwise, confusion can arise. Faulty: I bought this dictionary at a local bookshop which cost $5.50. Commentary: In practice, this may not be confusing, but it is certainly ridiculous, and to be avoided. Improved: At a local bookshop I bought this dictionary, which cost $5.50.
▲Avoid ambiguous reference
This is a problem found particularly with pronouns. It must be clear which word or phrase the "referent" of each pronoun is. In spoken English, a combination of context, intonation and gaze may be sufficient to establish the true referent; in writing, we need to be far more accurate and careful. For example: Ambiguous: She told my sister that she was wrong. Commentary: Who is wrong, the speaker or her sister? Improved: She admitted her mistake to my sister. Or: My sister was told that she was wrong by the other woman.
▲Avoid confusing "shifts".
Unnecessary shifts of person, number, tense and mood can be confusing. Even when they do not confuse, they can be inelegant. Shifted: An importaber is that you should not plagiarize. Commentary: The jump from third to second person is probably not confusing, but it is unnecessary and inelegant. Improved: An important thing for you to remember is that you should not plagiarize. Or: An important thing for the student to remember is that he or she should not plagiarize.
Read the extract below from Edgar Allan Poe' s The Fall of the House of Usher.
some guidelines
▲Avoid repeating a word ▲Avoid repeating similar sounding words ▲Avoid excessively long sequences of monosyllabic words ▲Avoid using too many relative clauses in sequence ▲Avoid putting together adverbs that modify different elements ▲Avoid putting together too many adverbials that modify the same verb phrase
1 Clarity
For most purposes, a good English sentence must be clear. It should not be vague, ambiguous or confusing.
to maintain clarity: ▲Avoid incomplete constructions ▲Avoid misplaced modifiers ▲Avoid confusing "shifts" ▲Avoid ambiguous reference