Lecture for Otc. 12

Ancient Chinese Philosophy—the soul of Chinese traditional culture
Confucianism
Ⅷ.Confucian Classics
The Great Learning
It is a chapter from the Classic of Rites. It deals with way of governing the world.
The Doctrine of the Mean
It is another chapter from the Classic of Rites. The purpose of this small, 33-chapter book is to demonstrate the usefulness of a golden way to gain perfect virtue.
The Analects of Confucius
The Analects of Confucius are a record of the words and acts of the central Chinese thinker and philosopher Confucius and his disciples, as well as the discussions they held.
The Book of Mencius
It is a collection of anecdotes of the Confucian thinker and philosopher Mencius and his conversations with kings of his time.
T aoism
Philosophical T aoism
Ⅰ. The Founder of Philosophical T aoism
Biography of Laozi(老子的生平)
The first record of the biography of Laozi is found in the Shiji, or Records of the Historian, by Sima Qian. Within the biography are three stories.
①Story one:
老子者，楚苦县厉乡曲仁里人也，姓李氏，名耳，字聃，周守藏室之史也。

—《史记·老子韩非列传》
周守藏室之史：an archivist or librarian at the court of Zhou
Laozi originated from the Qurenli neighborhood of Li Village, County of Ku, in the State of Chu. His family name was Li and his given name was Er; he was styled Dan. As an adult, he was in charge of the royal archives in Zhou.
Names
Li Er(李耳)
Bo Y ang(伯阳)
Li Dan (李聃)
Elder Dan (老聃)
Senior Lord (老君)
Senior Lord Li (李老君)
Senior Lord Taishang (太上老君)
Taoist Lord Lao Zi (老子道君)
Supreme Mysterious and Primordial Emperor
(太上玄元皇帝)
②Story two:
孔子适周，将问礼于老子。

Once, Confucius went to Zhou and consulted with Laozi on ritual matters.
老子曰：“良贾深藏若虚，君子盛德、容貌若愚。

去子之骄气与多欲，态色与淫志，是皆无益于子之身。

”
Laozi's response was a critique of Confucius's teachings. Laozi tells Confucius to give up his
stiff deportment and prideful airs.
孔子去，谓弟子曰：“鸟，吾知其能飞；鱼，吾知其能游；兽，吾知其能走。

走者可以为罔，游者可以为纶，飞者可以为矰。

至于龙吾不能知，其乘风云而上天。

吾今日见老子，其犹龙邪！”
Confucius is reported to have praised Laozi‟s wisdom and to have compared him to a dragon whose abilities were beyond his understanding.
③Story three:
老子修道德，其学以自隐无名为务。

居周之久，见周之衰，迺遂去。

至关，关令尹喜曰：“子将隐矣，强为我著书。

”于是老子迺著书上下篇，言道德之意五千余言而去，莫知其所终。

Laozi cultivated Dao and De. In his studies he strove to conceal himself and be unknown. He lived in Zhou for a long time, but seeing its decline, he decided to leave; when he reached the pass, the keeper said to him, …Sir, you are about to retire. Y ou must make an effort to write us a book.‟ So Laozi wrote a book in two pian (篇, volumes, parts) setting out the meaning of the Dao and De in some five thousand characters, and then he departed. No one knew where he went to in the end. Conclusion:
1. He was an archivist or librarian at the royal court of Zhou;
2. He was visited by Confucius and talked about rites;
3. He preached the retirement from the world;
4. He left the court, wrote the Daodejing, and disappeared without a trace.
Work: Daodejing (Tao Te Ching)
The Daodejing is the classic text of Daoism. This was the first work with a comprehensive philosophical system in the history of Chinese philosophy, expanding the scope of man's thinking from life to the universe as a whole.
Translation: the Classic of the Way and Its Virtue
Legendary author: The book is attributed to Laozi, the
father of Taoism, so the book is
also called the Laozi.
Original purpose of the book:
— a handbook for rulers
— a religious guidebook
— a practical guide for living in harmony with the universe
The feature of the book:
brevity and use of analogy and paradox(悖论）
e.g.
上善若水
将欲歙之，必故张之；将欲弱之，必故强之；将欲废之，必故兴之；将欲取之，必故与之。

Structure of the book:
It is a short book of about five thousand Chinese characters consisting of two parts:
— The Book about Tao: chapters 1-37 with an emphasis on philosophy.
— The Book of Te: chapters 38-81 with an emphasis on politics and military affairs.
Ⅱ. Beliefs of Philosophical T aoism
①T ao/Dao
The features of “T ao”:
—Tao is undefinable, unlimited, and unnamable.
道可道，非常道;
名可名，非常名。

无名，天地之始;
有名，万物之母。

The Tao that can be told of is not the eternal Tao;
The name that can be named is not the eternal name.
The Nameless is the origin of Heaven and Earth;
The Named is the mother of all things.
—Tao is the source of the universe and makes all the things in the universe.
有物混成，先天地生。

寂兮寥兮，独立而不改，
周行而不殆，可以为天地母。

吾不知其名，强字之曰道。

道生一，一生二，二生三，三生万物。

Tao produced the one.
The one produced the two.
The two produced the three.
And the three produced the ten thousand things.
②Wuwei
In Daodejing, Wuwei is one of the characteristics of the Tao.
为学日益，为道日损。

损之又损，以至于无为。

无为而无不为。

取天下常以无事，
及其有事，不足以取天下。

—《道德经》第四十八章
In the pursuit of learning, every day something is acquired.
In the pursuit of Tao, every day something is dropped.
Less and less is done
Until non-action is achieved.
When nothing is done, nothing is left undone.
The world is ruled by letting things take their course.
It cannot be ruled by interfering.
Wu-wei
Translation: nonaction, inaction or nondoing
“为无为，事无事，味无味。

”
—《道德经》第六十三章
Meaning: Wu-wei means taking no action that is not natural, that is against the original nature and wishes of the people.
Evaluation:
Wu-wei is a state of mind as well as a principle towards life.
Wu wei is an important political view during the Spring and Autumn Period
Religious T aoism
Ⅰ. Sects of Religious T aoism
•the Celestial Masters movement(天师道), also known as the Five Picules of Rice(五斗米道)
•Tai Ping Tao(太平道)
•the Complete Reality Sect (全真教)
•the Orthodox Sect(正一教)
Religious Taoism (道教) :
A family of organized Chinese religious movements originating from the Celestial Masters movement(天师道) during the late Han Dynasty and later including the "Orthodox" (正一教) and "Complete Reality" sects(全真教), which claim lineages going back to Lao Zi (老子) or Zhang Daoling in the late Han Dynasty.
Ⅱ. Beginning of Religious T aoism
Five Picules of Rice(五斗米道)
Background
Time: Eastern Han Dynasty
Founder: Zhang Ling（张陵）
Original name: mi dao（米道）
Influence: It had great impact on the thinking of the Chinese people, as well as on the political, economic and cultural life of the country.
Ⅲ. Gods/Goddesses
City gods or town gods (城隍) are deities in Chinese mythology, responsible for the affairs of the city.
T aoism
Philosophical T aoism
Ⅲ. Gods/Goddesses
City gods or town gods (城隍) are deities in Chinese mythology, responsible for the affairs of the city.
Tu Di Gong (土地公), also known as Tu Di (土地) or Tu Gong (土公), is an indigenous earth god worshipped in China. Tu Di Gong is portrayed as an elderly man with a long white beard, a black or gold hat and a red or yellow robe, which signifies his position as a bureaucrat. He carries a wooden staff in his right hand and a golden ingot(金锭) on the left.
The Kitchen God, named Zao Jun(灶君) or Zao Shen (灶神), is believed to be in charge of every household‟s fortune and misfortune.
A door god (门神) is a Chinese decoration placed on each side of an entry to a temple, home, business, etc., which is believed to keep evil spirits from entering.
The Three S tars：
Fu star is generally depicted in scholar's dress, holding a scroll, on which is sometimes written the character "Fu". He may also be seen holding a child, or surrounded by children.
Lu star is usually depicted in the dress of a mandarin.
Shou star is usually shown smiling and friendly, and he may sometimes be carrying a peach.
The Eight Immortals
“Like the Eight immortals crossing the sea, each displays his/her special prowess.”
Zhang Guolao：an old man riding a donkey, carrying two drumsticks
Han Zhongli：a fat man with his bare belly showing, always carrying a fan and sometimes a peach
Han Xiangzi：a happy immortal that is always seen playing a flute
He Xiangu：One of two female Immortals, carrying with her a magical lotus flower.
Lan Caihe：the second woman amongst the Immortals , wearing a tattered blue gown and only one shoe with a basket of flowers in hand
Li Tieguai：a lame beggar carrying a gourd
Lu Dongbing：upon his back he wears a magic sword and in his hand he carries a fly brush Cao Guojiu：wearing formal court dress and carrying castanets
Ⅳ. Beliefs
Yin-yang
Definition:
In Chinese philosophy, the concept of yin-yang is used to describe the two complementary forces or principles that make up all aspects and phenomena of life. Together they express the interdependence of opposites.
Yin-yang Theory
●Yin-yang are opposing （阴阳的对立制约）
Yin and yang describe the opposing qualities in phenomena.
●Yin-yang are mutually rooted （阴阳的互根依存）
Yin and yang are two complementary qualities.
●Yin-yang mutually transform（阴阳的相互转化）
The maximum effect of one quality will be followed by the transition toward the opposing quality. This is a process of qualitative change.
●Yin-yang mutually wax and wane （阴阳的消长平衡）
The Yin and yang aspects are in dynamic balance. This is a process of quantitative change.
Wuxing“五行”
Definition:
Wuxing is a system of five phases used for describing interactions and relationships between phenomena.
The relationship between the five elements:
The Generating Cycle
Wood feeds Fire;
Fire creates Earth;
Earth bears Metal;
Metal carries Water;
Water nourishes Wood.
The Overcoming Cycle
Wood parts Earth;
Earth absorbs Water;
Water quenches Fire;
Fire melts Metal;
Metal chops Wood.
Bagua“八卦”
Definition:
The Bagua (八卦) are eight trigrams used to represent a range of interrelated concepts. Each consists of three lines, each either "broken" or "unbroken," representing a yin line or a yang line, respectively. Due to their tripartite structure, they are often referred to as "trigrams" in English.
Sources of Bagua
"Fuxi" bagua (伏羲八卦) or"Earlier Heaven"(先天八卦）
无极生有极、有极是太极、
太极生两仪、即阴阳;
两仪生四象: 即少阴、太阴、少阳、太阳
四象演八卦、八八六十四卦
The Limitless (Wuji) produces the delimited, and this is the Absolute (Taiji).
The Taiji produces two forms, named yin and yang.
The two forms produce four phenomena, named lesser yin, great yin (taiyin also means the Moon), lesser yang, great yang (taiyang also means the Sun).
The four phenomena act on the eight trigrams (ba gua), eight eights are sixty-four hexagrams.
Fuxi "Earlier Heaven" bagua arrangement
“King Wen” bagua(文王八卦)or “Later Heaven” (后天八卦)
“先有天地，天地相交而生成万物，天即乾，地即坤，八卦其余六卦皆为子女。

”
"When the world began, there was heaven and earth. Heaven mated with the earth and gave birth to everything in the world. Heaven is Qian-gua, and the Earth is Kun-gua. The remaining six gua are their sons and daughters".
King Wen "Later Heaven" bagua arrangement
Use of “Ying-yang, Wu Xing and Bagua”
“算命”(fortune-telling)
“求签”(drawing lots of divination usu. in temples)
“画符”(dra wing magic figures)
“念咒”(chanting incantations)
“看风水”(practicing geomancy for selecting a site for a tomb, house, etc.)
“择吉日”(select an auspicious day for marriage, funeral, shop-opening, etc.)
Homework:
Study the following and think out the implied meaning behind it.
三酸图/尝醋图/尝醋翁The Vinegar T asters
What are they doing?
Three men are standing around a vat of vinegar and taste it.
Who are the vinegar tasters?
Confucius, having a sour look on his face.
Buddha, wearing a bitter expression.
Lao Zi, smiling.
How to interpret the painting?
The painting is intended to be allegorical and each of the three men represent one of the three teachings of China: Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. The vinegar they are tasting represents the essence of life.
Confucianism saw life as sour, in need of rules to correct the degeneration of people.
Buddhism saw life as bitter, dominated by pain and suffering.
Taoism saw life as fundamentally good in its natural state.
Ancient Chinese Architecture
A Brief Introduction to Ancient Chinese Architecture
Paleolithic Age
sheltered in trees and natural caves
Neolithic Age
the middle reaches of the Y ellow River：
simple houses in the caves (地穴式建筑) or half cave-in houses（半地穴式建筑）with wood, mud and grass；
the middle and lower reaches of the Y angtze River:
buildings（干栏式房屋）supported by stilts (柱子) high above the ground
Qin Dynasty
E Pang Palace
Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor
Great Wall
Dujiang Weirs
The most significant characteristic of ancient Chinese architecture:
the use of timber/wooden framework
Advantages:
— materials for constructing such structures were easily available and construction methods were relatively simple
—the wooden frame structures are shock-resistant, because the parts are linked by tenon-and-mortise (榫卯) joints so that they are safer in earthquakes
— the wooden framework bears all the weight of the building, which makes the installation of both the outer and inner walls flexible and able to be placed in accordance with practical needs Disadvantages:
— Their durability is not as good as structures of brick or stone.
— wood grows very slowly and cannot be cut on a large scale recklessly.
Types of Ancient Chinese Architecture
Classification by structure
Chinese pavilions
Chinese Pavilions are covered structures without surrounding walls.
Types of Chinese Pavilion:
Round, square, triangular, hexagonal(六角亭), octagonal（八角亭）pavilions, etc.
Functions of Chinese Pavilion:
Practical function:
— used for military and governmental purposes
— as a place for rest
— as a roof to a stone tablet
Aesthetic function:
Pavilions provided a place to sit and enjoy the scenery, and they also became part of the
scenery itself, being attractive structures.
terraces
As an ancient architectural structure, the tai was a very much elevated terrace with a flat top, generally built of earth and stone and surfaced with brick.
Functions of terraces:
— as an observatory (观象台）
— as beacon towers(烽火台)
— in honor of the sincere friendship
multi-story buildings
A lou can refer to any building of two or more storeys with a horizontal main ridge.
Functions of multi-story buildings:
— for military use
— as private homes
— as belvederes（望景楼）
— as bell and drum towers
storyed pavilions (usu. two)
Functions of storyed pavilions:
— used in ancient times for the storage of important articles and documents
— a place where educated men used to gather to write articles and hold banquets
— used for enjoying the sights
Classification by function
Imperial Palaces（宫殿建筑）
Usually built on a grand scale, the imperial palaces are closely related to imperial sovereignty and were also constructed for the entertainment of rulers.
Architectural Features of Imperial Palaces:
--The ancient palaces were strictly laid out on central axis.
-- Y ellow roof tiles were used.
--The wooden columns of the buildings, as well as the surface of the walls, tend to be red in color. --The Chinese dragon was heavily used on Imperial
architecture.
Traditional Chinese Gardens（园林建筑）
The most distinguishing feature of traditional Chinese gardens is their natural mountain-and-water style. Chinese garden architecture includes both grand imperial gardens and delicate private ones. Altars and T emples （坛庙建筑）
Altars and temples built in ancient China were meant for practice of rites.
Three categories:
—imperial temples and altars for worshiping of Heaven, the earth, the sun, the moon and the imperial ancestors
e.g. the T emple of Heaven
— commemorative temples for dead people of great virtue
e.g. the Confucian T emple
— family temples
Religious Structures（宗教建筑）
T aoist T emple Constructions
A Chinese Taoist temple, generally called gong（宫）or guan（观）in Chinese, is the holy hall where Taoists perform their religious ceremonies.
Buddhist T emple Constructions
Buddhist Temple Constructions in China include Buddhist temples/monasteries, pagodas, Buddhist halls and grottoes, which are called si （佛寺）, ta（佛塔）, dian (佛殿）and shiku（石窟）in Chinese respectively.
Islamic Mosques
A mosque （清真寺）is a place of worship for followers of Islam.
An Islamic mosque has a minaret(宣礼塔), from which Muslims are called to pray, and an ablution room(沐浴室)for worshippers to bathe in. In the hall（礼拜殿）there are no idols, but an empty shrine（圣龛）pointing in the direction of Mecca（麦加）.
Decorations on mosques are simply the text of the Koran(《古兰经》), patterns of plants or geometric figures.
T ombs and Mausoleums（陵墓建筑）
People of all social classes had their tombs carefully built.
Over the centuries, the craft of tomb construction gradually merged with arts like painting, calligraphy and sculpture. It eventually became its own art form.
•Residential Houses（民居建筑）
Residential houses refer to the house of the common people in different parts of China. Courtyard House（院落式民居）
A courtyard house is a type of house where several buildings are disposed around a central courtyard.
e.g.
Siheyuan
A s iheyuan is a style of Chinese courtyard house. It is a historical type of residence that was commonly found throughout China, most famously in Beijing. The name literally means a courtyard surrounded by four buildings. In English, siheyuan are sometimes referred to as Chinese quadrangles.
Why do you think there are no windows or small windows on the outside walls?
The walls around the house not only give privacy and some protection from burglars.
Inside the walls, one is in a protected environment, where women, for instance, can move about freely, without worries about being observed by strangers. For men, the outer world can be a burden, making the space within the walls something of a sanctuary.
Do you know why these houses usually face south?
--These houses usually face south in order to get more sunlight during winter.
--People believe that facing south will bring good feng shui.
Beijing siheyuan
According to the owner‟s status and the condition of the building base, the quadrangles can be divided into different styles:
single-yard quadrangle siheyuan
two-yard quadrangle siheyuan
three-yard quadrangle siheyuan
four-yard quadrangle siheyuan
five-yard quadrangle siheyuan.
Earthen Building (土楼)
A tulou is a large multi-storey building in southeast Fujian mountainous region for large community living and defense, built with weight-bearing rammed earth wall and wood frame structure.
Do you know why were the houses built in this way?
--Most Hakkas lived in the mountains. These communal houses made of compacted earth were built to provide protection against bandits and wild animals and were almost like small, fortified castles.
•Residential Houses（民居建筑）
Stilt House/Pile Dwelling（干栏式民居）
Stilt houses or pile dwellings are houses raised on piles over the surface of the soil or a body of water.
1. Do you know anything about the climate of these areas?
--The climate is humid and rainy.
2. Can you explain the relationship between the climate and the way people build their houses?
--The houses are built in this way in order to avoid flooding, snakes and insects.
3. How could you describe the roof and what advantages are there for this kind of roof?
--The roof is large and steep. It provides easy drainage and protection from the sun.
Cave Dwelling（窑洞式民居）
1. Why people live in caves instead of houses?
--Where there is a lack of wood and much poverty, people cannot afford houses.
2. What are the advantages of living in the caves?
--The construction of cave homes requires low technology. These dwellings with thick wall and high raised ceilings, are warm in winter and cool in summer.
--Constructed with simple and economical materials, the dwellings are full of a sense of intimacy and harmony between man and nature.
3. What are the disadvantages of living in the caves?
--Cave humidity is high; Lighting is inadequate; V entilation is poor; Water seepage.
-- Caves dwellings are often associated with poverty.
-- Drainage must be addressed in a sunken courtyard.
Yurt （蒙古包）
1. Advantage?
--People need to set up and dismantle their houses from time to time. Because they need to move from place to place in search of new grassland. So the yurt is portable and suitable for nomadic life.
2.Where is the kitchen? Can you get a clue from the picture to support your answer?
--The kitchen is inside the tent. The chimney is the clue.
3. What is the purpose of letting the round hole on the roof open at day time and closed at night? --It is let open during the day for ventilation and closed at night to keep the tent warm.
4. Why is leather used to build the tent?
--There is a lack of building materials in the grassland. Leather is the most easily available and most suitable for the conditions.
Flat-roof House （碉房）
1. What is/are the purpose(s) of flat roofs?
--To receive more sunlight;
--To provide space for drying food
2.Why are multi-storey houses built in these areas?
--There is very little flat land, so people build multi-storey houses to create more living space.
3.Which part of the house is the most important?
--The worship hall.
4.Why is it so important to the Tibetans?
--They are devout Buddhists.
3. Cultural Connotations of Ancient Chinese Architecture
Fengshui
What is fengshui?
The Chinese art or practice of positioning objects, especially graves, buildings, and furniture, based on a belief in patterns of yin and yang and the flow of qi that have positive and negative effects.
Principles of fengshui:
-Qi
The qi is the vital energy which forms the essence of all materials. It is the fundamental element which produces the dynamic interaction between Yin and Y ang and the five elements.
--The balance of Y in and Y ang
--The attraction and repulsion of five elements - metal, wood, water, fire and earth.
--Bagua (eight trigrams)
How to practice fengshui?
Bagua map
A bagua map is a tool used in fengshui to map a room or location and see how the different sections correspond to different aspects in one's life.
Correlation of Wuxing to Bagua:
Association of Wuxing with colors:
Ancient Chinese regarded odd numbers as being masculine and even numbers as being feminine.
e.g.
red gate with nine rows of nine wooden studs
Temple of Confucius in Qufu consisting of nine courtyards
seventeen-arched bridge(十七孔桥)
The Forbidden City
How did the Forbidden City get its name ?
Meridian Gate
Why was it named Wumen?
----the emperor believed that his residence was the center of universe and that the meridian line went right through the city.
----the Meridian indicates the south
History?
The Meridian Gate was first built in 1420 and rebuilt in 1647. It is 35.6 meters high with five gateways.
Function?
----A place to announce the new lunar calendar for the following year.
“颁朔”典礼
----A place to celebrate victories and accept captives of war from the dispatched generals.
“献俘礼”
----A place for Court Beating （廷杖）.
----It is said that the capital punishment was carried out outside the Meridian gate .
Inner Golden Water River and Bridges
Functions:
Inner Golden Water River
-- serving as a water reservoir for fire prevention
--serving the principles of feng shui and decoration
Inner Golden Water Bridges
-- representing the five V irtues :
benevolence, righteousness, rites, wisdom and fidelity.
-- shaped like five arrows reporting symbolically to Heaven.
Gate of Supreme Harmony (太和门)
The male lion is playing with a ball, which symbolizes the control of the whole universe by the emperor. The female lion is playing with a cub, which symbolizes the prosperity of the royal family's offspring.
The Hall of Supreme Harmony (太和殿)
“日晷” sundial symbolizes the stability of the state
“嘉量” a standard measure symbolizes the unity of the state
Functions:
--a place where emperors received high officials and practiced their rule over the nation .
--ceremonial purposes: to celebrate …
a new emperor's ascending to the throne;
emperors' birthdays;
imperial weddings;
the Winter Solstice;
the Chinese New Y ear;
dispatching generals to war
The 10 mystical beasts indicate the highest status in the empire for this building：
a dragon, （龙）
a phoenix, （凤）
a lion, （狮子）
a heavenly steed,（天马）
a sea horse, （海马）
a SuanNi, (狻猊)
a Y aY u, (押鱼)
a XieZhi, (獬豸)
a DouNiu (斗牛)
a HangShi (行什)
The Hall of Central Harmon y←'The Golden Mean'
“中也者，天下之本也；和也者，天下之道也”
--《礼记·中庸》
Chinese Cuisine
--"Have you eaten already?“
--“Food is the first necessity of the people”
(“民以食为天。

”)
--“Desires for food and sex are basic human instincts.”
(“食色，性也。

”)
--“Governing a great nation is like cooking a small fish.”
(“治大国若烹小鲜。

”)
1. Chinese Cooking Art
1.1 The complete presence of color, aroma flavor, and shape(色香味形俱全)
•Color
To have a bright, pleasing and harmonious color is one of the main principles when cooking Chinese food.
•Aroma
Aroma means the fragrant and appetizing smell of the dishes.
“鲈出鲈乡芦叶前，白质黑章三四点，细鳞巨口一只鲜，秋风想见真风味，只是春风已迥然”。

--杨诚齐•Flavor
The flavor refers to the taste of food: sweet, sour, bitter, hot, salty, etc.
Popular saying:
sweetness in the south
saltiness in the north
hotness in the east
sourness in the west
Sweet
Sugarcane is never sweet at both ends. (“甘蔗没有两头甜”)
—Chinese proverb
Sweet and Sour Spare-ribs （酱排骨）from Wuxi, Jiangsu Province.
Salty
“I have eaten more salt in my life than you have eaten rice.”
（我吃的盐比你吃的饭还多。

）
Spicy/Hot
“贵州人不怕辣、湖南人辣不怕，四川人怕不辣”
Sichuan-style dishes are numbing(麻) as well as hot.
Hunan-style dishes are all hot, but don‟t numb the mouth.
Sour
Shanxi Chencu, a kind of mature vinegar with a delicate fragrance and the color of Coca Cola, is rich in amino acids.
Eight Cuisines(八大菜系）
-Sichuan Cuisine（四川菜系）
-Hunan Cuisine（湖南菜系）
-Shandong Cuisine（山东菜系）
-Anhui Cuisine（安徽菜系）
-Guangdong Cuisine（广东菜系）
-Fujian Cuisine（福建菜系）
-Jiangsu Cuisine （江苏菜系）
-Zhejiang Cuisine（浙江菜系）
•Shape
Raw materials are cut into different shapes according to the requirements of the dish and the character of the raw food：
slices(片), strips(条), shreds(丝), cubes(块), segments(瓣), dices(丁), grains(粒), mince(碎块), the shapes of flowers and animals, etc.
1.2 Special ways of naming Chinese Dishes
1）According to inventors
e.g.
Dongpo Pork(东坡肉)
Pockmarked Bean Curd(麻婆豆腐)
Goubuli Steamed Stuffed Bun(狗不理包子)
2) According to places
e.g.
Peking Roast Duck(北京烤鸭)
Northern Sichuan Bean Jelly(川北凉粉)
Daokou Braised Chicken(道口烧鸡)
3) According to shapes
e.g.
Goldfish Steamed Dumplings(金鱼蒸饺)
Dragon Whiskers Noodles(龙须面)
Duck Shaped Like a Lotus Flower Just Emerging from Water(出水芙蓉)
Cat‟s-ear-shaped Flour(猫耳朵)
4) According to colors
e.g.
Amber Peanuts(琥珀花生)
Jadeite Shrimp(翡翠虾)
Crystal Pork Leg(水晶猪肘)
Pearl Meatball(珍珠丸子)
5) According to tastes
e.g.
Crispy Fried Chicken(香酥鸡)
Multi-flavored Bean Curd(怪味豆腐)
Boiled Duck in Salt Water(咸水鸭)
Crispy Fried Chicken with Curry(咖喱酥鸡)
Spicy Fish Soup(酸辣鱼汤)
6) According to flowers
e.g.
Osmanthus Meat(桂花肉)
Lotus Eggs(芙蓉蛋)
Lotus Prawns(荷花大虾)
7) According to different kinds of oil
e.g.
Shredded Tripe with Chili oil(红油肚丝)
Mushrooms in Oyster Sauce (蚝油香菇)
Oil-fried Dough Cake(大油饼)
8) According to utensils
e.g.
Bean Curd in Casserole(砂锅豆腐)
Chicken in Earthen Jar(瓦罐鸡肉)
Ham in Hotpot(火锅肘子)
9) According to ingredients
e.g.
Mushrooms and Sliced Chicken(香菇鸡片)
Shredded Pork and Dried V egetables(干菜肉丝)
Shredded Pork and Hot Pickled Mustard Tuber(榨菜肉丝)
10) According to Chinese medicine
e.g.
Diced Chicken with Chinese Angelica(当归鸡块)
Beef with Dried Orange Peel(陈皮牛肉)
Mandarin Fish with Ginseng(人参桂鱼)
11) According to images
e.g.
Prosperity Brought by Dragon and Phoenix(龙凤呈祥)
Ants Climbing the Trees(蚂蚁上树)
Lion‟s Head(狮子头)
12) According to methods of cooking
e.g.
Deep-fried Prawns(炸大虾)
Braised Carp in Brown Sauce(红烧鲤鱼)
Quick-fried Y ellow Croaker(烹黄鱼)
13) According to mythologies and historical stories
e.g.
Rice-flour Noodles in Y unnan(过桥米线)
Three Sworn Brothers in the Peach Garden(桃园三结义)
2. Chopsticks Manners
-- Don't use chopsticks to hit the side of your bowl or plate to make a lot of noise. --Don't stretch out your index finger when you use chopsticks.
--Don‟t use chopsticks to point at others.
--Don‟t suck the end of a chopstick.
--Don't use chopsticks to poke at every dish without knowing what you want.
--Don't insert chopsticks vertically into food.
--Don't directly pass food from your chopsticks to somebody else.
-- Don't pick up a dish with the hand that is holding your chopsticks.。