The measurement of the absolute branching ratio of the K+ to pi+ pi0 (gamma) decay at KLOE
Principles of measurement Biomedical engineering 测量原理生物医学工程
Blood suspension
Manometer
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Absolute Counting I
Pulse Picture
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Start-Sensor Stop-Sensor
Blood suspension
Manometer
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Histogram
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Erythrocyte Histogram
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Internal Electrode
Aperture
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Vacuum
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APS考试复习资料：材料科学
材料科学Material Science1. 你在“工程力学”这门课中都学习了哪些知识？What did you learn in the course“Engineering Mechanics”?Mechanics can be divided into statics, kinematics and dynamics. The mechanics branch related with my profession is material mechanics. And statics is the foundation of material mechanics. So during this course we learn about Static mechanics first then learn about Materials mechanics.2. 关于静力学，你都学习了哪些知识？What knowledge have you learned aboutStatic mechanics?Firstly, we learned some basic concept of Engineering Mechanics.Component s are constituent parts of the machine and structure.When a force is applied to an object, it may change the size and direction of the object's velocity, which is called the motion effect (external effect). On another hand, it may also change the shape of an object, which is called the deformation effect (internal effect). In the statics, we only consider the deformation effect of force.Under the action of external force, the size and shape of the components have a change, and that change calls deformation. Deformation of components can be divided into two kinds. When the force is removed, some deformation disappear, components can recover its size and shape, those deformation calls elastic deformation. When the force is removed, some deformation remain, components can not recover its size and shape, those deformation calls plastic deformation.The larger external force is, the larger deformation happen. When the external force get too big, it may cause the huge plastic deformation even fracture of the component. Obviously, this make machine and structure can't work. The ability of component to resist damage (huge plastic deformation and fracture) under external forces is called strength.If notable elastic deformation occurs, although it can be restored, but before it be restored, they also cause machine can't work. The ability of component to resist deformation under external forces is called rigidity.Although no notable deformation occurs, sometimes only the original balance between the components is broken, the machine can not work properly too. The ability of components to keep their original balance under external forces is called stability.We suppose that there is a kind of material, it never change its shape under external force, this material calls rigid body. Rigid body is not exist in the real world.The condition can limit the displacement of the object, is called the constraint. Common constraints are flexible cable, support surface, hinge, etc..Two forces with equal size and opposite direction are not in the same line, are called force couple.Then we learned how to analyze the force on an object, we learned many methods to analyze force, such as force translation, force decomposition, force synthesis.3. 关于材料力学，你都学习了哪些知识？What knowledge have you learned aboutMaterials mechanics?When a external force is applied to an object, object produce a corresponding internal force to against it. The density of internal force is called stress, it is used to describe the size of internal force on unit area. The corresponding deformation caused by external force is called strain. When materials in elastic region, the stress and strain are in direct proportion (linear relationship) (Hooke's law), and the ratio of stress and strain is call Elastic modulus.If the direction of stress and strain are same with external force, they call direct stress(σ) and direct strain(ε). If the direction of stress and strain are vertical with external force, they call tangential stress(τ) and tangential strain(γ).We learn the internal force, stress and strain of the material under different forces,such as stretching, compressing, shearing, torsion, bending.Then we learned a little about Stress analysis, Breaking strength theory, Yield strength theory.4. 你在“高分子材料研究方法”这门课中都学习了哪些知识？What did you learn in thecourse “Research Methods of Polymeric Materials”?This curriculum explains several methods for researching polymer’s structure, morphology, properties and molecular motion. Researching methods of polymer can be divided into three types, they are spectral analysis, thermal analysis and microscopic analysis.5. 关于波谱分析，你都学习了哪些知识？What knowledge have you learned aboutspectral analysis?We learn two important and commonly used spectral analysis, they are infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.When the temperature is above absolute zero, molecules are in continuous motion, motion can be divided into translation, rotation and vibration. The vibrations of molecules need to absorb infrared have the same frequency with the frequency of vibration to obtain energy. Different groups, have different vibration frequencies, also absorb infrared in different frequencies. Using infrared irradiation material, it can be found that there are some infrared in certain frequency have been absorbed by the material. In that way, we can get what groups are there in that material.In a strong magnetic field, the atomic nucleus of a hydrogen atom nuclear will occur a transition. The transition need to absorb a electromagnetic wave (Hertz wave) in certain frequency to obtain energy. The hydrogen atom in different chemical environment absorb electromagnetic wave in different frequency. Through the measurement of the frequency and number of the electromagnetic wave is absorbed by hydrogen atom, We can know how many different kinds of hydrogen atoms arethere in the molecule of that material, and the proportion of them.6. 关于热分析，你都学习了哪些知识？What knowledge have you learned aboutthermal analysis?The most common method of thermal analysis is thermal gravimetric analysis (TG). TG is to put the material on the scale that has the heating function, measure the weight of the material at different temperatures. Through TG we can get the heat resistance of materials.Another important method of thermal analysis is differential thermal analysis (DTA). DTA can measure material is absorbing heat or releasing heat under a certain temperature. Through that information, we can analyze the state and behavior of material under that temperature.7. 关于显微分析，你都学习了哪些知识？What knowledge have you learned aboutmicroscopic analysis?Teacher mainly introduce us two kinds commonly used microscopic analysis, they are transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).8. 你在“材料工程与工程基础”这门课中都学习了哪些知识？What did you learn in thecourse “Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering”?Materials can be divided into four kinds, they are Metallic materials, Inorganic non-metallic materials, Polymer materials, Composite materials. Materials' development and progress of human civilization are closely linked. "Materials science" concept is proposed in the beginning of the 1960s when the United States developed the satellites and missiles.One of the core of materials science and engineering is researching therelationship between materials organization, structure and performance. On the other hand, materials science and engineering also is a practical subject serving the economic construction. Materials Science and Engineering is connected with physics, chemistry, metallurgy, computational mathematics and other subjects. Materials scientists believe that materials science and engineering has five elements, they are composition, structure, preparation, property and using performance.Properties of materials can be divided into two categories, they are processing performance and using performance. This course introduces some main performances include mechanical properties like: elasticity, plasticity, strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance, etc; and others like: electrical properties, magnetic properties, thermal properties, corrosion resistance, etc. Different materials have different atomic structure and different bonds between atoms, which is why they have different properties. This course introduces the five major aspects(composition, structure, preparation, property and using performance) of the four categories materials(Metallic materials, Inorganic non-metallic materials, Polymer materials, Composite materials), focus on high-molecular materials. At last, the teacher describes some research of new materials.9. 你在“特种及功能高分子”这门课中都学习了哪些知识？What did you learn in thecourse “Special and Functional Polymer”?It introduced several kinds of polymer who have Special functions. In the class teacher did not teach by the text book, because the text book was written years ago, but in this curriculum we should learn something new. The teacher divided us into groups, and gave each group a paper. We work on this paper and make lecture about it in front of all students.The title of the paper of my group is “A Novel Superhydrophilic and Underwater Superoleophobic Hydrogel-Coated Mesh for Oil/Water Separation” it is written by Tsinghua University and Chinese Academy of Sciences. They use polyacrylamide hydrogel covered a Stainless Steel Wire Mesh, make it only allowwater get through it. I believe This will be widely applied in After-treatment of petroleum leaking out Accident.。
英语国家概况全知识点题库(题目汇编含答案)
British Survey TestPart I Geography2. England occupies the _____ portion of the U.K.A. northernB. easternC. southern D . western3. The most important part of the U.K. in wealth is _____.A. Northern IrelandB. EnglandC. ScotlandD. Welsh12. London is situated on the River of _____.A. ParretB. ThamesC. SpeyD. Severn43. _____ includes London, the centre of government for the whole nation.A. ScotlandB. Northern IrelandC. WalesD. Englandcapital of Australia is( ).D.MelbourneThe English Channel separates the island of Great Britain from _______A. DenmarkB. BelgiumC. The Netherlands3. Australia’s National Day falls on( ), the date of the first European settlement in Australia.26154116.( )granted Canada full legislative authority in domestic and external affairs. TreatyAmerican Actof Unionof Westminster8. General elections are held about every( )years in New Zealand with two main parties competing with each other.9. Most of Canada’s French Canadians live in the Province of( )Scotia14. Education in Britain is generally supported by( ).themselvessourcesfunds19. Abraham Lincoln belonged to( ).Federalist PartyRepublican PartyWhig PartyDemocratic Party20. Among the following,( )does not belong to New England, the birthplace of America.HampshireIslandUnion Jack refers to the National Flag of ________.A. the .B. the .C. AustraliaD. CanadaCBBDDADAACBBA1. The . is situated in _____ Europe.2. The full title of the . is the United Kingdom of _____ _____ and _____ _____.3. The . consists of England, _____, _____ and Northern Ireland.4. The largest part of . is _____.5. The capital of England and of Great Britain is _____.6. _____ _____ is composed of six Irish counties that elected to remain in the union with Great Britain.7. The name United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was replaced by the present name after the 26 counties of Ireland obtained autonomy in _____.8. The highest mountain in Britain is _____ _____.9. The “Backbone of England” refers to the _____.10. Natural gas was discovered in Britain in the _____ _____.11. The most important river is the River of _____.12. The political centre of the Commonwealth is _____.13. Belfast Lough and Lough Neagh lie in _____ _____.14. The climate of Britain is moderated by the _____ _____ _____ and is much milder than that of many places in the same latitude.15. Britain’s Industrial Revolution took place between _____ and _____.16. The Bank of England was founded in _____.17. The population of the . is more than _____ million.18. Britain is basically an exporter of _____.19. The population of the . consists of the English, the Welsh, the Scottish and the _____.20. In Wales many people speak _____.21. People sing the national anthem in _____.22. The earliest invasion is that by the _____-haired Mediterranean race called the Iberians.23. The modern _____ and _____ are the descendants of the Gaels of the Celtic tribes.24. The Britons of the Celtic tribes were the forefathers of the modern _____.25. Greater London is made up of 12 _____ London boroughs and _____ Outer London boroughs.26. The International festival of music and the arts is held every year in the city of _____.27. The British national anthem is _____ _____ _____ _____.28. The . lies to the _____ of France.29. Westminster, the area of central government administration is situated in the_____ End.30. River _____ flows through Glasgow.31. Mt. Seafell stands in _____.32. The source of the River _____ is in the Cotswolds.33. The capital city of Wales is _____.34. The United Kingdom is rich in _____, iron, tin, copper, lead and silver.35. Define the Following Terms36. “Backbone of England”37. Greater London38. Celts39. The “Irish Question”I. Answer the Following Questions1. What are the major factors influencing the British weather characterized by a moderate temperature and plenty of rainfall2. Why is United Kingdom said to be a trading nation3. What are the general characteristics of the British economy英美概况一答案Part II.DCBAA CAAAB ABBBB ABABD ACACB CBBCD BADAA CBABA CBDII.Northwestern Great Britain, Northern Ireland Scottish, Welsh EnglandLondon Northern Ireland 1921 Ben Nevis Pennines North Sea Thames London Northern Ireland Atlantic Gulf Stream 1750, 1850 1694 57 manufacture Irish Welsh English dark Scots, Irish Welsh Inner, 20 Edinburgh God Save the Queen North West Clyde England Thames Cardiff coal英美概况英国历史部分History1. Julius Caesar invaded Britain _____.A. onceB. twiceC. three timesD. four times2. King Arthur was the king of _____.A. PictsB. CeltsC. ScotsD. Jutes3. The first “King of the English” was _____.A. AlfredB. EgbertC. BedeD. Ethelred4. Christianity was introduced into England in the late _____ century.A. 14thB. 8thC. 6th5. In 1653 _____ was made Lord Protector for life.A. Oliver CromwellB. Charles IC. William IID. James I6. The three great Germanic tribes: the Anglos, the _____ and the Jutes which invaded Britain form the basis of the modern British people.A. SaxonsB. ScotsC. WelshD. Wessex7. The head of the church in Anglo-Saxon times was _____.A. the King of Denmark and NorwayB. the king of EnglandC. Julius CaesarD. the Archbishop of Canterbury8. The _____ invaded England in the earliest time.A. DanesB. IberiansC. RomansD. Celts9. The Vikings who invaded England at the turn of the 8th century came from _____.A. NorwayB. DenmarkC. FranceD. both A and B10. Edward was known as the “_____” because of his reputation for saintliness.]A. ConfessorB. ConquerorC. Protector11. Norman Conquest began in _____.A. 1016B. 1066C. 1035D. 110612. In history _____ was nicknamed “King of Lackland”.A. JohnB. Henry IC. Henry II13. In 1181 Henry II issued the _____ which made it compulsory for every freeman in England to be provided with arms.A. Inquest of SheriffsB. Assize of ArmsC. Doomsday Book14. Henry Plantagenet, in 1154, established the House of Angevin as _____.A. Henry IB. Henry IIC. Henry III15. Henry II appointed in 1162 _____ Archbishop of Canterbury.A. Thomas BecketB. Stephen LangtonC. Simon de Mortfort16. Charles I was beheaded in _____.A. 1649B. 1648C. 165317. It was _____ who summoned Model Parliament in 1295.A. Edward IB. Henry IVC. Simon de Montfort18. The Great Charter contained _____ sets of provisions.A. twoB. fourC. three19. The Peasants Uprising in 1381 was led by _____.A. Henry TurnerB. Watt TylerC. Richard20. The English Church was strictly _____.A. nationalB. internationalC. regional21. The Glorious Revolution in 1688 was in nature a _____.A. coup d’etatB. racial slaughterC. peasant rising22. The Industrial Revolution laid a good foundation for the _____.A. factory of the worldB. expansion of marketsC. social upheaval23. The American Revolution (the American War of Independence) broke out in _____ and ended in _____.A. 1775, 1783B. 1774, 1782C. 1786, 1784 , 178924. The Battle of Hastings took place in _____.A. 1606B. 1042C. 106625. The Great Charter was signed by _____ in 1215.A. King Henry IIB. King RichardC. King John26. In the early 14th century feudalism began to _____ in England.A. growB. flourishC. declineD. end27. It was _____ who published the book “The Rights of Man”.A. Thomas MoreB. Thomas PaineC. Thomas Jefferson28. The first Prime Minister was _____.A. WilmintonB. George GrenvilleC. Robert Walpole29. The Parliament of 1265 which is known as the “_____” is considered the “beginning of parliament”.A. All Estates ParliamentB. Model ParliamentC. Long Parliament30. The Anglo-French hostility which began in 1337 and ended in 1453 was known as _____.A. the Wars of RosesB. the Hundred Years’ WarC. Peasant Uprising31. In the first half of 17th century _____ grow rapidly in England.A. feudalismB. capitalismC. Catholicism32. Prime Minister _____ resisted any reform that could be resisted.A. PalmerstonB. Robert PeelC. Gladstone33. By the end of the Hundred Years’ War only the port of _____ remained under English rule.A. TroyesB. GasconC. Calais34. In the 14th century took place the _____, the severest of many plagues in the middle ages.A. EarthquakeB. Black DeathC. Drought35. _____ and his followers, known as Lollards, provided ideological preparation for the labour movement of the 14th century.A. John WycliffeB. Watt TylerC. Somerset36. By the end of the Wars of the Roses the House of _____ began.A. TudorB. LancasterC. Plantagenet37. In the “_____” of 1388 five lords accused the King’s friends of treason undera very expansive definition of crime.A. All Estates parliamentB. Merciless ParliamentC. Model Parliament38. In the Wars of the Roses the Lancastrians wire badges of _____ rose.A. whiteB. redC. pinkD. yellow39. The first Civil War in Britain lasted from _____ to _____.A. 1600, 1604B. 1640, 1644C. 1642, 164640. William Shakespeare is mainly a _____.A. novelistB. dramatistC. poetD. composer41. In 1689 the “Bill of Rights” was passed. _____ began in England.A. The Constitutional MonarchyB. All Estates ParliamentC. House of Lancaster42. The _____ carried on trade relations with Russia and central Asian countries.A. Moscow CompanyB. Eastland CompanyC. East India Company43. _____ started the slave trade in the second part of the 16th century.A. John HawkinsB. Francis DrakeC. Diaz44. In 1534 Parliament passed the “_____”, according to which Henry VIII was declared the head of the English Church.A. the Bill of RightsB. Act of SupremacyC. Act of Settlement45. Under Elizabeth I _____ was restored, and she was declared “governor” of the church.A. the Roman ChurchB. the Catholic ChurchC. the Anglican Church46. In 1337 the hostility between England and _____ resulted in the Hundred Years’ War.A. FranceB. SpainC. Russia47. The religious persecution mainly existed during the reign of _____.A. CromwellB. Charles IC. Henry VIII48. England first became a sea power in the time of _____.A. Henry VIIB. Elizabeth IC. Victoria49. The Industrial Revolution first started in _____.A. the iron industryB. the textile industryC. the coal industry50. From 1688 to 1783 English Parliament was mainly controlled by the party of _____.A. ToryB. WhigC. Labour51. The English Prime Minister during the Second World War was _____.A. ChurchillB. ChamberlainC. Baldwin52. At the End of _____ century, the East India Company was formed.A. 15thB. 16thC. 14th53. The Seven Years War between England and France lasted from _____ to _____.A. 1756, 1763B. 1713, 1720C. 1754, 176154. In 1689 Parliament passed “_____”, limiting the po wers of the crown.A. Habeas Corpus ActB. the Bill of RightsC. Navigation Act55. _____ contrasted the first successful steam locomotive.A. George StephensonB. Samuel CromptonC. James Hargreaves56. The “Peterloo Massacre” took place in _____.A. BirminghamB. LiverpoolC. Manchester57. Between 1911 and 1914 took place the following strikes except _____.A. railway strikeB. strike of the postmenC. coal strikeD. strike of the transport58. The Victorian Age was over the _____ began.A. Edwardian AgeB. Georgian AgeC. Elizabethan Age59. The _____ government surrendered to the British invaders and was forced to sign the first unequal Treaty of Nanjing in 1842.A. IndianB. QingC. IrishD. Spanish60. The Great Charter was essentially a _____.A. Culture MovementB. colonial documentC. feudal document61. _____ broke out two years after the Hundred Years’ War with France.A. The Bore WarB. The Wars of the RosesC. Queen Annes’ War62. The Reformation was a product of _____.A. the RenaissanceB. the Chartist MovementC. the Hundred Years’ War63. The greatest dramatist of the English Renaissance was _____.A. ShakespeareB. MiltonC. ChaucerD. Bacon64. The English Revolution marks the beginning of the _____ period of capitalism.A. feudalB. modernC. colonialD. medieval65. By the _____ in 1783, Britain recognized the independence of the US.A. Declaratory ActB. Treaty of ParisC. Treaty of MontgomeryD. Statue of Westminster66. The Chartist Movement began in _____ and reached its height in _____.A. 1845, 1858B. 1828, 1835C. 1839, 184867. In 1840 Britain launched an aggressive war against _____.A. FranceB. IndiaC. ChinaD. America68. _____ formed a coalition government in 1940.A. Winston ChurchillB. Lloyd GeorgeC. Neville Chamberlain69. By the _____ the British dominions became independent states in all but name.A. Statue of WestminsterB. Locarno TreatyC. Disputes Act70. The Fabians Society was founded in 1883, including intellectuals such as _____.A. William Shakespeare & Ben JonsonB. Christopher Marlowe & John MiltonC. G. B. Shaw & H. G. Wells71. Before WWII _____ relied on appeasement of the European dictators to reduce tensions that might lead to war.A. Neville Chamberlain A. Stanley BaldwinC. Winston Churchill72. During WWII, Britain, America, France, Soviet Union and other antifascist countries formed a united international alliance which was called _____.A. Locarno TreatyB. Grand AllianceC. Statute of Westminster73. The first coalition government during WWI was organized when _____ was the Prime Minister.A. Lloyd GeorgeB. Herbert AsquithC. Stanley Baldwin74. When Germany invaded _____ which was neutral, Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August, 1914.A. AustriaB. RussiaC. BelgiumD. Poland1. At about 3000 BC, some of the _____ settled in Britain.2. About 122 AD, in order to keep back the Picts and Scots, the _____ built Hadrian’s Wall.3. The real Roman conquest began in _____.4. _____ _____’s “Paradise Lost” was published in 1667.5. Beowulf, considered the greatest Old English poem, is assigned to _____ Times.6. _____ was considered the first national hero.7. On Christmas Day 1066 Duke _____ was crowned in Westminster Abbey.8. In history John was nicknamed King of _____.9. John signed the document in 1215, which in history was called the Great Charter or _____ _____.10. In 1086 William had his official to make a general survey of the land, known as _____ Book.11. The most famous scholar during Anglo-Saxon Times was _____.12. The Battle of _____ paved the way for the Norman Conquest to England.13. The Norman Conquest increased the process of _____ which had begun during the Anglo-Saxon Times.14. Duke William was known in history as William the _____.15. Along with the Normans came the _____ language.16. The English parliament originated in the _____ _____.17. The head of the _____ was Archbishop of _____.18. The _____ _____ in 1688 was in nature a coup d’etat.19. The People’s Charter included _____ points such as universal male suffrage.20. The corrupt Qing government surrendered to Britain and was forced to sign the first unequal Treaty of _____ in 1842.21. After the Crimean War _____ was forced not to fortify Sebastopol.22. The third collection of the poll tax in the early part of 1381 became the fuse of _____ _____ rising.23. The Wars of the Roses broke out between the _____ and the _____.24. The Enclosure Movement began in the _____ century.25. By the treaty of _____ in 1783, Britain recognized the independence of the US.26. In _____ Britain launched the Opium War against China.27. The East India Company formed at the end of the 16th century was one of _____ companies.28. After the Reformation the Roman Catholic Church was _____, the English Church was strictly _____.29. Mary I re-established Catholicism and burnt three hundred Protestants, for which she was called “_____” Mary.30. “Renaissance” means “_____”, . Europe rediscovering its origins in the cultures of ancient Greek and Rome.31. During the Renaissance, the thinkers who worked for freedom and enlightenment were called “_____”.32. The nature of the Wars of the Roses was a _____ _____ war.33. By the beginning of the Tudor reign the manor system was replaced by the _____ system.34. In the summer of 1588 the Spanish ships, the _____ _____ was defeated by English ships.35. The greatest English humanist was Sir _____ _____ whose work _____ became a humanistic classic in the world literature.36. English Renaissance began in _____ century.37. The House of _____ was notorious for its absolutist rule.38. During the Civil Wars (1642 – 1648) the supporters of Parliament were called _____ while the supporters of the King Charles I were called _____.39. In 1653 Cromwell was made _____ _____ for life and started his military dictatorship openly.40. The Seven Years War was ended by the Treaty of _____.41. The first two parties appeared in England were the _____ and the _____.42. The basic point of the People’s Charter is _____ _____.43. In 1764 James Hargreaves invented the _____ _____.44. From 1863 to the end of the century Britain had been carrying a foreign policy of _____ _____.45. The Parliament passed the Act of _____ in 1701, excluding James Catholic son from the succession.46. After Charles I was beheaded in 1649 England was declared a _____.47. In September 1939 Germany invaded _____, thus Britain and France declared war on Germany.48. The Industrial Revolution started during the last part of the _____ century.49. The steam engine was invented by _____ _____ in 1769.50. Samuel Crompton invented the _____ _____ in 1779.51. Edmund Cartwright invented the _____ _____ in 1785.52. Upon the completion of the _____ _____ by 1850 England became the workshop of the world.53. In 1868 the first Trade Union Congress met in _____.54. In 1534 Parliament passed the “_____ _____ _____”.55. On the eve of WWI the Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and _____ was formed.56. The First World War was an imperialist war as well as a _____ war because itwas not confined only to Europe. It lasted _____ years.57. At the _____ _____ _____, the League of Nations was established and the Treaty of Versailles was signed.58. The _____ _____ of 1926 was Austen chamberlain’s chief claim to fame as foreign secretary.59. On May 7, 1945, _____ surrendered unconditionally.60. It was _____ _____ who led the country during the “miracle of Dunkirk”.61. When George I began the Houses of Hanover in 1714, the _____ system was established.Explain the Following Terms1. The Norman Conquest2. The Glorious Revolution3. The Chartist Movement4. The Opium War5. The Hundred Years’ War6. Black DeathAnswer the Following Questions1. What, in your opinion, are the main causes for the slow growth of Britain’s economy since the Second World War2. What is the importance Simon de Mortfort hold in British history (with special reference to his role in the creation of the Parliament system)What importance did King Alfred hold in British historyBBBAB DBACB BABBC C英美概况自测题（二）英国历史部分答案I. BBBCA ADBDA BABBA AACBA AAACC CBAAB BACBA ABBCB AAABC ABBBB ABABA CBABC BAABB CCAAC ABBC1. II. Iberians Romans 43 A.D John Milton Anglo-Saxon Alfred William Lackland Magna Carta Domesday Bede Hastings feudalism Conqueror French Great Council Church Glorious Revolution 6 Nanjing Russia Watt Tyler’s2. Lancasterians, Yorkists 15th Paris 1840 Chartered international, national Bloody rebirth humanists feudal civil money Invincible Armada Thomas More, Utopia 16th Stuart Roundheads, Cavaliers Lord Protector Paris Tory, Whig universal suffrage Spinning Jenny splendid isolation Settlement Commonwealth Poland18th James Watt Spinning Mule Power Loom Industrial Revolution Manchester Act of Supremacy Italy world, 4 Paris Peace Conference Locarno Treaty Germany Winston Churchill cabinet英语考研英美概况模拟题（三）英国文化部分CultureMultiple Choice1. All children in the UK must, by law, receive a full-time education from the ageof _____ to _____.A. 5, 16B. 6, 17C. 7, 18 D 8, 192. In state schools the letters A, B and C are often used to describe “_____” or parallel classes.A. gradeB. formC. streams3. Public schools belong to the category of the _____ schools.A. stateB. independentC. local4. The pupils who had got the highest marks in the “eleven plus” examination would go to _____ school.A. grammarB. technicalC. secondary modern5. Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest universities dating from _____ and _____.A. 1167, 1284B. 1234, 1325C. 1335, 14276. There are over _____ universities in Britain.A. thirtyB. fortyC. fifty7. The two features of Oxford and Cambridge are the college system and the _____.A. records of attendanceB. governing councilC. tutorial system8. The universities of St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh are called the four _____ universities.A. oldB. newC. Scottish9. The _____ university offers courses through one of BBC’s television chann els and by radio.A. openB. newC. middle aged10. Buckingham University is and _____ university which was established in 1973.A. independentB. openC. old11. The second centre of the British press is in _____.A. LondonB. the Fleet StreetC. Manchester12. In Britain great majority of children attend _____ schools.A. stateB. independentC. religious13. In Britain education at the age from 5 to 16 is _____.A. optionalB. compulsoryC. self-taught14. The oldest university in Britain is _____.A. CambridgeB. EdinburghC. Oxford15. British newspapers possess the following features except _____.A. freedom of speechB. fast deliveryC. monoplied by one of the five large organizationD. no difficulty for independent newspapers to survive16. The earliest newspaper in Britain is _____.A. Daily MailB. Daily TelegraphsC. The TimesD. Guardian17. _____ is the oldest Sunday newspaper in Britain.A. Sunday TimesB. The ObserverC. The peopleD. News of the World18. The most humorous magazine is _____.A. New SocietyB. Private EyeC. PunchD. Spectator19. In the UK there are about _____ dailies and over _____ weeklies.A. 130, 1000B. 200, 800C. 160, 120020. There are _____ national daily newspapers which appear every morning except on Sundays.A. nineB. sevenC. eight21. The Daily Telegraph and Sunday Telegraph support the _____.A. Liberal PartyB. Labour PartyC. Conservative Party22. The Economist, New Statesman, Spectator are _____.A. journalsB. daily newspapersC. local papers23. BBC was founded in _____ and chartered in _____ as an independent public corporation.A. 1922, 1927B. 1292, 1297C. 1822, 182724. The Exchange Telegraph Co. Ltd. is a _____ news agency.A. publicB. governmentalC. localD. private25. The BBC is mainly financed by _____.A. payment from all people who possess TV setsB. the income from advertisementsC. some large corporationsD. British government26. The most famous broadcasting company in Britain is _____.A. British Broadcasting CorporationB. Independent Broadcasting AuthorityC. Reuters27. Reuters was founded in the year of _____.A. 1518B. 1815C. 185128. The new headquarters’ building of _____ is at 85 Fleet Street, London.A. BBCB. the Press Association Ltd.C. the Exchange Telegraph Co. Ltd.29. _____ is regarded as the most English of games.A. CricketB. SoccerC. Rugger30. _____ claims the highest popular attendance in Britain.A. Rugby footballB. Association footballC. Baseball31. _____ “pools” provide amusement for millions of people who bet on the results of matches.A. Association footballB. BaseballC. Cricket32. The annual _____ championships at Wimbledon, in London, are the most famous in the world.A. hockeyB. tennisC. netball33. _____ racing is chiefly a betting sport.A. HorseB. BoatC. Dog34. Hurdle or steeplechase racing takes up the winter months, leading to its climax in the Grand National Steeplechase at _____ in March.A. LondonB. EdinburghC. Liverpool35. It was _____ who first revolutionized scientific thought in Britain.A. Francis BaconB. Thomas NewcomerC. James Watt36. _____ discovered the circulation of food.A. Francis GlissonB. William HarveyC. George Stephenson37. The Royal Society was founded in _____ in _____.A. London, 1660B. Liverpool, 1660C. London, 176038. The Royal Society reached the summit of its prestige in 1703, when _____ became its president.A. Robert BoyleB. Issae NewtonC. Francis Bacon39. James Watt was a great _____ engineer and inventor.A. IrishB. ScottishC. English40. _____ developed atomic theory in the 18th century.A. John DaltonB. Francis GlissonC. Robert Boyle41. The minor’s safety lamp was invented by _____.A. Francis BaconB. William HarveyC. Humphy Davy42. Charles Robert Darwin Developed the theory of _____.A. evolutionB. immunologyC. virology43. _____ is considered the father of English poetry.A. Geoffrey ChaucerB. John MiltonC. John Donne44. Big Ben is the nickname of _____.A. Benjamin FranklinB. Sir Benjamin HallC. the 315-foot Clock TowerD. the QueenB45. The British Museum was founded in _____.A. 1659B. 1763C. 175346. The British Museum is financed by _____ funds and is managed by a board of 25 trustees.A. GovernmentB. individualC. local47. You could find the world-famous Speakers’ Corner in _____.A. Great RussellB. Hyde ParkC. Westminster Abbey48. _____ is the biggest and most well-known church in London.A. Whit ehallB. St. Paul’s CathedralC. Westminster Abbey49. _____ is the monarch’s present London home.A. Westminster PalaceB. Buckingham PalaceC. Whitehall Palace50. Stratford-on-Avon is the place where _____ was born in 1564.A. William ShakespeareB. Charles DickensC. Samuel ButlerFill in the Blanks1. There are two systems of primary and secondary education in Britain. They are the _____ school and the _____ school.2. The independent school or “_____” school is few in number but of grea t influence.3. The four types of state schools in the secondary education are the _____ schools,。
几何英语知识点归纳总结
几何英语知识点归纳总结In this article, we will delve into the key concepts and principles of geometry, covering a wide range of topics from basic shapes to advanced theorems. By the end of this article, you will have a comprehensive understanding of geometry and be able to apply its principles to solve a variety of problems.Basic Concepts in Geometry1. Points, Lines, and Planes: The foundation of geometry lies in the ideas of points, lines, and planes. A point is a location in space, represented by a dot. A line is a straight path that extends in both directions infinitely, with no width or thickness. A plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely in all directions.2. Angles: An angle is formed when two rays share a common endpoint, referred to as the vertex. Angles are measured in degrees, with a full circle representing 360 degrees. There are different types of angles, including acute angles (less than 90 degrees), obtuse angles (greater than 90 degrees), right angles (exactly 90 degrees), straight angles (exactly 180 degrees), and reflex angles (greater than 180 degrees).3. Polygons: A polygon is a closed shape made up of straight line segments. The most common types of polygons are triangles (3 sides), quadrilaterals (4 sides), pentagons (5 sides), hexagons (6 sides), and so on. Polygons can be classified based on the number of sides and angles they have.4. Circles: A circle is a set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a given center point. The distance from the center to any point on the circle is called the radius, and the distance across the circle through the center is called the diameter. The ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter is a constant value known as pi (π), approximately equal to 3.14159.5. Similarity and Congruence: Two geometric figures are similar if they have the same shape but different sizes. They are congruent if they have the same shape and size. These concepts are fundamental in understanding the relationships between different geometric figures.6. Perimeter and Area: The perimeter of a shape is the distance around its boundary, while the area is the measure of the space inside the boundary. Different formulas are used to calculate the perimeter and area of various shapes, such as rectangles, triangles, circles, and so on.Advanced Concepts in Geometry1. Pythagorean Theorem: This theorem states that in a right-angled triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides. It is expressed as a^2 + b^2 = c^2, where a and b are the lengths of the two shorter sides, and c is the length of the hypotenuse.2. Theorems of Euclidean Geometry: Euclidean geometry, named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, is the study of plane and solid figures based on a set of axioms and theorems. Some of the key theorems include the Parallel Postulate, the Angle Sum Theorem, the Pythagorean Theorem, and the Midpoint Theorem.3. Transformations: Transformations in geometry refer to the ways in which a figure can be moved, reflected, rotated, or scaled without changing its shape or size. Common transformations include translations (sliding), reflections (flipping), rotations (turning), and dilations (resizing).4. Coordinates and Graphs: The coordinate plane is a fundamental tool in geometry, consisting of two perpendicular number lines that intersect at the origin (0,0). Points on the plane are represented by ordered pairs of numbers (x,y) called coordinates. By plotting points on the coordinate plane, geometric figures and relationships can be visualized and analyzed.5. Trigonometry: Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with the study of angles and the lengths of their sides in triangles. It is an essential tool in understanding the relationships between angles and sides, and is widely used in fields such as engineering, physics, and navigation.6. Three-Dimensional Geometry: In addition to the two-dimensional shapes and figures, geometry also encompasses three-dimensional objects such as prisms, pyramids, spheres, cones, and cylinders. Three-dimensional geometry involves the measurement of volume, surface area, and spatial relationships between solid figures.Applications of GeometryThe principles of geometry have a wide range of applications in various fields of study and professions. Some of the key applications include:1. Architecture: Architects use geometry to design and construct buildings, bridges, and other structures. Understanding principles of symmetry, proportion, and spatial relationships is crucial in creating aesthetically pleasing and structurally sound designs.2. Engineering: Engineers utilize geometry in designing and analyzing mechanical components, electrical circuits, and structural frameworks. Geometric concepts such as vectors, forces, and dimensions play a critical role in the field of engineering.3. Cartography: Cartographers use geometry in creating maps and geographic information systems. By understanding the principles of projections, scales, and angles, accurate representations of geographic features can be produced.4. Art and Design: Artists and designers often incorporate geometric shapes, patterns, and proportions in their work. Understanding geometric principles allows them to create compositions with balance, harmony, and visual appeal.5. Computer Graphics: The field of computer graphics heavily relies on geometric algorithms and principles to create visual representations of virtual environments, objects, and characters in video games, movies, and simulations.ConclusionGeometry is a fundamental branch of mathematics that encompasses the study of shapes, sizes, and properties of space. By understanding the basic concepts of points, lines, angles, polygons, and circles, as well as the advanced principles of transformations, coordinates, trigonometry, and three-dimensional geometry, we are able to make sense of the world around us in a more precise and systematic manner.The principles of geometry have a wide range of applications in various fields of study and professions, including architecture, engineering, cartography, art and design, and computer graphics. By applying the principles of geometry to solve problems and analyze real-world scenarios, we are able to create, innovate, and understand the world in a more profound way. As we continue to advance in our understanding of geometry, we open up new possibilities for exploration, discovery, and creativity in the world of mathematics and beyond.。
单晶硅球密度的绝对测量
单晶硅球密度的绝对测量罗志勇【摘要】To determine Avogadro constant, the absolute density measurement of the single crystal silicon sphere is a decisive procedure. The current status of the density measurement of the single crystal silicon sphere, including measurement principles, measurement fields, influence factors, measuring devices and the best ability for the diameter measurement are introduced . The main difficulties and key techniques of density measurement is analyzed, and the development trend and technology prospect in related fields is predicted.%单晶硅球密度的绝对测量是阿伏加德罗常数测量的关键技术.综述了单晶硅球密度测量的最新进展,包括硅球密度测量的技术原理、测量领域、影响因素、测量装置及最佳测量能力等等,分析了硅球密度测量的主要难点和关键技术,预测了相关研究的技术前景及发展趋势.【期刊名称】《计量学报》【年(卷),期】2012(033)005【总页数】4页(P428-431)【关键词】计量学;硅球密度;相移干涉法;阿伏加德罗常数【作者】罗志勇【作者单位】中国计量科学研究院,北京100013【正文语种】中文【中图分类】TB9321 引言质量基准千克原器是现存7个基本量中唯一的实物基准[1～4]，阿伏加德罗常数作为定义质量基准的重要方法之一是以对单晶硅密度的精密测量为基础的[5～12]。
(整理)微积分词汇英汉互译[1]
![(整理)微积分词汇英汉互译[1]](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/d090b09f783e0912a3162ab1.png)
第一部分英汉微积分词汇Part1 English-Chinese Calculus V ocabulary 第一函数与极限Chapter1 Function and Limit集合set元素element子集subset空集empty set并集union交集intersection差集difference of set基本集basic set补集complement set直积direct product笛卡儿积Cartesian product开区间open interval闭区间closed interval半开区间half open interval有限区间finite interval区间的长度length of an interval无限区间infinite interval领域neighborhood领域的中心centre of a neighborhood领域的半径radius of a neighborhood左领域left neighborhood右领域right neighborhood映射mappingX到Y 的映射mapping of X ontoY满射surjection单射injection映射one-to-one mapping双射bijection算子operator变化transformation函数function逆映射inverse mapping复合映射composite mapping自变量independent variable因变量dependent variable定义域domain函数值value of function函数关系function relation值域range自然定义域natural domain 单值函数single valued function 多值函数multiple valued function 单值分支one-valued branch 函数图形graph of a function 绝对值函数absolute value 符号函数sigh function 整数部分integral part 阶梯曲线step curve 当且仅当if and only if(iff) 分段函数piecewise function 上界upper bound下界lower bound有界boundedness 无界unbounded 函数的单调性monotonicity of a function 单调增加的increasing 单调减少的decreasing 单调函数monotone function 函数的奇偶性parity(odevity) of a function 对称symmetry 偶函数even function 奇函数odd function 函数的周期性periodicity of a function周期period 反函数inverse function 直接函数direct function 复合函数composite function 中间变量intermediate variable 函数的运算operation of function 基本初等函数basic elementary function 初等函数elementary function 幂函数power function 指数函数exponential function 对数函数logarithmic function 三角函数trigonometric function 反三角函数inverse trigonometric function 常数函数constant function 双曲函数hyperbolic function 双曲正弦hyperbolic sine 双曲余弦hyperbolic cosine 双曲正切hyperbolic tangent 反双曲正弦inverse hyperbolic sine反双曲余弦inverse hyperbolic cosine 反双曲正切inverse hyperbolic tangent 极限limit数列sequence of number收敛convergence收敛于 a converge to a发散divergent极限的唯一性uniqueness of limits 收敛数列的有界性boundedness of a convergent sequence 子列subsequence 函数的极限limits of functions函数f (x) 当x 趋于x0 时的极限limit of functions f(x) as x approaches x0左极限left limit右极限right limit 单侧极限one-sided limits 水平渐近线horizontal asymptote 无穷小infinitesimal 无穷大infinity 铅直渐近线vertical asymptote 夹逼准则squeeze rule 单调数列monotonic sequence 高阶无穷小infinitesimal of higher order 低阶无穷小infinitesimal of lower order 同阶无穷小infinitesimal of the same order 等阶无穷小equivalent infinitesimal 函数的连续性continuity of a function 增量increment函数f (x) 在x0连续the function f (x) is continuous at x0 左连续left continuous 右连续right continuous 区间上的连续函数continuous function 函数f (x) 在该区间上连续function f (x) is continuous on an interval 不连续点discontinuity point 第一类间断点discontinuity point of the first kind第二类间断点discontinuity point of the second kind初等函数的连续性continuity of the elementary functions 定义区间defined interval最大值global maximum value (absolute maximum)最小值global minimum value (absolute minimum)零点定理the zero point theorem 介值定理intermediate value theorem 第二章导数与微分Chapter2 Derivative and Differential 速度velocity 匀速运动uniform motion 平均速度average velocity 瞬时速度instantaneous velocity 圆的切线tangent line of a circle 切线tangent line 切线的斜率slope of the tangent line 位置函数position function 导数derivative可导derivable函数的变化率问题problem of the change rate of a function 导函数derived function 左导数left-hand derivative 右导数right-hand derivative 单侧导数one-sided derivativesf(x) 在闭区间【a,b】上可导f (x) isderivable on the closed interval [a,b]切线方程tangent equation角速度angular velocity成本函数cost function边际成本marginal cost 链式法则chain rule隐函数implicit function显函数explicit function二阶函数second derivative三阶导数third derivative高阶导数nth derivative莱布尼茨公式Leibniz formula对数求导法log- derivative参数方程parametric equation相关变化率correlative change rata 微分differential 可微的differentiable 函数的微分differential of function 自变量的微分differential of independent variable微商differential quotient 间接测量误差indirect measurement error 绝对误差absolute error 相对误差relative error 第三章微分中值定理与导数的应用Chapter3 MeanValue Theorem of Differentials and the Application of Derivatives 罗马定理R olle ' s theorem费马引理Fermat' s lemma拉格朗日中值定理Lagrange' smean value theorem 驻点stationary point 稳定点stable point 临界点critical point 辅助函数auxiliary function 拉格朗日中值公式Lagrange 's mean value formula 柯西中值定理Cauchy's mean valuetheorem 洛必达法则L'Hospital 's Rule0/0 型不定式indeterminate form of type 0/0 不定式indeterminate form 泰勒中值定理Taylor 's mean value theorem 泰勒公式Taylor formula 余项remainder term 拉格朗日余项Lagrange remainder term 麦克劳林公式Maclaurin 's formula佩亚诺公式Peano remainder term凹凸性concavity 凹向上的concave upward, cancave up凹向下的，向上凸的concave downward ' concave down 拐点inflection point 函数的极值extremum of function 极大值local(relative) maximum 最大值global(absolute) mximum极小值local(relative) minimum最小值global(absolute) minimum目标函数objective function曲率curvature弧微分arc differential平均曲率average curvature曲率园circle of curvature曲率中心center of curvature曲率半径radius of curvature渐屈线evolute渐伸线involute根的隔离isolation of root隔离区间isolation interval切线法tangent line method第四章不定积分Chapter4 Indefinite Integrals原函数primitive function(antiderivative) 积分号sign of integration 被积函数integrand 积分变量integral variable积分曲线integral curve积分表table of integrals 换元积分法integration by substitution分部积分法integration by parts分部积分公式formula of integration by parts有理函数rational function 真分式proper fraction 假分式improper fraction 第五章定积分Chapter5 Definite Integrals 曲边梯形trapezoid with 曲边curve edge 窄矩形narrow rectangle 曲边梯形的面积area of trapezoid with curved edge 积分下限lower limit of integral积分上限upper limit of integral积分区间integral interval分割partition 积分和integral sum可积integrable 矩形法rectangle method 积分中值定理mean value theorem ofintegrals 函数在区间上的平均值average value of a function on an integvals 牛顿－莱布尼茨公式formula 微积分基本公式fundamental formulaNewton-Leibnizof calculus 换元公式substitution 递推公式反常积分反常积分发散formula for integrationrecurrence formulaimproper integralimproperthe integralbyisdivergent 反常积分收敛the improper integral isconvergent 无穷限的反常积分improper integral on an infinite interval 无界函数的反常积分unbounded functions absolutely convergent 定积分的应用Applications of the Definiteimproper integral of 绝对收敛第六章Chapter6Integrals元素法面积元素the element method element of area area of a luane figure (Cartesian平面图形的面积直角坐标又称“笛卡儿坐标coordinates)” 极坐标抛物线椭圆polar coordinatesparabola ellipse旋转体的面积volume of a solid of rotation 旋转椭球体ellipsoid of revolution, ellipsoid of rotation 曲线的弧长arclength of acurve 可求长的rectifiable光滑smooth 功work 水压力引力变力water pressuregravitationvariable force第七章空间解析几何与向量代数Chapter7 Space Analytic Geometry and Vector Algebra 向量vector 自由向量free vector 单位向量unit vector 零向量zero vector 相等equal 平行parallel 向量的线性运算linear poeration of vector 三角法则triangle rule 平行四边形法则parallelogram rule交换律commutative law 结合律associative law 负向量negative vector 差difference 分配律distributive law 空间直角坐标系space rectangular coordinates 坐标面coordinate plane 卦限octant 向量的模modulus of vector 向量a 与b 的夹角angle between vector a and b 方向余弦direction cosine 方向角direction angle 向量在轴上的投影projection of a vector onto an axis 数量积，外积，叉积scalar product,dot product,inner product 曲面方程equation for a surface 球面sphere 旋转曲面surface of revolution 母线generating line 轴axis 圆锥面cone 顶点vertex 旋转单叶双曲面revolution hyperboloids of one sheet 旋转双叶双曲面revolution hyperboloids of two sheets 柱面cylindrical surface ,cylinder 圆柱面cylindrical surface 准线directrix 抛物柱面parabolic cylinder 二次曲面quadric surface椭圆锥面dlliptic cone 椭球面ellipsoid 单叶双曲面hyperboloid of one sheet双叶双曲面hyperboloid of two sheets旋转椭球面ellipsoid of revolution 椭圆抛物面elliptic paraboloid 旋转抛物面paraboloid of revolution 双曲抛物面hyperbolic paraboloid 马鞍面saddle surface 椭圆柱面elliptic cylinder 双曲柱面hyperbolic cylinder抛物柱面parabolic cylinder 空间曲线space curve空间曲线的一般方程general form equations of a space curve空间曲线的参数方程parametric equations of a space curve 螺转线spiral 螺矩pitch 投影柱面projecting cylinder 投影projection 平面的点法式方程pointnorm form eqyation of a plane 法向量normal vector 平面的一般方程general form equation of a plane 两平面的夹角angle between two planes点到平面的距离distance from a point to a plane 空间直线的一般方程general equation of a line in space方向向量direction vector 直线的点向式方程pointdirection form equations of a line方向数direction number直线的参数方程parametric equations of a line 两直线的夹角angle between two lines 垂直perpendicular直线与平面的夹角angle between a line and a planes平面束pencil of planes平面束的方程equation of a pencil of planes行列式determinant系数行列式coefficient determinant第八章多元函数微分法及其应用Chapter8 Differentiation of Functions of Several Variables and Its Application一元函数function of one variable多元函数function of several variables 内点interior point外点exterior point边界点frontier point,boundary point聚点point of accumulation开集openset 闭集closed set连通集connected set开区域open region闭区域closed region有界集bounded set无界集unbounded setn 维空间n-dimentional space二重极限double limit多元函数的连续性continuity of functionof seveal连续函数continuous function不连续点discontinuity point一致连续uniformly continuous偏导数partial derivative对自变量x 的偏导数partial derivativewith respect to independent variable x 高阶偏导数partial derivative of higher order二阶偏导数second order partial derivative混合偏导数hybrid partial derivative 全微分total differential 偏增量oartial increment偏微分partial differential全增量total increment 可微分differentiable 必要条件necessary condition充分条件sufficient condition 叠加原理superpostition principle 全导数total derivative 中间变量intermediate variable 隐函数存在定理theorem of the existenceof implicit function 曲线的切向量tangent vector of a curve法平面normal plane 向量方程vector equation 向量值函数vector-valued function切平面tangent plane 法线normal line 方向导数directional derivative梯度gradient 数量场scalar field 梯度场gradient field 向量场vector field 势场potential field 引力场gravitational field 引力势gravitational potential 曲面在一点的切平面tangent plane to a surface at a point曲线在一点的法线normal line to a surface at a point 无条件极值unconditional extreme values条件极值conditional extreme values拉格朗日乘数法Lagrange multiplier method 拉格朗日乘子Lagrange multiplier 经验公式empirical formula 最小二乘法method of least squares 均方误差mean square error 第九章重积分Chapter9 Multiple Integrals 二重积分double integral可加性additivity 累次积分iterated integral 体积元素volume element三重积分triple integral直角坐标系中的体积元素volume element in rectangular coordinate system 柱面坐标cylindrical coordinates柱面坐标系中的体积元素volume element in cylindrical coordinate system 球面坐标spherical coordinates球面坐标系中的体积元素volume element in spherical coordinate system 反常二重积分improper double integral 曲面的面积area of a surface 质心centre of mass 静矩static moment 密度density 形心centroid 转动惯量moment of inertia 参变量parametric variable 第十章曲线积分与曲面积分Chapter10 Line(Curve)Integrals and Surface Integrals对弧长的曲线积分line integrals with respect to arc hength第一类曲线积分line integrals of the first type 对坐标的曲线积分line integrals with respect to x,y,and z第二类曲线积分line integrals of the second type有向曲线弧directed arc单连通区域simple connected region 复连通区域complex connected region格林公式Green formula 第一类曲面积分surface integrals of the first type对面的曲面积分surface integrals with respect to area有向曲面directed surface 对坐标的曲面积分surface integrals with respect to coordinate elements 第二类曲面积分surface integrals of the second type有向曲面元element of directed surface 高斯公式gauss formula 拉普拉斯算子Laplace operator 格林第一公式Green's first formula 通量flux 散度divergence 斯托克斯公式Stokes formula环流量circulation 旋度rotation,curl 第十一章无穷级数Chapter11 Infinite Series 一般项general term 部分和partial sum 余项remainder term偏微分方程partial differential微分方程的解等比级数 geometric series 几何级数geometric series公比 common ratio 调和级数 harmonic series 柯 西 收 敛 准 则 Cauchy convergencecriteria, Cauchy criteria for convergence 正项级数series of positive terms达朗贝尔判别法 D 'Alembert test柯西判别法 Cauchy test 交错级数 alternatingseries 绝对收敛 absolutely convergent 条件收敛conditionally convergent 柯西乘积 Cauchy product函数项级数 series of functions发散点 point of divergence 收敛点 point ofconvergence 收敛域 convergence domain 和函数 sum function 幂级数 power series 幂级数的系数 coeffcients of power series 阿贝尔定理Abel Theorem 收敛半径 radius of convergence收敛区间 interval of convergence 泰勒级数Taylor series 麦克劳林级数 Maclaurin series 二项展开式 binomial expansion 近似计算approximate calculation 舍入误差 round-offerror,rounding error欧拉公式 Euler 's formula魏尔斯特拉丝判别法 Weierstrass test 三角级数 trigonometric series 振幅 amplitude 角频率 angular frequency 初相 initial phase 矩形波 square wave 谐波分析 harmonic analysis 直流分量direct component基波 fundamental wave 二次谐波 secondharmonic 三角函数系 trigonometric function system 傅立叶系数 Fourier coefficient傅立叶级数Forrier series周期延拓 periodic prolongation 正弦级数 sine series余弦级数 cosine series 奇延拓 odd prolongation偶延拓 even prolongation 傅立叶级数的复数形式 complex form ofFourier series第十二章 微分方程Chapter12 Differential Equation解微分方程 solve a dirrerential equation常微分方程 ordinary differential equationequation,PDE微 分 方 程 的 阶 order of a differentialequationsolution of a differential equation 微分方程的通解 general solution of a differential equation初始条件 initial condition微分方程的特解 particular solution of adifferential equation初值问题 initial value problem 微分方程的积分曲线 integral curve of adifferential equation 可分离变量的微分方程variable separable differentialequation隐式解 implicit solution隐式通解 inplicit general solution 衰变系数 decay coefficient 衰变 decay齐次方程 homogeneous equation 一阶线性方程linear differential equation of first order非齐次 non-homogeneous 齐次线性方 程homogeneous linear equation非齐次线性方程 non-homogeneous linearequation常数变易 法 method of variation of constant 暂态电流 transient stata current 稳态电流steady state current伯努利方程 Bernoulli equation 全微分方程 totaldifferential equation 积分因子 integrating factor高阶微分 方程 differential equation of higherorder悬链线 catenary 高阶线性微分方程equation of higher order自由振动的微分方程 of free vibrationlinera differentialdifferential equation强迫振动的微分方程differential equationof forced oscillation串联电路的振荡方程oscillation equationof series circuit二阶线性微分方程second order lineradifferential equation线性相关linearly dependence线性无关linearly independce微分方程组system of differential equations 常系数线性微分方程组system of linera differential equations with constant coefficient二阶常系数齐次线性微分方程second order homogeneour linear differential equation with constant coefficient二阶变系数齐次线性微分方程second order homogeneous linear differential equation with variable coefficient特征方程characteristic equation无阻尼自由振动的微分方程differential equation of free vibration with zero damping固有频率natural frequency简谐振动simple harmonic oscillation,simple harmonic vibration微分算子differential operator待定系数法method of undetermined coefficient共振现象resonance phenomenon欧拉方程Euler equation幂级数解法power series solution数值解法numerial solution勒让德方程Legendre equation。
英语国家社会与文化入门 课后题答案之欧阳地创编
Book1 Unit 1时间：2021.03.04 创作：欧阳地1.What was the British Empire? What do you know about it? In what way is the “Empire” still felt in Britain and in the international field?The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom, that had originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.In the international field, Britain has great voice in politics, economy and culture and so on.2.Why impossible to sum up British people with a few simple phrases: The UK is made up of different elements. It includes 4 parts within the one nation-state. It is now a multiracial society with different religion believes. It is divided economically and it is a society with aclass-structure. And within each of the four countries there are different regions. Since this country was so complicated both in history or humanity, it is impossible to sum up their people. 3.A history of invasions: (1) Before the 1st century AD Britain was made up of tribal kindoms of Celtic people. They brought the central Europen culture to Britain. Then in 43AD, Roman Empire invaded Britain and controlled it for slave society but also disseminated their Catholicism. (2)However, in the 5th century, the Roman Empire rapidly waned in power and Britain was conquered by the Angles and the Saxons. In order to defend the Saxons, a great leader—King Arthur appeared. He created the "round table" to satisfy all the knights' requirement of having equal precedence. Thus it gradually formed the monarchy in Britain as a more democratic system. Whether Arthur's a real person in the history or not, Anglo-Saxons did succeed in invading Britain and they were the forefathers of the English. (3)In the 8thcentury, the Vikings from Denmark controlled the nothern and eastern England. A Anglo-Saxon herio, king Alfred the Great fought against the vikings with the truly English. And that's why there's a certain cultural difference between northerners and southerners in England (4)Later, the Nomans from northern France, under the leading of William of Normandy, killed the king and William became the Frist of England. They imported a rulling class that French-speaking Norman aristocracy rulled Saxon and English-speaking population. In this condition, there weren't a lot of rebellions among the English people. That directly formed an English unique character: a richly unconventional interior life hidden by an external conformity. Even today, we can still find this personality from the British people through their lifestyles.How did they influence culture:[接着上边一起看] (2) a lot of stories of King Arthur, which brought a lot of singers, poets, novelists and filmmakers. Places associated with his legend. Round table was ween asan indicator of the way in which the English have wished to see their monarch as something other than a remote dictator. (3)anglo-saxon invaders were the forefathers of the English. By Vikings' settlements the Enlish heroes were truly English. There remains to this day a certain cultural divide between northerners and southerners in england. (4)Norman aristocracy ruling a largely Saxon and English-speaking population. the legend of Robin Hood.4.General characteristic of Scotland: Scotland is the second largest of the four nations, both in population and in geographical area. It is also the most confident of its own identity because alone amongst the non-English components of the UK it has previously spent a substantial period of history asa unified state independent of the UK. (1) rugged.(2) not conquered by the Romans (3) maintain its separate political identity for more than a hundred years.(4) eager for independence.How Scotland became part of the union of Great Britain: in 1707 by agreement of the English and Scottish parliaments, Scotland joined the Union. In 1745 there was a brutal military response from the British army. The rebel army was destroyed at the battle of Culloden in northern Scotland.5.Describe Wales and the unification with Britain: (1) wales was an important element in Britain's industrial revolution, as it had rich coal deposits. It is successful in attracting investment from abroad. Wales has been dominated by England for longer than the other nations of the union. Despite this nearness and long-standing political integration Wales retains a powerful sense of its difference from England. (2)Wales has been dominated by England for longer than the other nations of the union. Despite this nearness and long-standing political integration Wales retains a powerful sense of its difference from England. In 1536, wales was brought legally, administratively, and politicallyinto the UK by an act of the British parliament. This close long-standing relationship means that modern wales lacks some of the outward signs of difference which Scotland possesses --- its legal system and its education system are exactly the same as in England. 6.Differences between England, Scotland and Wales in terms of cultural tradition: [书上说的比较散，建议参考festival那章的答案，这里只有一些零散的不系统的比较] (1) English character: a richly unconventional interior life hidden by an external conformity. But young people are not all stereotypes. But it is certainly true that the lifeless fronts of many english houses conceal beautiful back gardens.(2)The dream of an independent Scotland has not vanished. They are always eager for freedom. Scotland has a great tradition of innovation in the arts, philosophy and science. "Superficially fully integrated into the UK, but concealed beneath this is a still-strong Scottish identity." Some people speak Gaelic.(3)Wales is different, and one of thekey markers of that diffenece is the Welsh language -- the old British Celtic tongue which is still in daily use. Modern wales lacks some of the outward signs of difference which Scotland possesses. (its legal system and education system are exactly the same as in England)Unit 21.Why is Northern Ireland so significant in the UK: Though Northern Ireland is small it is significant because of the political troubles there.Its political problem: The problem is in Northern Ireland in 1921 in southern Ireland independence from Britain, Ireland North and South following the separation of issues left over by history, mixed it with historical, political, ethnic and religious conflicts, extremely complex. Ireland’s independence, to remain under British rule within the framework of the 6 in the northern island of Ireland residents of the pro-British Protestant majority (about 51%), the Catholic nationalist minority(about 38%), as a result of the two major forces in Northern Ireland On the contrary position of ownership and lead to confrontation, conflict. [因为发现实在太难sum up了，所以就搜了一下，以下是wikipedia版本]Northern Ireland was for many years the site of a violent and bitter ethno-political conflict —the Troubles —which was caused by divisions between nationalists, who are predominantly Roman Catholic, and unionists, who are predominantly Protestant. Unionists want Northern Ireland to remain as a part of the United Kingdom,[6] while nationalists wish for it to be politically reunited with the rest of Ireland, independent of British rule. [网络其它版本]Until 1921 the full name of the UK was "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", not only "Northern Ireland", because the whole island of Ireland was politically integrated with Great Britain, and had been since 1801, while Britain's domination of the Irish dated back centuries even before that date. But Irish desires for an independent Irish state were neverlost, and one of the key issues in late nineteenth century British politics was a campaign in parliament for what was called "home-rule"—Irish political control of Irish affairs. The Home Rule Bill was finally passed in 1914, but the process was overtaken by the First World War and was suspended for the duration of the war.2.Factors in Irish and English history that affect the situation in Northern Ireland today: Along with the political campaign for home-rule there were groups who followed a more direct method of pursuing Irish independence, engaging in guerilla or terrorist activities against British institutions and the British military forces. During the First World War and immediately after, this activity increased, sometimes brutally suppressed by British forces. 3.Sum up solutions to NI's political problems of different parties and groups in the UK: Margaret Thatcher's government did not give in to this demandfor political status and 11 prisoners starved to death. This event revitalised the political campaign of Sinn Fein, the legal political party which supports the IRA's right to fight. Its leaders spoke of a twin campaign for union with Ireland, both political and military, which they called the policy of "The Bullet and the Ballot Box".4.What do you think should be the right solution to the political problem in Northern Ireland: I think they can ask the UN for help. / Keep the present status. Turn to other countries for help. [自由发挥啦]Unit 31.Characteristics of the British constitutional monarchy: The monarch of the country has limited rights because of Bill of Right. For example, while the official head of state is the queen, her powers are largely traditional and symbolic. The government at national and local levels is elected by the people and governs according to British constitutionalprinciples.How the English monarchy evolved to present constitutional monarchy: Originally the power of the monarch was largely derived from the ancient doctrine of the "divine right of kings". For a thousand years Britain has had a hereditary king or queen as the head of the state. While the King in theory had God on his side, in practice even in medieval times it was thought that he should not exercise absolute power. King John was unwilling to receive advice from prominent men, which led battles between the king and other powerful groups. Finally the king granted them a charter, named Magna Carta, of liverty and political rights. The civil war2.The civil war was rooted in a dispute over the power of the king vis-a-vis Parliament. James I and his successor Charles I both insisted on their divine right as kings. They felt Parliament had no real political right to exist, but only existed because the king allowed it to do so. It was the effort toreassert the rights of parliament that led to the civil war.English Revolution: "English Revolution" has been used to describe two different events in English history. The first was the Glorious Revolution of 1688, whereby James II was replaced by William III and Mary II as monarch and a constitutional monarchy established, was described by Whig historians as the English Revolution.[1]In the twentieth-century, however, Marxist historians used the term "English Revolution" to describe the period of the English Civil Wars and Commonwealth period (1640-1660), in which Parliament challenged King Charles I's authority, engaged in civil conflict against his forces, and executed him in 1649. This was followed by a ten-year period of bourgeoisrepublican government, the "Commonwealth", before monarchy was restored in the shape of Charles' son, Charles II, in 1660.3.History of English parliament: Traditionally, whenmedieval kings wanted to raise money he would try to persuade the Great Council, a gathering of leading, wealthy barons which the kings summoned several times a year. Later kings found this group was so small that they could not make ends meet. So they widened the Great Council to include representatives of counties, cities and towns and get them to contribute. It was in this way that the Great Council came to include the House of Lords(who were summoned) and the House of Commons(representatives of communities).What role did the parliament play in the Civil War: Since James I and Charles I both thought that Parliament didn't need to exist, the Parliament was enraged. Leading politicians and church authorities asked William of Orange to replace them two. In 1689 Parliament passed the bill of Rights which ensured that the King would never be able to ignore Parliament.4.Characteristics of British constitution: Unlike many nations, Britain has no core constitutionaldocuments.Contents: Statute laws(laws passed by Parliament); the common laws(laws which have been established through common practice in the courts); and conventions(rules and practices which do not exist legally but are nevertheless regarded as vital to the workings of government).5.Why parliament is supreme: because it alone has the power to change the terms of the Constitution. There are no legal restraints upon Parliament.Parliament's function: First, it passes laws. Second, it provides the means of carrying on the work of government by voting for taxation. Third, it scrutinises government policy, administration and expenditure. Fourth, it debates the major issues of the day.Queen/King's role: To symbolise the tradition and unity of the British state. To represent Britain at home and broad. To set standards of good citizenship and family life. She is legally head of the executive,an integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, commander in chief of the armed forces and "supreme governor" of the Church of England.PM's role: The Prime Minister is the leader of the political party which wins the most seats in a general election. He/She chose usually around 20 MPs to become government ministers in the Cabinet. Together they carry our the functions of policy-making, the coordination of government departments and the supreme control of government.6.The House of Lords: It was below the Queen, consisting of the Lords Spiritual(who are the Archbishops and most prominent bishops of the Church of England) and the Lords Temporal(which refers to those lords who either have inherited the seat from their forefathers of they have been appointed). The lords mainly represent themselves instead of the interests of the public. It is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the United Kingdom's national legislature. It remains the relationship withgovernment, debates legislation and has some power to amend or reject bills (has some legislative functions).Unit 41.Anyone who is eligible to vote can stand as an MP. It is necessary only to make a deposit of 500 pounds. Why small parties and independent candidates powerless: Voters will see it as a wasted vote because even if they were to win the seat they would be powerless in parliament against the big parties' representatives. Voting them will prevent the voters from contributing to the competition between the big parties as to which of them will form a government. 2.Three big parties in the UK: the Labour party, the Conservative party, the Liberal Democrats. Similarities: Since Conservative began to have a "fartherly" sense of obligation to the less fortunate in society, they didn't dismantle principles the Labour set up. That indicates that thus thedifference between the Labour and Conservative is one of degree, not an absolute.Dissimilarities: (1) Labour is a socialist party. They believe a society should be relatively equal in economic terms and that part of the role of government is to act as a "redistributive" agent. They think government should provide a range of public services, therefore high taxes. (2) Conservative is the party that spent most time in power. They are seen as the party of the individual, protecting individual's right to acquire wealth and to spend it how they choose, therefore low taxes. (3) Liberal Democrats is a party of the "middle", occupying the ideological ground between the two main parties. They are comparatively flexible and pragmatic in their balance of the individual and the social.3.Recent political trends [注意下一小问]: (1) Conservatives won the election under their leader Margaret Thatcher in the 1970s. During that time the economy did badly, with high inflation and low growth.(2) she dismissed being "fartherly", encourages entrepreneurship. One of the major policies was the privatisazion of nationalised industry. (3)part of the mechanism of change was a less redistributive taxation system. Tax rate were cut to allow people to keep more of what they earned.Author's opinion: The 1980s have seen British politics move to the "right", away from the "pulic" and toward the "private"; away from the "social", and toward the "individual", and all parties have had to adjust to those changes.4.How people are divided into different classes: (1) employment: manual(or blue-collar) workers usually call themselves working-class, and office(or white-collar) workers would usually call themselves middle-class. (2) cultural differences: like what newspaper they read. Working-class often read THE SUN, a newspaper with little hard news and more about soap operas, royal family and sports. Middle-class often read THE GUARDIAN, a larger newspaper with longerstories, covering national and international events.(3) education: private school or public school. (4) the UK has also retained a hereditary aristocracy.(5) the way they speak.Compare with the US and China: not similar at all. The UK has also retained a hereditary aristocracy. Among the students at the private schools attended by the upper-middle-class above would be a thin scattering of aristocratic children, who will inherit titles like baronets. This is due to Britain's different history and convention.Unit 51.Absolute decline means recession, developing in a minus speed.Relative decline means that although the UK improved, other countries developed more rapidly than the UK, which made it slid from being the second largest economy to being the sixth.Reasons: (1) The UK had gone into debt after WWII.(2) Britain spent a higher proportion of its nationalwealth on the military than most of its competitors. (Joining NATO and UN Security Council) (3)The era of empire was over. Former colonial countries announced independence, leaving Britain as a medium-size Euporean country. (4)Britain's industry survived comparatively unaffected, but its competitors did not. So the competitors invested in modern equipment and new products while British industry still continue with older ones. (5) Low rates of investment. The UK lacks a close relationship between industry and banks due to its history. A low rate of domestic industrial investment coupled with a very high rate of overseas investment.2.What did the conservative party under Mrs. Thatcher promise to do to the UK national economy in 1979: A radical programme of reform.What was her radical reform programme: Bureaucracy was reduced, (foreign exchange controls were lifted, rules governing banks loosened, for example). Throughout the 1980s an extensive programme ofprivatisation was carried out.Was is successful: It seemed in some ways to be successful in that inflation came under control, and business made profits. The negative aspect was a rapid increase in unemployment. The national economy as a whole continued to grow at lower rates than its competitors.3.Main areas in national economies: Primary industries such as agriculture, fishing and mining; secondary industries which manufacture complex goods from those primary products; tertiary/service industries such as banking, insurance, tourism and the retailing.Development of each: (1) agricultural sector is small but efficient. Energy production is an important part of the UK economy. (2)in the secondary sector, manufacturing industry remains important, producing 22% of national wealth. (3)tertiary or service industries produce 65% of national wealth.4.Why relatively shrinking of the important secondary industry and a spectacular growth in tertiary or service industries: A lot of the tertiary or service industries is domestic activity, accounting for about 10% of the world's exports of such services. 70% of the UK's workforce are employed in the service sector.Compare tertiary industries in China in the past 20 years or so: Chinese tertiary industries didn't grow as fast as the UK, though the portion was increasing. How is this growth related to the reform and opening up to the outside world: China was famous for the name of "world factory", which means Chinese workforces can produce products at low paid. China is a developing country, experiencing the transfer of manufacturing is reasonable. However, as China is developing, wages of workforces are also increasing. Comparing to India, we may lose our "advantage" gradually.Unit 61.Why Geoffrey Chaucer's work written in Middle English can still read and studied today: It is notable for its diversity, both in the range of social types amongst the 31pilgrims, and the range in style of the stories they tell.2.Do you think Elizabethan Drama occupies a significant position in British literature: Yes. Elizabethan drama, and Shakespeare in particular, is considered to be among the earliest work to display a "modern" perception of the world: full of moral doubts and political insecurities, where the right of those who wield power to do so is put in question.The most important figure in Elizabethan Drama: William ShakespeareSome of his well-known plays: (tragedies)Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth; (comedies)The Taming of the Shrew, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Twelfth Night, the Tempest; (history plays)Richard III, Richard II, Henry IV, Henry V jJulius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra.3.Some of the features of Romantic Literature: writers of romantic literature are more concerned with imagination and feeling than with the power of reason.4.Modernism: it refers to a form of literature mainly written before WWII. It is characterized by a high degree of experimentation. It can be seen as a reaction against the 19th century forms of Realism. Modernist writers express the difficulty they see in understanding and communicating how the world works. Often they seem disorganized, hard to understand. It often portrays the action from the viewpoint of a single confused individual, rather than from the viewpoint of an all-knowing impersonal narrator outside the action.Postmodernism: After WWII. Postmodernist can be thought of as abandoning the search of buried meaning below confusing surfaces.Examples to illustrate: (modernist) Virginia Woolf"Mrs.Dalloway""to the Lighthouse""Orlando";wrence "Sons and Lovers" andE.M.Forster "aPassage to India"; (postmodernist)George Orwell "1984", John Fowles "the French Lieutenant's woman"Book I Unit 7, British Education System1.What are the purposes of the British education system?Please comment on these purposes. What are the main purposes of the Chinese education system? Are there any differences or similarities in the education of the two nations?Schools in Britain do not just teach the students 3 Rs, (reading, writing and arithmetic), but to provide children with literacy and the other basic skills they will need to become active members of society.2.How does the British education system reflect socialclass?Firstly, in Britain, the school you attend can refer to your social status.And the school tie is a clear market of social class, 3.What are the major changes that have taken place sinceWorld War II? Is British education moving towardsmore progress or more equality? Pick up some examples from the text to illustrate your points.1)The old education system has disrupted due to the war.So with the help of the church and newly powerful trade unions began to reconstruct a new education system.2)The new system emphasizes equality. 1944 educationact made entry to secondary schools and universities meritocratic. Children would be able admitted to schools not because they were of a certain social class or because their parents possessed a certain amount of money, but because of the abilities they displayed. All children were given right to a free secondary education and the main concern was to make sure more children had access to a good education.3)1989, a national curriculum was introduced by thegovernment.4.Why does the author say that universities in Britainhave rather elitist?Most students in British universities are from the middle classes, attend good schools, perform well intheir A-levels and receive a fully-funded place ina university. And when they graduate, they can becomevery influential in banking, the media, the arts, education or even the government.5.What is the Open University in Britain? What do youthink of this system?The opening university offers a non-traditional route for people to take university level courses and receive a university degree. People can register without having any formal educational qualifications.They follow university courses through textbooks, TV and radio broadcasts, correspondence, videos, residential schools and a network of study centre.I think the system has been quite successful. Thanksto the system, tens of thousands of Britons, from various statuses attend the Open University each year.And this has improve the equality in Britain’s high education.Unit 8 British Foreign Relations1.What and how did the British Empire end? How did theBritain react to this reality? How did the end ofBritish imperialism influence the psychology of the British and the making of Britain’s foreign policy?1)After the World War II the British could no longerafford to maintain its empire; while Britain had won the war, it had paid a terrible price in terms of lives and in terms of economic destruction. And the British realized that countries should be granted the independence and left to run their own affairs.People and territory should not just be treated asa source of economic resources for the ruling centersof commerce in Europe.2)Many people are still alive who can remember whenBritain was one of the most powerful and rich nations on earth. It is sometimes hard to think about Britain as it really is today.3)Because Britain lost its empire so recently, britishpolicy makers frequently forget that Britain is not as influential as it used to be in world affairs.Historians argue that the British foreign policy makers retain very conservative and traditional views of Britain’s role as a world power and pointto many major foreign policy decisions as examples.2.What are the foundations of Britain’s foreignpolicy?It is greatly influenced by its imperial history and also by its geopolitical traits.Britain’s imperial history m ade the policy maker very conservative and traditional.And its geopolitical traits created a sense of psychological isolation in its inhabitants. And as Britain is an island state, it naturally developed as a nation of seafarers who roamed the globe looking for territory and economic opportunities.3.How is Britain’s foreign policy made? Does thegovernment’s foreign policy represent the desires of British citizen?1)The prime minister and cabinet decide on the generaldirection of Britain’s foreign policy. Th e main government department involved is of course the foreign and commonwealth office but many other government ministries also play a part in formulating and executing the government’s decisions.。
数学专业英语词汇
数学专业英语词汇(A)a priori bound 先验界限a priori distribution 先验分布a priori probability 先验概率a summable a可和的abacus 算盘abbreviate 略abbreviation 简化abel equation 阿贝耳方程abel identity 阿贝耳恒等式abel inequality 阿贝耳不等式abel summation method 阿贝耳求和法abelian algebra 阿贝耳代数abelian differential 阿贝耳微分abelian equation 阿贝耳方程abelian extension 阿贝耳扩张abelian function 阿贝耳函数abelian function field 阿贝耳函数域abelian functor 阿贝耳函子abelian group 交换群abelian groupoid 阿贝耳广群abelian integral 阿贝耳积分abelian summation 阿贝耳求和法abelian theorem 阿贝耳定理abelian variety 阿贝耳簇abridge 略abridged notation 简算记号abscissa 横坐标abscissa of absolute convergence 绝对收敛坐标abscissa of summability 可和性坐标abscissa of uniform convergence 一致收敛横坐标absolute 绝对形absolute address 绝对地址absolute class field 绝对类域absolute coding 绝对编码absolute cohomology 绝对上同调absolute conic 绝对二次曲线absolute convergence 绝对收敛absolute curvature vector 绝对曲率向量absolute deviation 绝对偏差absolute differential calculus 绝对微分学absolute error 绝对误差absolute extremes 绝对极值absolute extremum 绝对极值absolute frequency 绝对频率absolute geometry 绝对几何absolute homology group 绝对同岛absolute homotopy group 绝对同伦群absolute inequality 绝对不等式absolute instability 绝对不稳定性absolute maximum 绝对极大值absolute minimum 绝对极小值absolute moment 绝对矩absolute neighborhood 绝对邻域absolute neighborhood retract 绝对邻域收缩核absolute norm 绝对范数absolute number 不名数absolute parallelism 绝对平行性absolute quadric 绝对二次曲面absolute ramification index 绝对分歧指数absolute rotation 绝对旋转absolute singular homology group 绝对奇异同岛absolute space 绝对空间absolute space time 绝对时空absolute stability 绝对稳定性absolute term 常数项absolute unit 绝对单位absolute value 绝对值absolute value sign 绝对值符号absolute velocity 绝对速度absolutely additive measure 完全加性测度absolutely compact set 绝对紧集absolutely complete system 绝对完备系absolutely continuous 绝对连续的absolutely continuous distribution 绝对连续分布absolutely continuous function 绝对连续函数absolutely continuous measure 绝对连续测度absolutely continuous part 绝对连续部分absolutely continuous transformation 绝对连续变换absolutely convergent 绝对收敛的absolutely convergent integral 绝对收敛积分absolutely convergent series 绝对收敛级数absolutely convex hull 绝对凸包absolutely discontinuous function 绝对不连续函数absolutely integrable 绝对可积的absolutely irreducible character 绝对不可约特征absolutely irreducible representation 绝对不可约表示absolutely irreducible variety 绝对不可约簇absolutely normal number 绝对范数absolutely prime ideal 绝对素理想absolutely semisimple algebra 绝对半单代数absolutely simple group 绝对单群absolutely summable sequence 绝对可和序列absolutely unbiased estimator 绝对无偏估计量absolutely unramified extension 绝对非分歧扩张absorbing barrier 吸收障碍absorbing medium 吸收媒体absorbing set 吸收集absorbing state 吸收态absorption 吸收absorption coefficient 吸收系数absorption curve 吸收曲线absorption factor 吸收因数absorption index 吸收指数absorption law 吸收律absorption probability 吸收概率abstract 抽象的abstract algebra 抽象代数abstract algebraic geometry 抽象代数几何abstract automaton 抽象自动机abstract category 抽象范畴abstract code 理想码abstract complex 抽象复形abstract group 抽象群abstract interval function 抽象区间函数abstract mathematics 抽象数学abstract number 不名数abstract ordered simplicial complex 抽象有序单纯复形abstract simplex 抽象单形abstract simplicial subcomplex 抽象单子复形abstract space 抽象空间abstraction 抽象abstraction operator 抽象算子absurd 谬论的absurdity 谬论abundance ratio 丰度比abundant number 过剩数accelerated motion 加速运动acceleration 加速度acceleration of convergence 收敛性的加速acceleration of gravity 重力加速度acceptable quality level 合格质量水平acceptance 肯定acceptance inspection 接受检查acceptance limit 接受界限acceptance line 接受线acceptance number 接受数acceptance probability 接受概率acceptance region 接受区域acceptance zone 接受带access 存取access speed 存取速度access time 存取时间accessibility 可达性accessible boundary point 可达边界点accessible ordinal number 可达序数accessible point 可达点accessible set 可达集accessible vertex 可达顶点accessory extremal 配连极值accidental 偶然的accidental coincidence 偶然符合accidental error 随机误差accommodation 第accumulated error 累积误差accumulating point 聚点accumulation 累积accumulation point 聚点accumulator 累加器存储器accuracy 准确性accuracy grade 准确度accuracy of measurement 测量精确度accuracy rating 准确度acnod 孤点acount 计算action integral 酌积分action variable 酌变量active restriction 有效限制actual 真实的actual infinity 实无穷acute 尖锐的acute angle 锐角acute angled triangle 锐角三角形acute triangle 锐角三角形acuteness 锐度acyclic 非循环的acyclic complex 非循环复形acyclic graph 环道自由图acyclic model theorem 非循环模型定理ad infinitum 无穷地adams circle 阿达姆斯圆adams extrapolation method 阿达姆斯外插法adaptability 适应性adaptation 适应adapted basis 适应基add 加added circuit 加法电路addend 加数adder 加法器addition 加法addition formulas 加法公式addition sign 加号addition system 加法系addition table 加法表addition theorem 加法定理addition theorem of probability 概率的加法定理additional 加法的additional code 附加代码additional condition 附加条件additional error 附加误差additive 加法的additive category 加性范畴additive class 加性类additive functional 加性泛函数additive functional transformation 加性泛函变换additive group 加法群additive interval function 加性区间函数additive inverse element 加性逆元素additive number theory 堆垒数论additive operator 加性算子additive process 加性过程additive relation 加性关系additive separable 加法可分的additive theory of numbers 堆垒数论additive valuation 加法赋值additively commutative ordinal numbers 加性交换序数additivity 加法性address 地址address part 地址部分address register 地址寄存器addressing 指定箱位adele 阿代尔adele group 阿代尔群adequate 适合的adherent point 触点adhesion 附着adjacency 邻接adjacency matrix 邻接矩阵adjacent angles 邻角adjacent edge 邻棱adjacent side 邻边adjacent supplementary angles 邻角adjacent vertex 邻顶adjoint boundary value problem 伴随边值问题adjoint determinant 伴随行列式adjoint difference equation 伴随差分方程adjoint differential equation 伴随微分方程adjoint differential expression 伴随微分式adjoint form 伴随形式adjoint function 伴随函数adjoint functor 伴随函子adjoint graph 导出图adjoint group 伴随群adjoint hilbert problem 伴随希耳伯特问题adjoint integral equation 伴随积分方程adjoint kernel 伴随核adjoint linear map 伴随线性映射adjoint matrix 伴随阵adjoint operator 伴随算子adjoint process 伴随过程adjoint representation 伴随表示adjoint space 伴随空间adjoint surface 伴随曲面adjoint system 伴随系adjoint system of differential equations 微分方程的伴随系adjoint transformation 伴随算子adjoint vector 伴随向量adjunct 代数余子式adjunction 附加adjunction of an identity element 单位元的附加adjustable point 可胆点adjustment 蝶admissibility limit 容许界限admissible 容许的admissible category 容许范畴admissible chart 容许图admissible control 可行控制admissible decision function 容许判决函数admissible decision rule 容许判决函数admissible deformation 容许形变admissible domain 容许区域admissible function 容许函数admissible homomorphism 容许同态admissible hypothesis 容许假设admissible lifting 容许提升admissible map 容许映射admissible sequence 容许序列admissible space 容许空间admissible strategy 容许策略admissible subgroup 容许子群admissible test 容许检定admissible value 容许值affine algebraic set 仿射代数集affine collineation 仿射直射变换affine connection 仿射联络affine coordinates 平行坐标affine curvature 仿射曲率affine differential geometry 仿射微分几何学affine distance 仿射距离affine figure 仿射图形affine function 仿射函数affine geometry 仿射几何学affine group 仿射群affine group scheme 仿射群概型affine isothermal net 仿射等温网affine length 仿射长度affine line 仿射直线affine normal 仿射法线affine parameter 仿射参数affine principal curvature 仿射助率affine rational transformation 仿射有理变换affine space 仿射空间affine sphere 仿射球面affine surface 仿射曲面affine transformation 仿射变换affine variety 仿射簇affinely connected manifold 仿射连通廖affinely connected space 仿射连通空间affinity 仿射变换affirmation 肯定affirmative proposition 肯定命题affix 附标after effect 后效酌aggregate 集aggregation 聚合agreement 一致air coordinates 空间坐标airy function 亚里函数airy integral 亚里积分aitken interpolation 艾特肯插值aitken interpolation formula 艾特肯插值公式albanese variety 阿尔巴内斯簇aleph 阿列夫aleph zero 阿列夫零alexander cohomology module 亚历山大上同担alexander cohomology theory 亚历山大上同帝alexander matrix 亚历山大阵alexander polynomial 亚历山大多项式algebra 代数学algebra of events 事件场algebra of logic 逻辑代数algebra of tensors 张量代数algebra over k 环k上的代数algebraic 代数的algebraic adjunction 代数的附加algebraic affine variety 仿射代数集algebraic algebra 代数的代数algebraic branch point 代数分歧点algebraic calculus 代数计算algebraic closure 代数闭包algebraic closure operator 代数闭包算子algebraic complement 代数余子式algebraic cone 代数锥algebraic correspondence 代数对应algebraic curve 代数曲线algebraic equation 代数方程algebraic expression 代数式algebraic extension 代数扩张algebraic form 代数形式algebraic fraction 代数分式algebraic function 代数函数algebraic function field 代数函数域algebraic geometry 代数几何学algebraic group 代数群algebraic hull 代数包algebraic hypersurface of the seconed order 二阶代数超曲面algebraic integer 代数整数algebraic irrational number 代数无理数algebraic lie algebra 代数的李代数algebraic logic of pocket calculator 袖珍计算机的代数逻辑algebraic multiplicity 代数重度algebraic number 代数数algebraic number field 代数数域algebraic number theory 代数数论algebraic operation 代数运算algebraic polynomial 代数多项式algebraic singularity 代数奇点algebraic space 代数空间algebraic spiral 代数螺线algebraic structure 代数结构algebraic sum 代数和algebraic surface 代数曲面algebraic system 代数系algebraic variety 代数簇algebraically closed field 代数闭域algebraically dependent elements 代数相关元algebraically equivalent 代数等价的algebraically independent elements 代数无关元algebraization 代数化algebro geometric 代数几何的algebroid function 代数体函数algebroidal function 代数体函数algorithm 算法algorithm of division 辗转相除法algorithm of euclid 欧几里得算法algorithm theory 算法论algorithmic language 算法语言algorithmization 算法化aligned systematic sampling 列系统抽样alignment chart 列线图aliquot part 整除部分alligation 混合法allocation problem 配置问题allowable 容许的allowable defects 容许靠allowable error 容许误差allowance 允许almost all 几乎处处almost bounded function 殆有界函数almost certain convergence 几乎必然收敛almost complex manifold 殆复廖almost convergent sequence 殆收敛序列almost equivalent 殆等价almost everywhere 几乎处处almost impossible event 殆不可能事件almost invariant set 殆不变集almost periodic function 殆周期函数almost periodicity 殆周期性almost significant 殆显著的alpha capacity 容量alpha limit set 极限集alphabetical 字母的alphanumeric 字母数字式alphanumeric representation of information 信息的字母数字表示alternate angles 错角alternating chain 交错链alternating differential form 外微分形式alternating differential of differential form 微分形式的交错微分alternating direction method 交替方向法alternating form 交错形式alternating function 反对称函数alternating group 交错群alternating harmonic series 莱布尼兹级数alternating knot 交错纽结alternating matrix 交错矩阵alternating method 交错法alternating product 外积alternating sequence 交错序列alternating series 交错级数alternating series test 交错级数检验alternating sum 交错和alternating tensor 交错张量alternating tensor density 交错张量密度alternating tree 交错树alternation 交错alternative 交错;择一alternative algebra 交错代数alternative field 交错域alternative hypothesis 择一假设alternative normal form 析取范式alternative proposition 选言命题altitude 高度altitude theorem 高度定理amalgamated product 融合积amalgamated subcategory 融和子范畴amalgamation 合并ambient space 环绕空间ambiguous point 歧点amicable numbers 亲和数amount 量amphicheiral knot 双向纽结ample divisor 丰富除子amplitude 振幅;角amplitude of a complex number 复数角analog computer 模拟计算机analogous 类似的analogue display 相似表示analogue method 相似法analogy 类似analysis 数学分析analysis of time series 时间序列分析analysis of variance 方差分析analytic 分析的analytic arc 解析弧analytic completion 解析开拓analytic continuation 解析开拓analytic curve 解析曲线analytic dynamics 分析动力学analytic expression 解析式analytic function 分析函数analytic function of several variables 多元解析函数analytic geometry 分析几何学analytic index 解析指数analytic manifold 解析廖analytic method 解析法analytic prime number theory 解析素数论analytic proof 解析证明analytic proposition 解析命题analytic set 解析集analytic space 解析空间analytic transformation 解析变换analytical differential 解析微分analytical geometry 分析几何学analytical hierarchy 解析分层analytical mapping 全纯映射analytical transformation 全纯映射analytically continuable 可解析开拓的analytically independent 解析无关的analytically irreducible variety 解析不可约簇analytically representable function 解析可表示的函数anastigmatic 去象散的anchor ring 环面ancillary statistic 辅助统计量and circuit 与电路andre permutation 安得列置换andre polynomial 安得列多项式anger function 安格尔函数angle 角angle at center 圆心角angle between chord and tangent 弦和切线的角angle function 角函数angle of 落后角angle of advance 超前角angle of attack 迎角angle of contact 接触角angle of contingence 切线角angle of declination 俯角angle of diffraction 衍射角angle of incidence 入射角angle of inclination 斜角angle of intersection 相交角angle of lead 超前角angle of reflection 反射角angle of refraction 折射角angle of rotation 旋转角angle of torsion 挠率角angle preserving 保角的angle preserving map 保角映象angular 角的angular acceleration 角加速度angular coefficient 角系数angular coordinates 角坐标angular correlation 角相关angular derivative 角微商angular dispersion 角色散angular displacement 角位移angular distance 角距angular distribution 角分布angular domain 角域angular excess 角盈angular frequency 角频率angular magnification 角放大率angular measure 角测度angular metric 角度量angular momentum 角动量angular momentum conservation law 角动量守恒律angular motion 角运动angular neighborhood 角邻域angular transformation 角变换angular unit 角的单位angular velocity 角速度anharmonic oscillation 非低振动anharmonic ratio 交比anisotropic 蛤异性的anisotropic body 蛤异性体anisotropy 蛤异性annihilator 零化子annular 环annulator 零化子annulus 圆环anomalous magnetic moment 反常磁矩anomalous propagation 反常传播anomalous scattering 反常散射anomaly 近点角antecedent 前项anti automorphism 反自同构anti hermitian form 反埃尔米特形式anti isomorphic lattice 反同构格anti isomorphism 反同构anti position 反位置anti reflexiveness 反自反性anti semiinvariant 反半不变量antianalytic function 反解析函数antichain 反链anticlockwise 逆时针的anticlockwise revolution 逆时针回转anticlockwise rotation 逆时针回转anticoincidence 反重合anticoincidence method 反重法anticommutation 反交换anticommutative 反交换的anticommutativity 反交换性anticommutator 反换位子antiderivative 不定积分的antiholomorphic 反全纯的antihomomorphism 反同态antiisomorphy 反同构antilinear 反线性的antilinear mapping 反线性映射antilinear transformation 反线性变换antilogarithm 反对数antimode 反方式antimodule 反模antinode 反结点antinomy 二律背反antiorder homomorphism operator 反序同态算子antiordered set 反有序集合antiparallel 逆平行的antiplane 反平面antipodal map 对映映射antipodal point 对映点antipodal set 对映集antipode 对映点antipoints 反点antiradical 反根式antiresonance 反共振antisymmetric 反对称的antisymmetric function 反对称函数antisymmetric matrix 反对称矩阵antisymmetric relation 反对称关系antisymmetric tensor 反对称张量antisymmetrical state 反对称态antithesis 反题antitone mapping 反序映射antitone sequence 反序列antitonic function 反序函数antitonicity 反序性antitony 反序性antitrigonometric function 反三角函数antiunitary 反酉的aperiodic damping 非周期衰减aperiodic motion 非周期运动aperiodicity 非周期性aperture ratio 口径比apex 顶点apex angle 顶角apical angle 顶角apolar 非极性的apolarity 从配极性apothem 边心距apparent error 貌似误差apparent force 表观力apparent motion 表观运动apparent orbit 表观轨迹apparent singularity 貌似奇性application 应用applied mathematics 应用数学applied mechanics 应用力学approach 接近approach infinity 接近无穷大approximability 可逼近性approximable 可逼近的approximate 近似的;使近似approximate calculation 近似计算approximate construction 近似准approximate continuity 近似连续性approximate derivative 近似导数approximate differentiability 近似可微性approximate differential 近似微分approximate formula 近似公式approximate integration 近似积分approximate limit 近似极限approximate lower semi continuity 近似下半连续性approximate method 近似法approximate number 近似数approximate partial derivative 近似偏导函数approximate partial derived function 近似偏导函数approximate partial differential 近似偏微分approximate solution 近似解approximate total differentiability 近似全可微性approximate total differential 近似全微分approximate upper semi continuity 近似上半连续性approximate value 近似值approximate value in excess 过剩近似值approximately equal 近似等于approximately semicontinuous 近似半连续的approximation 逼近approximation by excess 过剩逼近approximation calculus 近似计算approximation error 近似误差approximation function 逼近函数approximation in excess 过剩逼近approximation method 近似法approximation methods in physics 物理学中的逼近法approximation theorem 逼近定理approximation theory 逼近理论arbitrarily small 任意小arbitrary 任意的arbitrary constant 任意常数arbitrary element 任意元素arbitrary parameter 任意参数arbitrary small number 任意小数arc 弧arc component 弧分量arc cosecant 反余割arc cosine 逆余弦arc cotangent 逆余切arc hyperbolic function 反双曲函数arc length 弧长arc of a circle 圆弧arc secant 反正割arc set 弧集arc sine 逆正弦arc sine distribution 反正弦分布arc sine law 反正弦定律arc sine transformation 反正弦变换arc tangent 反正切arch 拱形archaeometry 考古测量学archimedean 阿基米德性的archimedean group 阿基米德群archimedean semigroup 阿基米德半群archimedean space 阿基米德空间archimedean total order 阿基米德全序archimedean valuation 阿基米德赋值archimedes axiom 阿基米德公理archimedes spiral 阿基米德螺线archimedically ordered field 阿基米德有序域archimedically ordered number field 阿基米德有序数域arcwise connected set 弧连通集arcwise connected space 弧连通空间arcwise connectedness 弧连通性are 公亩area 面积area function 面积函数area of a circle 圆面积area preserving mapping 保面积映射areal coordinates 重心坐标areal derivative 面积导数areal element 面积元素areal integral 面积分areal velocity 面积速度argand plane 复数平面argument 自变数;辐角argument function 辐角函数argument of a function 函数的自变数argument principle 辐角原理argumentation 论证aristotelian logic 亚里斯多德逻辑学arithmetic 算术arithmetic al function 数论函数arithmetic difference 算术差arithmetic division 算术除法arithmetic element 运算元素arithmetic expression 算术表达式arithmetic function 数论函数arithmetic genus 算术狂arithmetic geometric mean 算术几何平均arithmetic geometric series 算术几何级数arithmetic logic of pocket calculator 袖珍计算机的算术逻辑arithmetic mean 算术平均arithmetic number 正实数arithmetic of algebraic number fields 代数数域的数论arithmetic of algebras 代数的数论arithmetic of local fields 局部域的数沦arithmetic operation 算术操作算术运算arithmetic progression 算术级数arithmetic subgroup 算术子群arithmetic unit 运算元素arithmetical hierarchy 算术谱系arithmetical predicate 算术谓词arithmetical triangle 帕斯卡三角形arithmetics 算术arithmetization 算术化arithmometer 四则计算机arrangement 排列array 排列arrow 射artificial variable 人工变量artificial variable method 人工变量法artin conductor 阿廷前导子artin conjecture 阿廷猜想artin reciprocity law 阿廷互反禄artinian module 阿丁模artinian ring 阿丁环ascending 上升的ascending chain condition 升链条件ascending difference 后向差分ascending power series 升幂级数ascending powers 升幂ascending sequence 递升序列aspherical space 非球面空间asphericity 非球面牲assemblage 集assembler 汇编assertion sign 断定号assignable cause 可指定的原因assignment problem 配置问题associate equation 相伴方程associated equation 相伴方程associated fiber bundle 相伴的纤维丛associated form 连带形式associated function 连带函数associated graded module 相伴分次模associated graded ring 形式环associated homogeneous equation 相伴齐次方程associated homogeneous system 相伴齐次组associated laguerre polynomial 连带的拉盖尔多项式associated legendre function 相伴勒让德函数associated legendre polynomial 连带的勒让德多项式associated minimal surface 相伴极小曲面associated power series 相伴幂级数associated prime ideal 相伴素理想associated radius of convergence 相伴收敛半径associated space 相伴空间associated spherical harmonic 相伴球面低associated surface 连带曲面associated system 相伴系associated undirected graph 相伴无向图association 结合associative algebra 结合代数associative law 结合律associative law for series 级数的结合律associativity 结合性assume 假定assumption 假定assumption formula 假定公式asterisk 星号asteroid 星形线asymmetric 非对称的asymmetric relation 非对称关系asymmetric variety 非对称簇asymmetrical 非对称的asymmetrical graph 恒等图asymmetry 非对称性asymptote 渐近线asymptote of curve 曲线的渐近线asymptotic 浙近的asymptotic behavior 渐近状态asymptotic circle 渐近圆asymptotic cone 渐近锥面asymptotic convergence 渐近收敛asymptotic curvature 渐近曲率asymptotic curve 渐近曲线asymptotic density 渐近密度asymptotic direction 渐近方向asymptotic efficiency 渐近效率asymptotic expansion 渐近展开asymptotic formula 渐近公式asymptotic line 渐近线asymptotic mean value 渐近平均值asymptotic minimal basis 渐近极小基asymptotic order 渐近阶asymptotic path 渐近路线asymptotic plane 渐近平面asymptotic point 渐近点asymptotic rate of convergence 渐近收敛速度asymptotic series 渐近级数asymptotic solution 渐近解asymptotic stability 渐近稳定性asymptotic surface 渐近曲面asymptotic unbiased estimator 渐近无偏估计量asymptotic value 渐近值asymptotically efficient estimator 渐近有效估计量asymptotically equal 渐近相等asymptotically equal sequence 渐近相等序列asymptotically equivalent function 渐近等价函数asymptotically normal distribution 渐近正态分布asymptotically normally distributed 渐近正规分布的asymptotically stable 渐近稳定的asymptotically stable solution 渐近稳定解asynchronous computer 异步计算机atiyah singer index theorem 阿蒂亚辛格指数定理atlas 坐标邻域系atom 原子atomic element 原子元素atomic formula 原子公式atomic lattice 原子格atomic proposition 原子命题atomicity 原子性attaching map 接着映射attenuation 衰减attenuation constant 衰减常数attenuation factor 衰减因数attenuator 衰减器attraction 引力attractive force 引力attractor 吸引区attribute 属性augend 被加数augmentation 扩张augmentation preserving map 增广保存映射augmented complex 扩张复形augmented matrix 增广矩阵austausch 交换autocorrelation 自相关autocorrelation coefficient 自相关系数autocorrelation function 自相关函数autocorrelogram 自相关图autocovariance 自协方差autocovariance function 自协方差函数autodistributivity 自分配性automata 自动机automatic check 自动检验automatic coding 自动编码automatic computation 自动计算automatic computer 自动计算机automatic control 自动控制automatic control system 自动控制系统automatic control theory 自动控制理论automatic programming 自动程序设计automatic testing 自动检验automation 自动化automaton 自动机automaton graph 自动机图automorphic form 自守形式automorphic function 自守函数automorphism 自同构automorphism group 自同构群autonomous system 自治系统autoparallel curve 自平行曲线autoregression 自回归autoregression equation 自回归方程autoregressive process 自回归过程autoregressive transformation 自回归变换auxiliary 辅助的auxiliary angle 辅助角auxiliary circle 辅助圆auxiliary equation 相伴齐次方程auxiliary function 辅助函数auxiliary line 辅助线auxiliary variable 辅助变数average 平均值average deviation 平均偏差average error 平均误差average life 平均寿命average outgoing quality 平均出厂质量average outgoing quality limit 平均出厂质量极限average quality protection 平均品质保护average sample number 平均样本数average speed 平均速度average term 普通项average time 平均时间average value 平均值averaging 取平均数averaging method 平均法averaging operator 平均算子axes of coordinates 座标轴axial 轴的axial symmetry 轴对称axial vector 轴向量axially symmetric flow 轴对称流axialsymmetric vector field 轴对称向量场axiom 公理axiom of accessibility 可达性公理axiom of addition 加法公理axiom of choice 选择公理axiom of completeness 完备性公理axiom of comprehension 概括公理axiom of constructibility 可构成性公理axiom of constructivity 可构成性公理axiom of continuity 连续公理axiom of extensionality 外延性公理axiom of infinity 无穷性公理axiom of power set 幂集公理axiom of reducibility 可化归性公理axiom of regularity 正则性公理axiom of subsets 子集公理axiom of substitution 替换公理axiom of sum set 并集公理axiom of the empty set 空集公理axiom of union 并集公理axiom scheme 公理格式axiomatic 公理的axiomatic method 公理法axiomatic set theory 公理论的集论;公理集合论axiomatic system 公理系统axiomatics 公理学axiomatization 公理化axiomatize 公理化axioms of congruence 叠合公理axioms of continuity 连续公理axioms of denumerability 可数公理axioms of incidence 关联公理axioms of order 次序公理axis 轴axis of a cone 锥轴axis of abscissas 横坐标轴axis of absolute convergence 绝对收敛轴axis of affinity 仿射轴axis of convergence 收敛轴axis of coordinate 坐标轴axis of curvature 曲率轴axis of ordinates 纵坐标轴axis of projection 射影轴axis of reals 实轴axis of revolution 回转轴axis of rotation 回转轴axis of symmetry 对称轴axisymmetric 轴对称的axonometric perspective 轴测投影法axonometric projection 轴测投影法axonometry 轴测法azimuth 方位角azimuthal 方位角的数学专业英语词汇(B)b measurability b可测性b measurable function 波莱尔可测函数babylonian numerals 巴比伦数字back substitution 逆计算backward difference 后向差分backward difference operator 后向差分算子backward difference quotient 后向差商backward solution 后向解法baire function 贝利函数baire measure 贝利测度baire set 贝利集baire space 贝利空间baire theorem 贝利定理balance 平衡balanced category 平衡范畴balanced functor 平衡函子balanced hypergraph 平衡超图balanced neighborhood 平衡邻域balanced sample 平衡样本balanced set 平衡集balancing method 平衡法balayage 扫除ball 球ballistic curve 弹道banach algebra 巴拿赫代数banach lie group 巴拿赫李群banach space 巴拿赫空间band 带band chart 带状图band matrix 带状矩阵bar construction 棒构成bar diagram 条线图bar graph 条线图barrel 桶集barrel shape 桶型barrelled space 桶型空间barrier 闸barycenter 重心barycenter of a simplex 单形的重心barycentric 重心的barycentric complex 重心复形barycentric coordinates 重心坐标barycentric mapping 重心映射barycentric subdivision 重心重分base 底base angle 底角base line 底线base number 底数base of logarithms 对数的底base point 基点base register 基址寄存器变址寄存器base space 底空间base vector 基向量basic 基础的basic block 基本块basic field 基域basic form 基本形式basic point 基础点basic representation 基本表示basic ring 基环basic solution 基本解basic symbol 基本符号basic variable 基本变量basis 基basis for cohomology 上同爹basis for homology 同爹basis of linear space 线性空间的基basis of vector space 向量空间的基basis replacement procedure 基替换过程basis theorem of hilbert 希耳伯特基定理basis vector 基本向量batch processing 成批处理bayes decision function 贝叶斯判定函数bayes formula 贝叶斯公式bayes postulate 贝叶斯公设bayes solution 贝叶斯解behavior 行为behavior strategy 行为策略bellman principle 贝尔曼原理beltrami equation 贝尔特拉米方程bending point 转向点bergman metric 伯格曼度量bernoulli equation 伯努利方程bernoulli inequality 伯努利不等式bernoulli method 伯努利法bernoulli number 伯努利数bernoulli polynomial 伯努利多项式bernoulli trials 伯努利试验bernoullian polynomial 伯努利多项式bernstein inequality 伯思斯坦不等式bernstein polynomial 伯思斯坦多项式bertrand curves 柏特龙曲线bertrand paradox 柏特龙悖论bessel equation 贝塞耳方程bessel function 贝塞耳函数bessel function of the second kind 第二类贝塞耳函数bessel function of the third kind 第三类贝塞耳函数bessel inequality 贝塞耳不等式bessel integral 贝塞耳积分best approximation 最佳逼近best estimator 最佳估计量best test 最佳检验best uniform approximation 最佳一致逼近beta distribution 分布beta function 函数betti group 贝蒂群betti number 贝蒂数between group variance 群间方差biadditive 双加法的biangular 双角的bias 偏倚biased estimator 有偏估计量biased sample 有偏样本biased statistics 有偏统计量biased test 有偏检验biaxial 双轴的biaxial spherical harmonic function 双轴球面低函数bicartesian square 双笛卡儿方bicharacteristic 双特征bicompact 紧bicompact set 紧集bicompact space 列紧空间bicompact transformation group 列紧变换群bicompactification 紧化bicomplex 二重复形bicomplex function 二重复形函数biconcave 两面凹的biconditional 等价biconnected space 双连通空间bicontinuous function 双连续函数bicontinuously differentiable 双连续可微bicylinder 双圆柱bidimensional 二维的bidimensionality 二维性bidual banach space 双对偶巴拿赫空间bifunctor 二变项函子bifurcation point 歧点bifurcation theory 分歧理论bigraded group 双重分次群bigraded module 双重分次模biharmonic 双低的biharmonic equation 双低方程biharmonic function 双低函数biholomorphic 双全纯的biholomorphic function 双正则函数biholomorphic mapping 双正则映射bihomomorphism 双同态bijection 双射bijective mapping 双射bijectivity 双射性bilateral 两面的bilateral derivative 双侧导数bilateral laplace transform 双侧拉普拉斯变换bilaterally bounded sequence 双侧有界序列bilinear 双线性的bilinear form 双线性形式bilinear functional 双线性泛函bilinear integral form 双线性积分型bilinear mapping 双线性映射bilinear programming 双线性规划bilinear relation 双线性关系bilinear system 双线性系bilinear transformation 双线性变换bilinearity 双线性bimatrix game 双矩阵对策bimodal distribution 双峰分布bimodule 双模。
英语国家概况单词
1。
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国2.The strait of Dover 多佛海峡 3. the English Channel 英吉利海峡4.Greenwich 格林尼治5..The Britain Isles 大不列颠岛6.The Thames River 泰晤士河7。
The Severn River 塞汶河ke Neigh 讷湖9。
Lake District 湖区10。
Edinburgh 爱丁堡11.Glasgow 格拉斯哥12.Cardiff 加的夫13. Stonehenge 史前时期巨大石柱14。
the British Isles不列颠群岛15.the English Channel 英吉利海峡16. maritime climate海洋性气候;海岸气候17。
loanwords外来语,外来词18.。
Old English古英语（略作OE）19. Roman Catholic church罗马天主教会;罗马公教20。
Middle English中世纪英语；中古英语（约1150－约1475年间的英语）1。
Modern English 现代英语 2.The Church of England 英格兰圣公会3.Christmas 圣诞节4.Easter 复活节5。
Westminster Abbey 西敏寺大教堂6。
City of London 伦敦城7。
Outer London 外伦敦8。
Poets' Corner 诗人角9。
Birmingham 伯明翰 1. Roman Conquest 罗马征服2 . Anglo-Saxon settlement 盎格鲁撒克逊人的定居3。
Edward, the Confessor 信教者爱德华4. Battle at Hastings 哈斯丁斯战役5. the Great Charter 大宪章6。
视听说Passage2答案打印版
视听说Passage2Unit1In a perfect world, we would all avoid too much credit card debt and would never have to deal with the trouble of being unable to meet our credit card payment obligations. But this is not a perfect world, and unfortunately, these 1) distressing situations are the norm for many people.If you find yourself in this position, or heading there, you should cut your spending now. Don't wait until your situation is so 2) desperate that you have few options available to you.Facing the factors that give you the 3) urge to spend money carelessly can be uncomfortable, but if you don't face them, how will you control your debt and 4) acquire the things you truly want?One negative aspect of using credit cards instead of cash is that you 5) are totally unaware of the fact that you're spending real money. The pleasant feelings you experience when you purchase the item 6) are isolated from the unpleasant feelings of making the payment when you get the credit card statement.Studies 7) affirm that most people are much less likely to buy when paying with cash as opposed to credit cards. So, try leaving your credit cards at home, and pay with cash or check.To really control your spending and your credit card debt, you need to examine what money means to you. Make an effort to notice how you 8) interact with money and what beliefs and attitudes you have about money. Studies also show that people with low self-esteem engage themselves in more 9) impulse spending and buying things they don't need.Remind yourself daily that your worth as a person has nothing to do with how much money you have. Once you 10) are convinced of this, you will break the psychological barriers that were keeping you from handling your money wisely.Unit2Of all the threats to human society, including war, disease and natural disaster, one outranks all others. It is the aging of the human population. The 1) proportion of people aged 60-plus around the world is 2) estimated to more than double in 2050. By 2047, for the first time in human history, the number of old people is projected to exceed that of children on the planet.This change will 3) have profound impacts on human society. One problem concerns the ratio of the number of people of working age to the number of older people, which is known as the "4) potential support ratio". This index has fallen from 12 in 1950 to 8 in 2013 and is expected to drop to 4 in 2050. Its decline means that the burden on the young, 5) economically and socially, will rise accordingly. This is because older people rely on the young, not only for care and support but also for the economic productivity that ensures 6) pensions can be paid and health and social costs met.A variety of issues in other areas such as family composition, the transfer of property, taxation and housing may 7) originate from the population "age-quake", too. For instance, family ties have been weakened by increased mobility and rising divorce, and hence the demand for 8) residential and nursing homes will increase since more older people will need to live in an institution or elder care center.No matter what the future reality will be, the aging of the human population certainly 9) poses a challenge to policy makers, economists and health care specialists around the world. This suggests that the human society will need to 10) be transformed into a structure that has the ability and resources to address the diverse needs of older people.Unit3A solution may be at hand for holidaymakers who are struggling to find quiet, out-of-the-way places to go. For those who really want to get away from the crowded and much-traveled 1) resorts, they now find it possible because a new holiday destination has 2) sprung up –Antarctica. However, this new hotspot, or freezing zone, might only be for those who are fabulously rich if a new policy gets under way. Tourism on Antarctica has been increasing 3) dramatically, from a few thousand people in 1985 to more than 40,000 in 2007. The growing numbers are 4) having an adverse effect on the untouched environment of the South Pole. To 5) combat this, researchers from Holland's Maastricht University have come up with a sensible solution: Limit the number of tourists allowed to visit and hawk the vacations to those who are determined to go and are willing to offer higher amounts of money than others for the trip.Many environmental protection agencies agree that there is a need to protect the frozen 6) wilderness from the damage created by modern tourism. Antarctica is the last 7) unspoiled place on earth. It has a very delicate ecosystem that could be easily upset by 8) streams of tourists landing in airplanes and using skimobiles. A difficulty exists because Antarctica is not a country and therefore has no government to pass laws or 9) guidelines to control the number of visitors. The Maastricht University team's proposal to 10) auction off a fixed number of tourist places seems a workable solution. It would limit the number of visitors and therefore contain the amount of environmental damage, and the money would beused to protect Antarctica's future.Unit4In recent years, doctors have focused on the growing rate of diabetes among children and young people. But the most common kind of diabetes, type II, is more 1) prevalent as people grow older and gain more weight. Before you know it, there is more fat around the waist and hips than you remembered. The statistics are 2) scary enough to make you want to stop eating immediately.The World Health Organization says by 2015, more than two billion adults will be overweight and 700 million will 3) be classified as obese. Being overweight or obese is an expanding problem in many countries. Less physical activity and foods high in fat and sugar are considered as causes for this global 4) epidemic.Some researchers studied how body composition, the 5) ratio of lean tissue to fat, and increased weight affected the risk of diabetes in more than 4,000 adults, aged 65 and older.At the beginning of the study, none of the participants had been 6) diagnosed with diabetes. Researchers assess the relationship between being overweight and the disease through 7) keeping track of their body mass index.According to researchers, even among adults over the age of 75, having a higher body mass index 8) was still associated with a considerably higher risk of diabetes. Men who were obese had a five and a half times higher risk of diabetes than those who were just overweight. For women, the risk was about three and a half times higher.As hard as it might be, making sure your weight stays at a healthy level is the only way to keep the risk of diabetes down. The results 9) affirm the importance of weight control during the middle and later stages of life 10) in terms of reducing diabetes risks. The study has sent a warning signal to those who don't think that there is much connection between their waists and their health.Unit5Each January, the entertainment community and film fans around the world turn their attention to the Academy Awards, which are officially known as the Oscars. Interest and 1) anticipation builds to a fevered pitch leading up to the Oscar telecast in February, when hundreds of millions of film lovers tune in to watch the 2) glamorous ceremony and learn whom the highest honors in filmmaking will 3) be conferred upon.The Oscars reward the greatest cinema achievements of the previous year. There are up to 25 categories of awards for outstanding individual or 4) collective efforts. In each category, there are as many as five nominees determined by members of the relevant Academy branch. For instance, only film editors may 5) nominate for the Achievement in Film Editing Award. There are two categories standing as 6) exceptions to this rule, namely the Best Picture category, for which nominees are selected by the entire membership, and the Best Foreign Language films, which are chosen by a committee of members drawn from all branches.The members of the Academy are some of the world's most 7) accomplished motion picture artists and professionals. There are roughly 6,000 members, who vote for the Oscars using secret ballots. The results of the vote are kept in 8) absolute secrecy until the TV presenters open the envelopes and reveal the 9) recipients on live television. In addition to the regular annual awards presented by the membership, the Board of Governors, which is the governing body of the Academy, 10) is entitled to grant Scientific and Technical Awards, Special Achievement Awards and some other honors.As one of the highest honors in the film industry, the Oscars acknowledge excellence in filmmaking and carry great significance in the world of film.Unit6British tabloids provide their readers with an exciting mixture of gossip, entertainment and news. They 1) differentiate themselves from mainstream broadsheets by giving prominence to celebrities, sports and crime stories.No matter how many people 2) frown upon tabloid newspapers, it is a fact that the tabloids are popular and successful. The public has a demand for 3) concise news dose with minimum text and eye-catching pictures, and the tabloids are giving the readers just that. Here are some of the reasons why the British tabloids continue to enjoy popularity and success.First of all, the British tabloids 4) combat the new media wisely. Print media all over the world is facing 5) severe competition from the new media, be it the Internet or television, and no one 6) is geared up for the competition better than the tabloids. Most of the British tabloids have 7) embraced the new media instead of competing with them and hence have created e-versions or online editions of their daily tabloid editions.Second, the British tabloids are getting the format right. They have maintained a 8) compact format, which is rather convenient for the reader to pick up, read and carry. The text is short and 9) is supplemented with eye-catching pictures.The entire format stresses more on the visual appeal rather than the textual content.The British tabloids are proud of being what they are and accept that they are profit driven and aim for good business. The readers want 10) sensational news, and the tabloids have it. They do not compete with the serious newspapers, but rather carve a special market for themselves. In this way, they have earned a readership segment that is large enough to keep them going in the business.Unit7It is common knowledge that drug abuse leads to harmful consequences. Why then do people, particularly youngsters, continue to use drugs? Psychologists claim that there are three basic 1) motivations that influence people to take drugs: curiosity, stress and environmental factors. First, young people take drugs because they are curious, so they simply want to have a try. But the 2) hazard is that they don't know taking seemingly innocent drugs can 3) develop an appetite for stronger drugs later on. Secondly, young people take drugs because they are frustrated due to problems 4) associated with parents, school or the opposite sex. They want to escape from the stress caused by all these problems. Thirdly, the environment can also 5) contribute to drug-taking. If, for instance, a youngster belongs to a community, school, or peer group where other youngsters take drugs, he or she may soon be tempted to 6) follow suit, for fear of exclusion or non-acceptance.There is a growing 7) consensus among psychologists about the best possible approach to the problem of youngsters' addiction to drugs. They believe that school 8) authorities and social workers should work together to provide young people with much needed education on the dangers of drug abuse. Moreover, parents can do a great job in leading their children away from drugs by showing them attention, concern and love. Parents who always scream at their children and keep talking about their 9) inadequacies are regarded as likely drug pushers. A warm and happy family, where children get maximum encouragement and support, is most powerful against the attack of drugs. It is no 10) exaggeration to say that a happy home is a drug-free home.Unit8Almost forgotten these days, Mollie Panter-Downes' work provides a vivid impression of life in the Second World War.A Londoner by birth, Mollie Panter-Downes wrote for The New Yorker for about 50 years. In the 1930s, she sold the magazine a few poems, some short stories, and a piece about Jewish 1) refugee children coming to England. In 1939, with war approaching, Harold Ross, the editor of the magazine, was 2) desperate to find a London correspondent, and his fiction editor suggested Panter-Downes.Thereafter, she started to write for The New Yorker, specifically for a column 3) entitled "Letter from London" Weekly or fortnightly, Panter-Downes would put together a letter of about 1,500 words and had it cabled to New York. There it needed almost no editing because her writing was always concise.American readers 4) became informed of the war in England through Panter-Downes' letters. They read of the evacuation of pets as well as children, and the difficulties people 5) are confronted with, not just in terms of losses of ships and territory but also in terms of no food and hot-water bottles. The British temper found a splendid 6) spokesperson in Panter-Downes. She also desired to give voice to the people of all classes, and her willingness to 7) seek out working-class Londoners was evident in a report about a dustman's family in 1944.Panter-Downes went on writing "Letter from London" into the 1980s. She wrote reporter pieces and 8) profiles on such subjects as the British Museum and novelist E. M. Forster. Several of her books, for example Ooty Preserved (1967) and At the Pines (1971), largely appeared in The New Yorker. She 9) stayed loyal to the magazine for decades until 1985, not long after it was acquired by Samuel I. Newhouse, Jr. Today Panter-Downes is 10) virtually unknown in Britain. It seems a terrible shame to risk losing a writer who makes accurate yet subtle observations about human beings and how they deal with life.。
Absolute Relative Error
Absolute and Relative ErrorAbsolute and relative error are two types of error with which every experimental scientist should be familiar. The differences are important.Absolute Error: Absolute error is the amount of physical error in a measurement, period. Let’s say a meter stick is used to measure a given distance. The error is rather hastily made, but it is good to ±1mm. This is the absolute error of the measurement. That is,absolute error = ±1mm (0.001m).In terms common to Error Propagationabsolute error=Δxwhere x is any variable.Relative Error: Relative error gives an indication of how good a measurement is relative to the size of the thing being measured. Let’s say that two students measure two objects with a meter stick. One student measures the height of a room and gets a value of 3.215 meters ±1mm (0.001m). Another student measures the height of a small cylinder and measures 0.075 meters±1mm (0.001m). Clearly, the overall accuracy of the ceiling height is much better than that of the 7.5 cm cylinder. The comparative accuracy of these measurements can be determined by looking at their relative errors.relative error=absolute error value of thing measuredor in terms common to Error Propagationrelative error=Δx xwhere x is any variable. Now, in our example,relative errorceiling height =0.001m3.125m•100=0.0003%relativeerrorcylinder height =0.001m0.075m•100=0.01%Clearly, the relative error in the ceiling height is considerably smaller than the relative error in the cylinder height even though the amount of absolute error is the same in each case.。
张奎武版英美概况名词解释
英语国家概况名词解释系列（1）Amerigo Vespucc i----Amerigo Vespucc i, a navigat or, provedthat the land was not India,but a new contine nt. Therefo re, the land was named America after.The Puritan s----The Puritan s were wealthy, well-educate d gentlem en. They wantedto purifythe Churchof England and threate ned with religio us persecu tion, the Puritan s leaders saw the New world as the a refugeprovide d by God for those He meant to save.英语国家概况名词解释系列（2）The Bill of Rights----In 1789, James Madison introdu ced in the House of Represe ntativ es a seriesof amendme nts which later were drafted into twelvepropose d amendme nts and sent to the statesfor ratific ation. Ten of them were ratifie d in 1791 and the first ten amendme nts to the constit utionwere calledthe Bills of Rightsbecause they were to insureindivid ual liberti es.The Emancip ationProclam ation----After the Civil war began, Lincoln issuedthe Emancip ationProclam ationto win more support at home and abroad. It granted freedom to all slavesin areas still control led by the Confede racy. 英语国家概况名词解释系列（3）Pilgrim s Thanksg ivingDay----The Pilgrim s in 1620, 201 of them sailedto the New World in a ship calledMayflow er. The first winterafter their arrival was very cold and when springcame, half of them were dead. Then the Indians came to their help and taughtthem how to grow corn. They had a good harvest that year. So they invited the Indians and held the first Thanksg ivingcelebra tion in America to give thanksto God.The Chunnel----In 1985 the British governm ent and Frenchgovernm ent decided to build a channel tunnel, which is called“Chunnel”, under the Straits of Dover so that England and Francecould be joinedtogethe r by road. The Chunnel was open to traffic in May 1994.英语国家概况名词解释系列（4）Eistedd fod----Eistedd fodistheWelshwordfor“sitting”Nationa l Eidtedd fod is the most famousfestiva l of music and verse in Wales. It takes place each Augustand lasts for about a week. The highlig ht of the festiva l is competi tion for the best epic poem about Wales written and read in Welsh. The winneris crowned Board, conside red the supreme honourin Wales. In this way the Welsh peoplekeep the Welsh languag e and culture alive. Cockney----A cockney is a Londone r who is born withinthe sound of Bow Bells-the Bells of the churchof St. Mary-LeBow in east London.英语国家概况名词解释系列（5）Stonehe nge----It is a group of huge monumen ts of grant rock Slabs on salisbu ry plain in Southwe st England built as long ago as the New Stone Age. It is general ly believe d that stonehe nge servedsome sort of religio us purpose s. The Celts----The Celts came to Britain in three main waves. The first wave were the Gales, the secondwave were the Brython s and the Belgaecame about 150BC. The Celts were practis ed farmers. The Celtictribesare ancesto rs of the Highlan d Scots, the Irish and the Welsh, And their languag es are the basis of both Welsh and Gaelic. They religio n was Druidis m.英语国家概况名词解释系列（6）NormanConques t----The NormanConques t of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the conquer or confisc ated almostall the land and gave it to his Normanfollowe rs. He replace d the weak Saxon rule with a strongNormangovernm ent. So the feudalsystemwas complet ely establi shed in England.Alfredthe Great----He was king of Wessex, one of the seven Anglo-Saxon Kingdom s. It was he who led the Anglo-Saxon to flightagainst the invadin g Danes and maintai ned peace for a long time. Alfredwas not only a brave king at wartime, but also a wise king at peaceti me. He encoura ged educati on and introdu ced a legal system. Heisknownas“thefatherof the British na vy”.英语国家概况名词解释系列（7）St. Augusti ne----In 597,Pope Gregory I sent St. Augusti ne, the Prior of St. Andrew’sMonaste ry in Rome, to England to convert the heathen English to Christi anity. That year, St. Augusti ne becamethe first Archbis hop ofCanterb ury. Augusti ne was remarka bly success ful in convert ing the king and the nobilit y, but the convers ion of the commonpeoplewas largely due to the mission ary activit ies of the monks in the north.Domesda y Book----It is a book compile d by a group of clerksunder the sponsor ship of King William the First in 1086. The book was in fact a propert y record. It was the resultof a general surveyof England. It recorde d the extent,value, state of cultiva tion, and ownersh ip of the land. It was one of the importa nt measure s adopted by William I to establi sh the full feudalsystemin England. Today, it is kept in the PublicRecords Officein London.英语国家概况名词解释系列（8）Geoffre y Chaucer----He was an importa nt English poet in the fourtee nth century. His best known is The Canterb ury Tales, which describ es a group of pilgrim s travell ing to Canterb ury to visit ThomasBecket’stomb. Because he was the first importa nt English poet to write in English. He has been kno wnasthe“Fatherof English Poetry”.The Black Death----It is a modernname given to the dearlybubonic plague, an epidemi c disease spreadthrough Europein the fourtee nth century particu larlyin 1348-1349. It came without warning, and without any cue. In England, it killedalmosthalf of the total populat ion, causing far-reachin g economi c consequ ences.英语国家概况名词解释系列（9）the HundredY ears’War--------It referre d to the intermi ttentwar between Franceand England that last from 1337 to 1453. The causeswere partlyterrito rial and partlyeconomi c. When EdwardIII claimed the FrenchCrown but the Frenchrefused to recogni ze, the war broke out. At first the English were success ful, but in the end, they were defeate d and lost almostall their possess ions in France. The expelli ng of the English was a blessin g for both countri es.the battleof Hasting s---------In 1066, King Edwarddied with no heir, the Witan chose Haroldas king. William, Duke of Normand y, invaded England. On October14, the two armiesmet near Hasting. Afteraday’sbattle, Haroldwas killedand his army complet ely defeate d. So this battlewas very importa nt on the way of the Roman conques t.The Wars of Roses玫瑰战争----the name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancast er, symboli zed by the read rose, and that of York, symboli zed by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descend ant of Duke of Lancast er won victory at Boswort h Fireldin 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudali sm receive d its death blow. The great medieva l nobilit y was much weakene d.The Gloriou s Revolut ion of 1688光荣革命---- In 1685 Charles II died and was succeed ed by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe,was a Catholi c. He hoped to rule without givingup his persona l religio us vies. But England was no more toleran t of a Catholi c king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politic ians rejecte d James II, and appeale d to a Protest ant king, William of Orange, to invadeand take the English throne.William landedin England in 1688. The takeove r was relativ ely smooth, with no bloodsh ed, nor any executi on of the king. This was known as the Gloriou s Revolut ion.英语国家概况名词解释系列（10）The Gunpowd er Plot of 1605火药阴谋案----The Gunpowd er Plot of 1605 was the most famousof the Catholi c conspir acies. On Nov. 5,1605, a few fanatic al Catholi cs attempt ed to blow King James and his ministe rs up in the House of Parliam ent where Guy Fawkeshad planted barrels of gun-powderin the cellars. The immedia te resultwas the executi on of Fawkesand his fellow-conspir atorsand imposit ion of severeanti-Catholi c laws. The long-term resulthas been an annualcelebra tion on Nov. 5, when a bonfire is lit to turn a guy and a firewor k display is arrange d.Blood Mary血腥玛丽----It is the nicknam e given to Mary I, the English Queen who succeed ed to the throneafter Henry VIII. She was a devoutCatholi c and had so many Protest ants burnt to death that she is remembe red less by her officia l title Mary I by her nicknam e Blood Mary.英语国家概况名词解释系列（11）Thatche rism撒切尔主义----The electio n of 1979 returne d the Conserv ativeParty to power and Margare t Thatche r becamethe first woman prime ministe r in Britain. Her policie s are popular ly referre d to as state-owned industr ies, the use of monetar ist policie s to control inflati on, the weaking of trade forcesunions, the strengt hening of the role of marketforcesin the economy, and an emphasi s on law and order.The Trade Union Act of 1871工会法----It legaliz ed the trade unionsand give financi al securit y. It meant that in law there was no differe nce between money for benefic purpose s and collect ing it to support strikeaction.英语国家概况名词解释系列（12）Agribus iness农业产业----The new farming has been called“agribus iness”, because it is equippe d and managed like an industr ial busines s with a set of inputsinto the process es which occur on the farm and outputs or product s which leave the farm.British disease英国病----Theterm“British disease”isnowoftenusedtocharact erizeBritain’seconomi c decline. 英语国家概况名词解释系列（13）Constit utiona l monarch y君主立宪制----It is a politic al systemthat has been practis ed in Britain since the Gloriou s revolut ion of 1688. Accordi ng to this system, the Constit utionis superio r to the Monarch. In law, the Monarch has many supreme powers,but in practic e, the real power of monarch y has been greatly reduced and today the Queen acts solelyon the adviceof her ministe rs. She reignsbut does not rule. The real power lies in the Parliam ent, or to be exact, in the House of Commons.Privy Council枢密院----A consult ativebody of the British monarch. Its origincan be tracedback to the times of the NormanKings. After the Gloriou s Revolut ion of 1688, its importa nce was gradual ly diminis hed and replace d by the Cabinet. Today, it is still a consult ationbody of the British monarch, Its members hip is about 400, and include s al Cabinet ministe rs, the speaker of the House of Commons, the Archbis hops of Canterb ury and York, and seniorBritish and Commonw ealthstatesm en.英语国家概况名词解释系列（14）The Nationa l HealthService----It is a very importa nt part of the welfare systemin Britain. It is a nationw ide organiz ationbased on Acts of Parliam ent. It provide s all kinds of free or nearlyfree medical treatme nt both in hospita l and outside. It is finance d mainlyby payment s by the state out of general taxatio n. Peopleare not obliged to use this service. The service is achievi ng its main objecti ves with outstan ding success.Compreh ensive schools----Compreh ensive s schools take pupilswithout referen ce to ability or aptitud e and provide a wide-ranging seconda ry educati on for all or most of the childre n in a distric t.英语国家概况名词解释系列（15）Reuters----It was founded in 1851 by the German, JuliusReuter. It is now a publicl y owned company, employi ng over 11000 staff in 80 countri es. It has more than 1300 staff journal ists and photogr aphers.The Crown Court----A crimina l court that deals with the more serious cases and holds session s in towns through out England and Wales. It is preside d over eitherby a judge from the High Court of Justice or a local full-time judge.英语国家概况名词解释系列（16）The Great lakes----The Great Lakes are the five lakes in the northea st. They are Lake Superio r which is the largest fresh water lake in the world, Lake Michiga n (the only one entirel y in the U.S.), Lake Huron, Lake Eire and Lake Ontario. They are all located between Canadaand the UnitedStatesexpectLake Michiga n.The Mississ ippi----The Mississ ippi has been called“fatherof waters“or”oldmanriver”. It and Its tributa ries drain one of the richest farm areas in the world. It is the fourthlongest river in the world and the most importa nt river in the UnitedStates.英语国家概况名词解释系列（17）UncleT om’sCabin----It was a sentime ntal but powerfu l antisla very novel written by Harriet Beecher Stowe. It convert ed many readers to the aboliti onistcause.Gettysb urg----It refer to the short speechPreside nt Lincoln made when he dedicat ed the nationa l cemeter y at Gettybu rg. He ended the speechwith“thegovernm ent of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perishfromtheearth”.英语国家概况名词解释系列（18）The Red Scare----When the WWI was over, there existed a highlyaggress ive and intoler ant nationa lism. Between1919 and 1920, the Red Scare happene d. On Nov.7,1919 and Jan.2,1920, the Justice Departm ent launche d two waves of mass arrests. Over 4000 suspect ed Communi sts and radical were arreste d.The Ne w Deal----In order to deal with the Depress ion, Preside nt Frankli n Rooseve lt put forward the New Deal program. It passeda lot of New Deal laws and set up many efficie nt socialsecurit y systems. The New Deal helpedto save America n democra cy and the develop ment of America n economy.英语国家概况名词解释系列（19）TrumanDoctrin e----On Mar.12, 1949, Preside nt Trumanput forward the TrumanDoctrin e in his speechto the joint session of Congres s. The Doctrin e meant to support any country which said it was fightin g communi sm. Marshal l Plan----It was announc ed by GeorgeMarshal l on June.5, 1947, and was the economi c aid plan for Western Europe. It was also used to prevent the loss of Western Europeinto the Sovietsphere.英语国家概况名词解释系列（20）Londonsmog----In 195, the sulphur dioxide in the four-day Londonsmog, an unhealt hy atmosph ere formedby mixingsmoke and dirt with fog. It left 4000 peopledead or dying. Since then most citiesin Britain have introdu ced“cleanairzones”whereby factori es and househo lds are only allowed to burn smokele ss fuel.FamilyDoctor----In order to obtainthe benefit s of the NHS a personmust normall y be registe red on the list of a general practit ioner,sometim esknownasa“familydoctor”. The familydoctorgives treatme nt or prescri bes medicin e, or, if necessa ry, arrange s for the patient to go to hospita l or to be seen at home by a special ist.英语国家概况名词解释系列（21）Marvell ous Melbour ne----After the gold rush in 1850s and 1860s, there was an importa nt revolut ion in transpo rt, especia lly with the network of tram and railway systems. This changed the pace of urban life and the appeara nce of the city and soon peoplewere calling the city “Marvell ous Melbour ne”. But by the 1890s outside rs were calling thecity“Marvell ous Melbour ne”because of the bad smell of the city.Waitang i Day----In 1840 the first officia l governo r, William Hobson, was sent to negotia te with Maori leaders. In 1840 Hobson, represe ntingQueen Victori a, and some Maori chiefs, signedthe Treatyof Waitang i. ModernNew Zealand was founded. The anniver sary of the signing, Februar y 6, is celebra ted as New Zealand Nationa l Day, Waitang i Day, and is a nationa l holiday.英语国家概况名词解释系列（22）Multicu ltural ism----The term multicu ltural ism was coinedin Canadain the late 1960s. It was in officia l use in Austral ia by 1973. In other words, under multicu ltural ism migrant groupsare able to speak their own languag e and maintai n their own customs. Multicu ltural ism as a policyrecogni zes that socialcohesio n is attaine d by tolerat ing differe nces withinan agreedlegal and constit utiona l framewo rk.Quiet Revolut ion----Ever since 1763, when Francelost its empirein North America to England, FrenchCanadia ns have struggl ed to preserv e their languag e and culture. In the early 1960s FrenchCanadia ns becamemore vocal in their protest s. In particu lar, they complai ned that were kept out of jobs in governm ent and in some large busines ses because they spoke only French.They have been struggl ing more rightscommonwhich was called“Quietrevolut ion”.Joan of Arc--------She was a nationa l heroine of Franceduringthe HundredYears’War. She success fullyled the Frenchto drive the English out of France.the Great Charter--------KingJohn’sreigncausedmuch discont ent among the barons. In 1215, he was forcedto sign a documen t, known as MangnaCara, or the Great Charter. It has 63 clauses. Thoughit has long been regarde d as the foundat ion of English liberit ies, its spiritwas the limitat ionoftheking’spowers, keeping themwithinthe boundsof the feudallaw of the land.Domesda y Book---------Under William, the feudalsystemwas establi shed. William sent officia ls to compile a propert y recordknown as Domesda y Book, which complet ed in 1086. It was the resultof a general surveyof England made in 1085. It statedthe extent, value, the populat ion, state of cultiva tion, and ownersh ip of the land. It seemedto the English like the Book of doom on Judgeme nt Day.the Hardian’sWall--------It was one of the two great walls built by the Romansto keep the Picts out of the area they had conquer ed.William the Conquer or--------William was Duke of Normand y. He landedhis army in Oct, 1066 and defeate d king Harold.Then he was crowned king of England on Christa ms Day the same year. He establi shed a strongNormangovernm ent and the feudalsystemin England.Elizabe th I---------One of the greates t monarch s in British history. She reigned England, Wales and Ireland for 45 years and remaine d single. Her reign was a time of confide nt English nationa lism and of great achieve mentsin literat ure and other arts, in explora tion and in battle.OliverCromwel l--------The leaderduringthe Civil War who led the New Model Army to defeatthe king and condemn ed him to death. Then he declare d England a Commonw ealthand made himself Lord of Protect or. He ruled England till the restora tion of charles II in 1660.the Bill of Rights-------In 1689, William and Mary accepte d the Bill of Rightsto be crowned jointly. The bill exclude d any Roman Catholi c from the success ion, confirm ed the princip le of parliam entary suprema cy and guarant eed free speechwithinboth the two Houses. Thus the age of constit utiona l monarch y began.Whigs and Tories---------It referre d to the two party names which origina ted with the Gloriou s Revolut ion of 1688. The Whigs were those who opposed absolut e monarch y and support ed the right to religio us freedom for Noncomf ormist s. The Torieswere those who support ed heredit ary monarch y and were relucta nt to removekings. The Whigs formeda coaliti on with disside nt Toriesand becamethe Liberal Party. The Torieswere the forerun ners of the Conserv ativeParty.James Watt---------The Scottis h invento r who produce d an efficie nt steam enginewith rotarymotionthat could be applied to textile and other machine ry.Winston Churchi ll---------Prime Ministe r of Britain duringthe SecondWorld War. He took over Chamber lain in 1940 and receive d massive popular support. He led his country to final victory in 1945. He was defeate d in the general electio n of 1945, but returne d to power in 1951.the British Constit ution---------There is no written constit utionin the UnitedKingdom. The British Constit utionis not set out in any singledocumen t, but made up of statute law, commonlaw and convent ions. The Judicia ry determi nes commonlaw and interpr et statues.Queen Elizabe th II-----------The present Soverei gn, born in 1926, came to the thronein 1952 and was crowned in 1953. The Queen is the symbolof the whole nation, the centerof many nationa l ceremon ies and the leaderof society.The Navigat ion Acts------航海法案。
alevel物理知识点总结
alevel物理知识点总结IntroductionA-level Physics is a comprehensive course that covers a wide range of topics in physics, from classical mechanics and thermodynamics to quantum physics and astrophysics. It is a challenging subject that requires a sound understanding of mathematical concepts and scientific principles. In this summary, we will cover some of the key knowledge points in A-level Physics, including important theories, laws, and equations.Classical MechanicsClassical mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the motion of objects and the forces that act on them. It is based on the principles of Newtonian mechanics, which were developed by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th century. The key concepts in classical mechanics include:- Newton's Laws of Motion: Newton's three laws of motion are fundamental principles that describe the behavior of objects in motion. The first law states that an object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will remain in motion at a constant velocity, unless acted on by an external force. The second law relates the force acting on an object to its mass and acceleration, and the third law states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.- Conservation of Energy: The principle of conservation of energy states that the total energy in a closed system remains constant over time. This includes both kinetic energy (energy of motion) and potential energy (energy due to an object's position).- Conservation of Momentum: The principle of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of an isolated system remains constant, provided no external forces act on the system.ThermodynamicsThermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat, work, and energy. It is a fundamental concept in the study of physical systems and their behavior. The key concepts in thermodynamics include:- The First Law of Thermodynamics: The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the principle of conservation of energy, states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant. This means that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one form to another.- The Second Law of Thermodynamics: The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system will always increase over time. This implies that processes occurring in nature are irreversible, and that there is a directionality to the flow of energy.- The Carnot Cycle: The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle that represents the most efficient possible heat engine, and serves as a benchmark for the maximum efficiency of real-world heat engines.ElectromagnetismElectromagnetism is the branch of physics that deals with the relationship between electricity and magnetism, and the behavior of charged particles. It is a fundamental concept in the study of electromagnetics. The key concepts in electromagnetism include:- Coulomb's Law: Coulomb's law describes the force between two point charges, and is given by the equation F = k * (q1 * q2) / r^2, where F is the force, k is the electrostatic constant, q1 and q2 are the magnitudes of the charges, and r is the distance between the charges.- Ampere's Law: Ampere's law describes the relationship between an electric current and the magnetic field it generates. It is given by the equation ∮B * dl = μ0 * I, where B is the magnetic field, dl is an infinitesimal element of length, μ0 is the permeability of free space, and I is the electric current.Quantum PhysicsQuantum physics is the branch of physics that deals with the behavior of particles at the atomic and subatomic level. It is a highly complex and abstract field of study, and has led to many groundbreaking discoveries in physics. The key concepts in quantum physics include:- Schrödinger's Wave Equation: Schrödinger's wave equation describes the behavior of quantum particles by treating them as waves of probability. It is used to calculate the probability distribution of a particle's position and momentum.- The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to know both the position and momentum of a particle with absolute certainty. There is an inherent uncertainty in the measurement of these quantities, which is given by the equation Δx * Δp ≥ h/4π, where Δx is the uncertainty in position, Δp is the uncertainty in momentum, and h is Planck's constant.AstrophysicsAstrophysics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of celestial objects and the universe as a whole. It involves the application of physical principles to understand the behavior of stars, galaxies, and other astronomical phenomena. The key concepts in astrophysics include:- The Big Bang Theory: The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the origin of the universe. It states that the universe began as a singularity and has been expanding ever since, leading to the formation of galaxies, stars, and planets.- The Hubble Law: The Hubble law describes the relationship between the distance to a galaxy and its recessional velocity, and is given by the equation v = H0 * d, where v is the recessional velocity, d is the distance, and H0 is the Hubble constant.ConclusionA-level Physics covers a wide range of topics and concepts, from classical mechanics and thermodynamics to quantum physics and astrophysics. It is a challenging subject that requires a deep understanding of mathematical principles and scientific theories. This summary has covered some of the key knowledge points in A-level Physics, and serves as a useful reference for students and enthusiasts of physics.。
Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions
Atmos.Chem.Phys.Discuss.,7,5439–5513,2007 /7/5439/2007/©Author(s)2007.This work is licensedunder a Creative CommonsLicense.Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics DiscussionsGeophysical validation of temperature retrieved by the ESA processor from MIPAS/ENVISAT atmosphericlimb-emission measurementsM.Ridolfi1,U.Blum2,B.Carli3,V.Catoire4,S.Ceccherini3,H.Claude5,C.De Clercq6,K.H.Fricke7,F.Friedl-Vallon13,M.Iarlori8,P.Keckhut9,B.Kerridge10,J.-mbert6,Y.J.Meijer11,L.Mona12,H.Oelhaf13,G.Pappalardo12,M.Pirre4,V.Rizi8,C.Robert4,D.Swart11,T.von Clarmann13, A.Waterfall10,and G.Wetzel131Dipartimento di Chimica Fisica e Inorganica,Universit`a di Bologna,Italy2Fraunhofer-Institut f¨ur Naturwissenschaftlich-T echnische T rendanalysen,Euskirchen, Germany3Istituto di Fisica Applicata“Nello Carrara”,Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche,Firenze(Italy) 4Laboratoire de Physique et Chimie de l’Environnement,CNRS–Universit´e d’Orleans, Orleans,France5DWD,Observatory Hohenpeissenberg,Germany6Institut d’A´eronomie Spatiale de Belgique,Bruxelles,Belgique7Physikalisches Institut,Universit¨at Bonn,Bonn,Germany8CETEMPS–Dipartimento di Fisica,Universit`a de L’Aquila,L’aquila,Italy9Service d’Aeronomie–Institut Pierre Simon Laplace/UVSQ,Verrieres-Le-Buisson,France543910Earth Observation and Atmospheric Science,Space Science and Technology Department, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory,Oxfordshire,UK11National Institute for Public Health and the Environment,RIVM–LVM,Bilthoven,The Nether-lands12Istituto di Metodologie per l’Analisi Ambientale,Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche,Tito Scalo,Potenza,Italy13Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe,IMK,GermanyReceived:5April2007–Accepted:10April2007–Published:25April2007 Correspondence to:M.Ridolfi(marco.ridolfi@unibo.it)AbstractThe Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding(MIPAS)has been operating since March2002onboard of the ENVIronmental SAT ellite of the European Space Agency(ESA).The high resolution(0.035cm−1)limb-emission measurements acquired by MIPAS in thefirst two years of operation have very good geographical 5and temporal coverage and have been re-processed by ESA with the most recent ver-sions(4.61and4.62)of the inversion algorithms.The products of this processing chain are geolocated profiles of temperature and of the volume mixing ratios of six key atmospheric constituents:H2O,O3,HNO3,CH4,N2O and NO2.As for all the mea-surements made with innovative instruments and techniques,this data set requires a 10thorough validation.In this paper we present a geophysical validation of the temper-ature profiles derived from MIPAS measurements by the ESA retrieval algorithm.The validation is carried-out by comparing MIPAS temperature with correlative measure-ments made by radiosondes,lidars,in-situ and remote sensors operated either fromthe ground or stratospheric balloons.15The results of the intercomparison indicate that the bias of the MIPAS profiles is gen-erally smaller than1or2K depending on altitude.Furthermore wefind that,especially at the edges of the altitude range covered by the MIP AS scan,the random error esti-mated from the intercomparison is larger(typically by a factor of two to three)than thecorresponding estimate derived on the basis of error propagation.20In this work we also characterize the discrepancies between MIPAS temperature and the temperaturefields resulting from the analyses of the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts(ECMWF).The bias and the standard deviation of these discrepancies are consistent with those obtained when comparing MIP AS to correlativemeasurements;however,in this case the detected bias has a peculiar behavior as a 25function of altitude.This behavior is very similar to that observed in previous studies and is suspected to be due to a problem in the ECMWF temperature.54411IntroductionMIP AS(Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding,Fischer and Oel-haf1996;Fischer et al.2000)is a Fourier transform spectrometer,operating onboard of ENVISAT,a satellite launched by the European Space Agency(ESA)on1March2002in a polar orbit with≈98deg.inclination.MIP AS measures the atmospheric 5limb-emission spectrum in the middle infrared(from685to2410cm−1),a spectral re-gion containing the signatures of the vibrational transitions of many atmospheric con-stituents.In the period from July2002to March2004the instrument operated mostly in the so called nominal mode.In this time frame the nominal operation mode consistedof measurements at high spectral resolution(0.035cm−1full width half maximum,un-10apodized)of limb-scans in the altitude range from6to68km,with3km steps from6to 42km and with5and8km steps above42km.These measurements have very good geographical and time coverage and have been re-processed by ESA with the most recent versions(4.61and4.62)of both Level1b(Kleinert et al.,2007)and Level2(Ri-dolfiet al.,2000;Raspollini et al.,2006)algorithms.The products of the ESA Level2 15algorithm are geolocated profiles of temperature and of Volume Mixing Ratios(VMR) of six key atmospheric constituents:H2O,O3,HNO3,CH4,N2O and NO2.As for all the measurements made with innovative instruments and techniques,this data set re-quires a thorough validation.In this paper we focus on the validation of temperature.Besides its importance for atmospheric studies,in the case of MIP AS data processing, 20temperature also plays a key role in the determination of the accuracy of the atmo-spheric constituents that are retrieved in sequence after temperature,using this latter as an input(Raspollini and Ridolfi,2000).The validation has been carried out by comparing MIP AS retrieved temperature withcorrelative measurements made by radiosondes,lidars,in-situ and remote sensors 25operated either from the ground or stratospheric balloons.As already pointed out by several authors(see e.g.Rodgers and Connor2003;Cec-cherini et al.2003;Ridolfiet al.2006),the intercomparison of measurements acquiredby instruments that use different techniques,and therefore have different response functions to the real state of the atmosphere,is not a trivial task and requires specific methods to be used;therefore in Sect.2we provide an outline of the methods adopted for MIPAS temperature validation.In Sects.3to7we illustrate and discuss the results of the validation activities of the individual participating validation teams.In Sect.8we 5summarize the results of thefindings,andfinally,in Sect.9we draw the conclusions.2General aspects of MIPAS validationIn this section we discuss a few general issues connected with the validation of MIP AS profiles.The specific validation approaches used by the individual validation teams arediscussed later,in dedicated sections.102.1Spatial response function of the measurementsRemote emission measurements operated from satellites offer the great advantage of providing measurements with very good geographical and time coverage.Remote measurements,however,show characteristics that are intrinsically different from thoseof in-situ sounders that provide local and often direct measurements of the quantities of 15interest,as e.g.temperature or VMR of atmospheric constituents.Remote sensors do not measure directly the geophysical quantities of interest,but a complicated function of them(the limb-emission spectrum in the case of MIP AS);therefore these measure-ments must undergo an inversion process to extract the desired information.Both thecharacteristics of the inversion algorithm and instrument-specific features such as the 20instantaneousfield of view,the sampling grid and the spectral resolution contribute to making the shape of the measurement spatial response a complex function.Assuming the availability of well characterized correlative reference measurements, the intercomparison provides insight at two different levels:firstly,the statistical anal-ysis of the discrepancies between MIPAS and reference measurements can be used 255443to characterize both the bias and the precision of MIP AS(von Clarmann,2006).The bias and precision estimates obtained from the intercomparison can be then compared with the available estimates based on error propagation analyses,hence corroborating them or raising question marks regarding their reliability.Secondly,if the intercom-parison is carried out by avoiding or minimizing the known discrepancies due to the 5differences in the response functions of the intercompared measurements(Rodgers and Connor,2003;Ceccherini et al.,2003;Ridolfiet al.,2006),the error budget of the profile differences is significantly reduced and it is then possible to investigate the remaining discrepancies with improved accuracy.Unfortunately,in several cases the intercomparison cannot proceed up to this sec-10ond level because the spatial response functions,or averaging kernels(AKs),which are the linear approximation(Rodgers,2000)of the considered measurements,are not accurately known.In the MIP AS case,the correlative temperature measurements considered in this validation work are of two types:1.Measurements with a vertical resolution better than that of MIP AS(≈3km in the 15range from6to42km).Radiosonde and in-situ measured profiles have very high vertical resolutions andfine sampling steps(of the order of100m).Lidar measurements also have a good vertical resolution(ranging from150m up to 1–2km).2.Measurements with a vertical resolution comparable to that of MIPAS.Balloon 20limb-sounding FTS measurements and analyses from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts(ECMWF,1995)belong to this group.Different spatial response functions of the measurements considered induce a signifi-cant smoothing error(Rodgers and Connor,2003;Ridolfiet al.,2006)on the differenceprofile.This latter is the quantity which is tested against zero in the intercomparison. 25The smoothing error of the difference and the other error components add up quadrati-cally to form the total error of the difference.For comparison with measurements of type 1we adopt different strategies depending on whether reliable MIP AS AKs are availableor not for the atmospheric conditions in which the intercomparison takes place.When-ever the available MIPAS AKs,which were derived for standard atmospheric conditions, are considered representative of the actual atmospheric state,the smoothing error of the difference is reduced by comparing the MIPAS profile with the corresponding cor-relative measurement adjusted to the MIPAS spatial smoothing, x ref,smooth,calculated 5as:x ref,smooth= x0+A(x ref−x0)=A x ref+x0−A x0(1)where x ref is the correlative measurement in the original altitude resolution,x0is a pre-defined atmospheric state used as a linearization point for the calculation of the MIP AS averaging kernel A,and x0is the result of the MIP AS retrieval when the true state of 10the atmosphere is x ref=x0.The altitude grid of the profile x ref,smooth obtained from Eq.(1)and the grid of the available correlative MIPAS profile are then matched using either the shrinking/stretching and interpolation technique described in Raspollini et al.(2006)or the regridding technique of Calisesi et al.(2005).If the available MIPAS AKs are not considered representative of the actual atmo-15sphere encountered in the intercomparison,the profiles are directly compared by matching the pressure or altitude grids using linear interpolation in altitude or in log pressure,and calculating the difference.Whenever significant,the smoothing error is evaluated as part of the random error budget of this difference.This latter approach isalso used to intercompare MIP AS with correlative measurements of type2.202.2MIPAS vertical gridIn the case of MIP AS,the interpretation of the retrieved profiles involves an additional complication linked with the vertical scale.The accuracy of the instrument elevation pointing was extensively tested during the commissioning phase(Kiefer et al.,2007)and it was found that,although rather stable(≈300m)within the time interval required 25for the measurement of a limb-scan(≈70s),in absolute terms the elevation pointing may be affected by errors as large as2km in tangent altitude.This feature of the MIPAS5445pointing was also expected on the basis of the pre-launch requirements;therefore the retrieval algorithm was designed to be,as much as possible,independent from accu-rate pointing knowledge.Specifically,the ESA inversion algorithm(Ridolfiet al.,2000;Raspollini et al.,2006)retrieves temperature simultaneously with pressure at the tan-gent points of the limb-observations,taking into account the a-priori pointing knowledge 5supplied by the engineering pointing system.The altitude scale is then re-constructed using the barometric equation,the retrieved pressure and temperature at the tangent points and the altitude of a reference tangent point.Of course,if the altitude of the selected reference tangent point is affected by an error,the altitude scale obtained withthis method is going to be shifted by an amount equal to this error.This intrinsic weak-10ness of the re-constructed altitude scale has led to a recommendation by ESA to use, whenever possible,the pressure scale associated with MIPAS profiles rather than the altitude scale.A more reliable altitude scale can be obtained a-posteriori,if indepen-dent sources of information(such as ECMWF analyses)supply an accurate pressureprofile as a function of altitude,for the same time and geolocation as the MIPAS profile 15under consideration.Given this feature of the MIPAS profiles,whenever correlative measurements are supplied on a pressure grid,we carry out the intercomparisons in the pressure domain.This approach,however,is not applicable to the intercomparisons with lidar profiles,which are intrinsically represented as a function of altitude(see Sect.6).In these 20cases we carry out the intercomparisons using the MIP AS altitude grid corrected with customized procedures,as described in Sects.6.1and6.2.2.3Coincidence criteriaIdeally,validation requires comparison of measurements relating to the same air mass.In practice,however,perfect spatial and temporal coincidence of the measurements 25is very difficult to achieve,and therefore a compromise must be found.The specific compromise established for the intercomparison is usually referred as the coincidence criterion.As far as temperature is concerned,a spatial distance of less than300kmand a time difference shorter than3h are generally considered reasonable coincidence criteria(Fischer et al.,20071).In several cases,however,in our intercomparison work these baseline criteria turned out to be too conservative,reducing dramatically the number of matching pairs of measurements to be compared.In these cases the base-line coincidence criteria have been revised by the individual validating teams on the 5basis of test attempts or model corrections aimed at a reduction or a better estimation of the mismatch error.3Validation using radiosonde measurementsRadiosondes are lightweight boxes carried aloft by small balloons up to altitudes ofalmost35km.The instruments on board include temperature and pressure sensors 10characterized by high precision and accuracy.In particular,the largest majority of radiosonde temperature profiles used in this validation were measured with balloon-borne V¨ais¨al¨a RS80and RS90sondes(Antikainen and T urtiainen,1992;Antikainen and Jauheainen,1995),equipped with pressure and temperature sensors character-ized as follows(Luers,1997;WMO,2004):15–Pressure sensor.In the range from3to1060hPa,precision:0.1hPa;accuracy:0.5hPa.–T emperature sensor.In the range from–90to60◦C,precision:0.1K;the accu-racy is pressure-dependent:0.2K from ground to50hPa,0.3K from50to15hPaand0.4K for pressures below15hPa.20The radiosonde samples the atmosphere approximately every10s;therefore,since the average ascent rate of the balloon is about4m/s,the average vertical sampling 1Fischer,H.,Birk,M.,Blom,C.,et al.:MIPAS:an instrument for atmospheric and climate research,Atmos.Chem.Phys.Discuss.,in preparation,2007.5447step of the sonde profiles is about40m.Since the radiosonde performs local mea-surements,the vertical resolution of the measured profiles coincides with the sampling step.Although temperatures at different altitudes are measured at different times,for simplicity we interpret each individual radiosonde profile as instantaneous and refer(if not otherwise specified)to the mean time of the measurement interval.Consider-5ing that the duration of a profile measurement is about2h and that the allowed time mismatch between compared measurements is always equal or greater than3h(see Sect.2.3),this is a reasonable approximation.3.1Comparison with radiosonde measurements from Potenza and L’Aquila(Italy)Both the Istituto di Metodologie per l’Analisi Ambientale del Consiglio Nazionale delle 10Ricerche(CNR-IMAA),Potenza(Italy)and the CETEMPS of the Department of Physics of the University of L’Aquila(Italy)are involved in the Ground Based Measurement Campaign for the validation of the MIPAS Level2temperature and water vapor.Valida-tion measurements are acquired by water vapor lidars complemented with radiosondelaunches in order to measure atmospheric pressure,temperature and relative humid-15ity.Radiosondes are launched from Potenza(Lat.40.60◦N,Lon.15.72◦E,Altitude ASL760m)and L’Aquila(Lat.42.38◦N,Lon.13.31◦E,Altitude ASL683m)sites.In the time frame from July2002to December2002,two radiosoundings and two lidar measurements per week coincident with ENVISAT overpasses were carried out.FromJanuary2003to July2003,one radiosounding and one lidar measurement per week 20were carried out.After the end of the validation campaign,measurements have still been acquired on a regular basis(Pappalardo et al.,2005).For MIP AS temperature validation,radiosonde profiles were used.These profiles were measured with balloonborne V¨ais¨al¨a RS80sondes with the features specified inSect.3.25For this intercomparison we only considered radiosonde measurements within 300km and3h of a MIPAS measured limb-scan.The errors due to the residual spatial and temporal mismatch between the measurements were accounted for by using thequantitative formal validation approach suggested by von Clarmann(2006).Here we use the terminology defined in von Clarmann(2006)and refer to the equations in that work as C n,where n is the equation number.Since for this set of data the intercomparisons take place at mid-latitudes,in atmo-spheric conditions not too far from those for which the standard MIP AS vertical aver-5aging kernels were derived(Raspollini et al.,2006),as afirst step we allowed for the smoothing error of MIPAS by downgrading all the radiosonde temperature profiles t s to the MIPAS altitude resolution,using Eq.(1).As we also use the shrinking/stretching and interpolation technique described by Raspollini et al.(2006),each profile t s result-ing from this operation is represented on the same vertical grid as the matching MIP AS 10profile t M.The error due to less than perfect coincidence(both in space and time)of each pair of measurements was then corrected for using the ECMWF temperature analyses.In particular,each profile t s was corrected using the following expression(see Eq.C15and C24):15t c= t s+diag[A h T EC,M]−t EC,s.(2) In this expression t EC,s is the ECMWF temperature interpolated to the radiosonde time and geolocation,while A h is the horizontal MIPAS averaging kernel matrix.The ele-ment i,j of A h represents the response of the i-th MIPAS retrieved temperature gridpoint to an infinitesimal variation of the temperature at the location j along the MIP AS 20line of sight.The matrix A h was derived in the following approximation:each entry of the row of the MIPAS vertical averaging kernel was assigned to the geolocation where,according to ray tracing when refraction is considered,the line of sight crosses the respective altitude.In the approximation of a quasi-transparent atmosphere thesame weight(i.e.half the value of the respective entry of the vertical averaging kernel) 25was given to air parcels at the same altitude in front of and behind the tangent point.Averaging kernel elements below the tangent altitude were assigned to the tangent point geolocation.In Eq.(2)T EC,M is a matrix constructed as follows:each column corresponds to a MIPAS limb-view,and the entries in each column are obtained by5449interpolating the ECMWFfields to the MIPAS time and to the geolocation of the points along the MIPAS line of sight considered for the construction of the corresponding row of A h.With this approach,Eq.(2)accounts for both the space and time mismatch between the measurements,and for the horizontal smoothing performed by MIPAS.Residual coincidence errors were neglected,firstly,because errors in ECMWF temper-5aturefields are believed to have a correlation length considerably larger than the actual spatial and temporal mismatch,such that these errors tofirst order approximation can-cel out in the difference,and secondly,because errors resulting from the interpolation of ECMWF data in space and time are hard to estimate,and thus the exercise wouldhave been quite speculative.10Since MIPAS measurement errors are strongly correlated in altitude,while error cor-relations in the time or horizontal domain are negligibly small(apart from the bias which is explicitly corrected for),all available pairs of co-located measurements(t M,i;t c,i, where t M,i are MIPAS temperatures and t c,i are radiosonde corrected temperaturesat pressure i),were sorted into pressure bins such that each bin contains only data 15relating to one nominal MIPAS limb viewing geometry,acquired at different times andlocations.With this approach each bin contains up to24data pairs in total.Validationof MIPAS temperatures in each pressure bin allows one to neglect error correlations inthe vertical(pressure)domain(see Sect.7of von Clarmann2006).For each pressure bin i we calculated an estimate of the bias b i as(see Eq.C30): 20b i=1n in ik=1(t M,i(k)−t c,i(k))(3)where n i is the number of data pairs in the i−th bin,and k numbers the pairs within this bin.The statistical uncertainty(or ex-post random error)of this bias is estimated by the standard deviation(see Eq.C31):σbi =n ik=1(t M,i(k)−t c,i(k)−b i)2n i(n i−1)(4)25For consistent measurements,in each bin the bias b i should be statistically consistentwith zero,considering its random error barσbi .If this is not the case,the bias should atleast be consistent with zero considering its total errorσbi ,tot,which can be estimatedas:σbi ,tot=σ2b i+σ2b i,sys(5)5whereσbi ,sysis the systematic error of b i which can be estimated as:σbi ,sys=σ2t M,i,sys+σ2t c,i,sys(6)in whichσtM,i ,sysandσtc,i,sysare the estimates of the systematic errors of the MIP AS andsonde corrected profiles respectively,as determined from error propagation analysis.We call these error estimates,which are determined according to error propagation, 10ex-ante,as opposed to ex-post error estimates which are determined on the basis of the results of the intercomparison.A deviation of b i from zero beyond the error barσbi ,totindicates that the systematic errorσtM,i,sysof the experiment to be validated hasbeen underestimated significantly.On the other hand,the random errorσdi ,rndof the differences d i(k)=t M,i(k)−t c,i(k)15can be estimated through the error propagation equation:σdi ,rnd=σ2t M,i,rnd+σ2t c,i,rnd(7)in whichσtM,i ,rndandσtc,i,rndare the random errors of the MIP AS and sonde profilesrespectively,and have been evaluated in the respective experiment characterization phases.This ex-ante error estimate should be consistent with the ex-post precision 20estimate determined in the intercomparison experiment by(see Sect.5of von Clar-mann2006):p i=σbin i.(8)5451If we apply Eqs.(3),(4),(6),(8)and(7)to our set of data we obtain the results reported in columns3,4,5,6and7of T able1respectively.Thefirst two columns of this table re-port the approximate altitude boundaries of the defined pressure bins and the numbern i of pairs per bin respectively.Here,the errorσ2tM,i ,sys(necessary for Eq.6)was ob-tained as the summation of the squared MIPAS error components(Dudhia,2005)that 5are thought to be constant within our ly,these are errors affecting the forward model included in the MIPAS retrieval algorithm,and are due to:use of less than perfect spectroscopic line data;neglecting CO2line coupling;imperfect model-ing of the instrument line-shape;neglecting non local thermodynamic equilibrium;andimperfect modeling of gaseous continua.10For the evaluation ofσdi ,rndwe calculatedσ2t M,i,rndas the summation of the squaredMIP AS error components that are thought to vary randomly within our sample.These error components affect both the MIPAS inversion model(such as errors due to:ne-glecting the horizontal variability of the atmosphere;the profile shape assumption out-side the altitude range explored by the MIPAS scan;spectral interference of O3,CO2, 15ClONO2,CCl4and N2O5);and the measured spectra(measurement noise,frequency and intensity calibration errors).For the calculationσtc,i ,rndwe considered both the radiosonde specified accuracy andthe error on temperature arising from propagation of the pressure uncertainty through typical vertical temperature gradients.20The quantityχ2R,i reported in column8of Table1is the reduced chi-square,testingthe hypothesis that the differences d i(k)are consistent with their expectation value b iwithin their random error barsσdi ,rnd.χ2R,iis defined as:χ2 R,i =1n i−1n ik=1(t M,i(k)−t c,i(k)−b i)2σ2d i,rnd(9)The expectation value of this quantity is unity;the probability L i of getting a smaller 25value for this quantity in a new intercomparison,i.e.the probability of a substantialdiscrepancy betweenσdi ,rndand the ex-post estimate of the precision p i,is reported inthe rightmost column of T able1.For the sake of visual inspection,the results of T able1are also summarized in Fig.1. In panel(a)of this Figure we report,as a function of the approximate center altitude ofeach pressure bin,the bias b i(solid line)and±σbi ,sys,the ex-ante estimated system-5atic error of the difference between the profiles(dashed lines).In panel(b)of Fig.1we report the precision p i(solid line)as well as the ex-ante random errorσdi ,rndof thedifference profile(dashed line).In both panels(a)and(b)the error bars of the esti-mated bias and standard deviation represent the95%confidence interval calculated on the basis of the t-and chi-square statistics respectively(Gosset,1908;Bevington 10and Robinson,2003).Of course,since the chi-square probability distribution is not symmetric about its maximum,especially for a small number of degrees of freedom (=n i−1),the confidence intervals of the standard deviation clearly reflect this property.Below10.5and above34.5km the size of the sample is too small for meaningfulstatistics,and therefore we do not discuss the results in those altitude ranges.In the 15altitude range above10.5and below34.5km the detected bias is not statistically sig-nificant.However,there is strong indication that the estimated MIP AS precision is too optimistic by a factor of about1.5to2.Discrepancies of this magnitude can hardly be explained by the neglect of higher order errors in the coincidence correction.Instead,they are attributed to occasional instabilities in the MIP AS retrievals causing spikes in 20the temperature profiles.These peculiar outliers cannot be assigned to individual limb scans for which the entire MIPAS profile is suspicious.At altitudes below13.5km the detected discrepancies are even larger.At these altitudes a candidate explanation is the deficiencies in the MIPAS cloud detection algorithm,which does not reliably rejectall cloud-contaminated spectra from the Level2analysis.253.2Comparison with radiosonde measurements from the Esrange siteIn this Section we compare MIPAS temperature with radiosonde measurements oper-ated from the Arctic latitude site of Esrange,in northern Sweden.As an Arctic latitude5453site(67.9◦N,21.1◦E)the atmosphere above Esrange undergoes extreme excursions with the seasons,as is manifested by clouds in the dry middle atmosphere,and the atmosphere is subject to heating and cooling during stratospheric warmings.This large geophysical variability provides an ideal testing ground for the data derived from satel-lite borne instruments such as MIPAS.5The Esrange launches radiosondes to support campaigns conducted with rockets or balloons as the instrument carrier.As a launch site of opportunity the Esrange ra-diosonde data do not enter the ECMWF analyses.In the time period relating to the MIP AS data to be validated,(from6July2002to25March2004)there were146flightswith radiosondes.The campaigns took place in August,November,and December 102002,in January,February,March,June and July2003,and in January,February and March2004.Esrange uses the V¨ais¨al¨a Digicora sounding system with radiosondes of type RS80characterized by the accuracyfigures specified in Sect.3.The Esrange ra-diosondes cover all pressures from the ground to3hPa.More than75%of the sondesexceeded a top altitude of10hPa or about30km.T emperatures in the stratosphere 15varied in the range185to270K.3.2.1T esting the coincidence criteriaApplication of the baseline coincidence criteria defined in Sect.2.3leads to very poor statistics,therefore we tune these criteria specifically for our intercomparison data set.For this purpose we define windows in time and horizontal range,which are believed to 20be acceptable for validation and which are to be met by the measurements.A vertical range window is not required for validation with radiosondes,since their altitude reso-lution far exceeds that of MIPAS,i.e.the MIPAS pressure can be matched exactly by the validation ing small windows reduces the effects of geophysicalvariability on the comparisons,however,it also reduces the number of available com-25parisons.The ultimate choice for time and ground range windows(i.e.the coincidence criterion)involves iterations resulting in a compromise among these competing require-ments.To give an idea of the trade-offbetween the conservativeness of the adopted。
合力测量的百分误差
合力测量的百分误差英文回答：Measurement error of the resultant force.During the measurement of a physical quantity, it is almost impossible to obtain a true value. There will always be some errors due to the limitations of the measuring instruments, environmental conditions, and human errors. The difference between the measured value and the true value is called the error. There are two types of errors: systematic error and random error. Systematic errors are errors that occur due to a constant factor, such as afaulty measuring instrument. Random errors are errors that occur randomly and cannot be predicted.The error in the measurement of a physical quantity can be expressed in terms of absolute error or relative error. Absolute error is the difference between the measured value and the true value. Relative error is the ratio of absoluteerror to the true value. The relative error is often expressed as a percentage, which is called the percentage error.The percentage error in the measurement of the resultant force can be calculated using the following formula:Percentage error = (|Measured resultant force True resultant force| / True resultant force) × 100%。
会计学(英语)专业
会计学(英语)专业英文回答：Accounting, a branch of economics, is the study of the measurement, analysis, and reporting of financial information of an entity. It plays a vital role in providing information to investors, creditors, management, and other stakeholders for decision-making purposes. Accounting involves the recording, classification, summarization, and interpretation of financial transactions to provide insights into the financial health of an organization.There are various branches within accounting, including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing, and taxation. Financial accounting focuses on the preparation of financial statements, such as the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement, for external reporting purposes. Management accounting provides information to internal users for planning, decision-making, and controlwithin an organization. Auditing involves the examinationof financial records and statements to provide an independent opinion on the fairness and reliability of financial information. Taxation involves the study of tax laws and regulations to ensure compliance and minimize tax liability.The field of accounting requires a strong foundation in mathematics, including algebra and statistics, as well as a deep understanding of business principles. Accounting professionals typically possess analytical, problem-solving, and communication skills, and they are required to stay updated with the latest accounting standards and regulations.中文回答：会计学是经济学的一个分支学科，是对实体的财务信息的测量、分析和报告的研究。
遗传学名词解释C
CCAAT box -- A highly conserved DNA sequence found in the untranslated promoter region of eukaryotic genes. This sequence is recognized by transcription factors.cAMP -- Cyclic adenosine monophosphate. An important regulatory molecule in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.CAP -- Catabolite activator protein. A protein that binds cAMP and regulates the activation of inducible operons.carcinogen -- A physical or chemical agent that causes cancer.carrier -- An individual heterozygous for a recessive trait.catabolism -- A metabolic reaction in which complex molecules are broken down into simpler forms, often accompanied by the release of energy.catabolite activator protein -- See CAP.cistron -- That portion of a DNA molecule that codes for a single polypeptide chain; defined by a genetic test as a region within which two mutations cannot complement each other.cline -- A gradient of genotype or phenotype distributed over a geographic range.clonal selection -- Theory of the immune system that proposes that antibody diversity precedes exposure to the antigen, and that the antigen functions to select the cells containing its specific antibody to undergo proliferation.clone -- Identical molecules, cells, or organisms all derived from a single ancestor by asexual or parasexual methods. For example, a DNA segment that has been enzymatically inserted into a plasmid or chromosome of a phage or a bacterium and replicated to form many copies.cloned library -- A collection of cloned DNA molecules representing all or part of an individual’s genome.code -- See genetic code.codominance -- Condition in which the phenotypic effects of a gene’s alleles are fully and simultaneously expressed in the heterozygote.codon -- A triplet of nucleotides that specifies or encodes the information for a single amino acid. Sixty one codons specify the amino acids used in proteins, and three codons signal termination of growth of the polypeptide chain.coefficient of coincidence -- A ratio of the observed number of double-crossovers divided by the expected number of such crossovers.coefficient of inbreeding -- The probability that two alleles present in a zygote are descended from a common ancestor.coefficient of selection -- A measurement of the reproductive disadvantage of a given genotype in a population. If for genotype aa, only 99 of 100 individuals reproduce, then the selection coefficient (s) is 0.1.colchicine -- An alkaloid compound that inhibits spindle formation during cell division. Used in the preparation of karyotypes to collect a large population of cells inhibited at the metaphase stage of mitosis.colinearity -- The linear relationship between the nucleotide sequence in a gene (or the RNA transcribed from it) and the order of amino acids in the polypeptide chain specified by the gene.competence -- In bacteria, the transient state or condition during which the cell can bind and internalize exogenous DNA molecules, making transformation possible.complementarity -- Chemical affinity between nitrogenous bases as a result of hydrogen bonding. Responsible for the base pairing between the strands of the DNA double helix.complementation test -- A genetic test to determine whether two mutations occur within the same gene. If two mutations are introduced into a cell simultaneously and produce a wild-type phenotype (i.e., they complement each other), they are often nonallelic. If a mutant phenotype is produced, the mutations are noncomplementing and are often allelic.complete linkage -- A condition in which two genes are located so close to each other that no recombination occurs between them.complexity -- The total number of nucleotides or nucleotide pairs in a population of nucleic acid molecules as determined by reassociation kinetics.complex locus -- A gene within which a set of functionally related pseudoalleles can be identified by recombinational analysis (e.g., the bithorax locus in Drosophila).concatemer -- A chain or linear series of subunits linked together. The process of forming a concatemer is called concatenation (e.g., multiple units of a phage genome produced during replication).concordance -- Pairs or groups of individuals identical in their phenotype. In twin studies, a condition in which both twins exhibit or fail to exhibit a trait under investigation.conditional mutation -- A mutation that expresses a wild-type phenotype under certain (permissive) conditions and a mutant phenotype under other (restrictive) conditions.conjugation -- Temporary fusion of two single-celled organisms for the sexual transfer of genetic material.consanguineous -- Related by a common ancestor within the previous few generations.consensus sequence -- A basically common, although not necessarily identical, sequence of nucleotides in DNA or amino acids in proteins.conservation genetics -- The branch of genetics concerned with the preservation and maintenance of wild species of plants and animals in their natural environments.continuous variation -- Phenotype variation exhibited by quantitative traits distributed from one phenotypic extreme to another in an overlapping or continuous fashion.cosmid -- A vector designed to allow cloning of large segments of foreign DNA. Cosmids are hybrids composed of the cos sites of lambda inserted into a plasmid. In cloning, the recombinant DNA molecules are packaged into phage protein coats, and after infection of bacterial cells, the recombinant molecule replicates and can be maintained as a plasmid.coupling conformation -- See cis configuration.covalent bond -- A nonionic chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons.cri-du-chat syndrome -- A clinical syndrome in humans produced by a deletion of a portion of the short arm of chromosome 5. Afflicted infants have a distinctive cry which sounds like that of a cat.crossing over -- The exchange of chromosomal material (parts of chromosomal arms) between homologous chromosomes by breakage and reunion. The exchange of material between nonsister chromatids during meiosis is the basis of genetic recombination.cross-reacting material (CRM) -- Nonfunctional form of an enzyme, produced by a mutant gene, which is recognized by antibodies made against the normal enzyme.C-terminal amino acid -- The terminal amino acid in a peptide chain which carries a free carboxyl group.C terminus -- The end of a polypeptide that carries a free carboxyl group of the lastamino acid. By convention, the structural formula of polypeptides is written with the C terminus at the right.C value -- The haploid amount of DNA present in a genome.C value paradox -- The apparent paradox that there is no relationship between thesize of the genome and the evolutionary complexity of species. For example, the Cvalue (haploid genome size) of amphibians varies by a factor of 100.cyclins -- A class of proteins found in eukaryotic cells that are synthesized anddegraded in synchrony with the cell cycle, and regulate passage through stages of the cycle.cytogenetics -- A branch of biology in which the techniques of both cytology andgenetics are used to study heredity.cytokinesis -- The division or separation of the cytoplasm during mitosis or meiosis.cytological map -- A diagram showing the location of genes at particularchromosomal sites.cytoplasmic inheritance -- Non-Mendelian form of inheritance involving geneticinformation transmitted by self-replicating cytoplasmic organelles such asmitochondria, chloroplasts, etc.cytoskeleton -- An internal array of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments that confers shape and the ability to move on a eukaryotic cell.Cot plot 浓度时间乘积图：一个样本单位单链DNA分子复性动力学曲线。
英汉词典
接合座 自适应总线-digital data highway to which(almost) any number of inputs 地址-electronic code identifying each part of computer memory,each address bit or information unit being routed to different address adhesion 粘接 adhesive tape 粘胶带 adjacent to 邻近的 可调水平安定面-horizontal stabilizer of an airplane which may be adjustable stabilizer adjusted in flight to trim the airplane for hands-off mode in flight admittance 导纳-in AC circui,reciprocal of impedance advance drawing 图纸先行更改通知 change notice(ADCN) advanced 先进的-new sophisticated and typifying latest technology advanced switch 步进电门 adverse effect 不利影响；严重后果 advisory circular(AC) 咨询通报 advisory Message 咨询信息 aerodynamic 空气动力的 aerodynamic smoother 空气动力平滑胶 aeroelastic torsion 气动弹性扭曲 aeronautical 航空的 aerosol 烟雾，浮质-colloid of finely divided solid or liquid disperesed in aft looking forward 从后向前看 afterbody drag 后体阻力 afterburner 加力燃烧室 尾喷管喷火-sometimes called torching,a condition resulting from afterfiring unburrnt fuel being ignited in the exhaust nozzle age-hardening 时效，硬化 ageing=aging 时效处理 aging 老龄的 agent 试剂 aileron 付翼 aileron authority 付翼效能 付翼传动力限制器-electro-mechanical device for limiting the control aileron force limiter wheel movement by the autopilot during autopilot operation aileron programmer 付翼程序器-convert central lateral control actuator motion to control air bleed valve 放气活门 减速板；阻力板-a plate or series of plates that may be projected into air brake airport's slipstream to provide turbulence and drag to slow the air carrier 航空营运者-any company which provides commercial air transportation air conditioning 空调 空气循环机；涡轮冷却器-a compressor & turbine on a common shaft for air cycle machine cooling air in an air conditioning system 大气数据计算机-one which produces air data air data computer information(altitude,airspeed ect) based on pressure and temperature 中断飞行-a change from original flight plan due to a known or air interruption suspected malfunction&/ defect during flight air lock 气锁，气塞-a trapped pocket of air that blocks the flow of fluid 空气封严件；气密封圈；气封严-usually thin rotating or staionary rims air seal designed to act as air DAMS to reduce airflow leakage air ground 起落架位置传感器；空地传感器-an electrical device operated by the sensor landing gear for transmitting airport position for systems operation air tapping 抽气管座 空中返航-return of airplane to airplane of origin as a result of air turnback malfunction or suspected defect of any item on airplane airborne 空中飞行的；机载的
雅谷大通EJA510E和EJA530E绝对和压力传感器说明书
General<<Contents>> <<Index>>EJA510E and EJA530E Absolute and Gauge Pressure TransmitterGS 01C31F01-01ENThe high performance absolute and gauge pressure transmitter EJA510E and EJA530E feature single crystal silicon resonant sensor and are suitable to measure liquid, gas, or steam pressure. EJA510E and EJA530E output a 4 to 20 mA DC signal corresponding to the measured pressure. It alsofeatures quick response, remote setup and monitoring via BRAIN or HART communications and self-diagnostics. F OUNDATION Fieldbus, PROFIBUS PA and 1 to 5 V DC with HART (Low Power) protocol types are also available.with the exception of the Fieldbus, PROFIBUS and 2 for safety requirement.STANDARD SPECIFICATIONSRefer to GS 01C31T02-01EN for Fieldbuscommunication type and GS 01C31T04-01EN for PROFIBUS PA communication type for the items(For EJA510E, values are in absolute and lower range limits are 0.)*:Maximum value shall be 70 MPa, 10150 psi, 700 bar or 700 kgf/cm 2 respectively when /HG isZero-based calibrated span, linear output, wetted parts material code ‘S’ and silicone oil, unless otherwise mentioned.For Fieldbus and PROFIBUS PA communicationtypes, use calibrated range instead of span in the(includes the effects of terminal-based linearity,hysteresis, and repeatability)[Style: S2]Change±(0.15% of Span + 0.15% of URL) for A, B and Ccapsule.±(0.15% of Span + 0.15% of 50 MPa) for D capsule.EJA530E: ±0.1% of URL for 10 yearsEJA510E: ±0.2% of URL for 10 yearsLess than 0.1% of URL when tested per thewith high vibration level (10-60 Hz, 0.21 mm displacement/60-2000 Hz 3 g)Less than ±0.1% of URL when tested per the application or pipeline with low vibration level (10-60 Hz 0.15mm displacement /60-500 Hz 2g)Rotation in diaphragm plane has no effect. Tiltingup to 90 degree will cause zero shift up to 0.21 kPa (0.84 inH2O) which can be corrected by the zero adjustment.90 msWhen software damping is set to zero and including dead time of 45 ms (nominal)Output(Output signal code D and J)Two wire 4 to 20 mA DC output with digital communications, linear or square root programmable. BRAIN or HART FSK protocol are superimposed on the 4 to 20 mA signal.Output range: 3.6 mA to 21.6 mAOutput limits conforming to NAMUR NE43 can be pre-set by option code C2 or C3.For 1 to 5 V HART(Output signal code Q)Three or four wire low power 1 to 5 V DC output with HART, linear or square root programmable.HART protocol are superimposed on the 1 to 5 V DC signal.Output range: 0.9 V to 5.4 V DCFailure Alarm (Output signal code D and J)(Output signal code D and J)Output status at CPU failure and hardware error;Up-scale: 110%, 21.6 mA DC or more (standard)For 1 to 5 V HART(Output signal code Q)Analog output status at CPU failure and hardware error;Up-scale: 110%, 5.4 V DC or more (standard) Damping Time Constant (1st order)0.00 to 100.00 s by software and added to response time.Note: For BRAIN protocol type, when the softwaredamping is set to less than 0.5 s, communicationmay occasionally be unavailble during theoperation, especially while output changesdynamically. The default setting of dampingensures stable communication.Pressure: 45 msZero can be fully elevated or suppressed, within the lower and upper range limits of the capsule. External Zero AdjustmentExternal zero is continuously adjustable with0.01% incremental resolution of span. Re-rangecan be done locally using the digital indicator with rangesetting switch.5-digit numerical display, 6-digit unit display and bar graph.three of the following variables periodically; pressure in %, scaled pressure, measured pressure.(Output signal code D, J and Q)adjustment screw and push button (Integral indicator code E) offers easy and quick setup for parameters of Loop test, Tag number, Unit, LRV, URV, Damping, Output mode (linear/square root), Display out 1, and Re-range by applying actual pressure (LRV/URV) and Device Information.A, B and C capsule: 30 MPaD capsule: 132 MPaprocess alarm for pressure or capsule temperature. pressure is also availableSignal Characterizer (Output signal code D, J and Q) for 4 to 20 mA output.EJA-E series transmitters except Fieldbus, PROFIBUS PA and 1-5V DC with HART(Low Power)the following standards;IEC 61508: 2010;Functional Safety of Electrical/electronic/ programmable electronic related systems; SIL 2 capability for single transmitter use, SIL 3 capability for dual transmitter use.Reliability Data different depending on hardware and software revision.For details, refer to Functional Safety Data Sheet. (Document number: TI 01C25A05-01EN or TI01C25A05-21EN for option code SLT )The document can be downloaded from the website of Yokogawa.(Website address: https:///For 1 to 5 V HART (Output signal code Q)Power supply :Power Consumption :0.96 mA to 3 mA, 27 mW(Output signal code D and J)(Output signal code Q)Note that with three-wire connection, the cable length may affect the measurement accuracy of the output signal.(Approval codes may affect electrical requirements.) BRAINCommunication distanceUp to 2 km (1.25 miles) when using CEV polyethylene-insulated PVC-sheathed cables. Communication distance varies depending on type of cable used.0.22 µF or less3.3 mH or lessEN 61326-1 Class A, T able2EN 61326-2-3Sound Engineering Practice (for all capsules)With option code /PE3 (for D capsule)Category III, Module H, Type of Equipment: Pressure Accessory-Vessel, Type of Fluid: Liquid and Gas, Group of Fluid: 1 and 2EN 50581EN 61010-1, C22.2 No.61010-1(Anticipated transient overvoltage 330 V)Diaphragm, process connectorHousing[for aluminum housing]Polyester resin powder coatingMint-green paint (Munsell 5.6BG 3.3/2.9 or its equivalent)[for option code /P or /X2]Epoxy and polyurethane resin solvent coatingIP66/IP67, Type 4XPipePolypropyleneCover O-ringsName plate and tag316 SSTSilicone, Fluorinated oil (optional)WeightCapsule A, B and C: 1.2 kg (2.6 lb)*Capsule D: 1.4 kg (3.1 lb)**: Without integral indicator and mounting bracket. Connections< Related Instruments>FieldMate Versatile Device Management Wizard: Refer to GS 01R01A01-01E.BRAIN TERMINAL: Refer to GS 01C00A11-00E Power Distributor: Refer to GS 01B04T01-02E or GS 01B04T02-02E; Registered trademark of Yokogawa Electric Corporation.Electric Corporation.®: Registered trademark of FieldComm Group.OUNDATION Fieldbus; Trademark of FieldCommGroup.Nutzerorganisation e.v., Karlsruhe, Germany. Other company names and product names used in this material are registered trademarks or trademarks of their respective owners.without a diaphragm seal system. Please also refer to the GS 01C25W01-01EN for EJAC50E.For other agency approvals and marine approvals, please refer to GS 01C25A20-01EN.Specify the following when ordering2. Calibration range and unitsdecimal point) for low or high range limits withinthe range of -32000 to 32000. When reverserange is designated, specify Lower RangeValue (LRV) as greater than Upper Range Value(URV).2) Specify only one unit from the table, ‘FactorySettings’ when shipped.’3. Display scale and units (for transmitters equippedwith integral indicator only)Specify either 0 to 100 % or engineering unit scale and ‘Range and Unit’ for engineering units scale:point) for low or high range limits within the range of -32000 to 32000. The unit display consists ofbe displayed on the unit display.4. HART PROTOCOL5. TAG NO (if required)BRAIN, 22 characters for HART, or 16 characters for /N4 tag) are engraved on the stainless steel tag 6. SOFTWARE TAG (for HART only. if required)*1 alphanumeric capital letters.*1 (22 characters) in the *1: applicable only when HART 7 is selected.Specifying option code CA or CB will allow furtheritems and setting range.[/CA : For HART communication type]1) Descriptor (up to 16 characters)2) Message (up to 30 characters)3) Software damping in second (0.00 to 100.00)[/CB : For BRAIN communication type]1) Software damping in second (0.00 to 100.00)*1: T o specify these items at factroy, /CA or /CBoption is required.*2: Not available for HART protocol type.ASTM JISgrade 316SUS316grade 316L SUS316Lgrade 304SUS304EU WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment) Directive is only valid in the EU.This instrument is intended to be sold and used only as a part of equipment which is excluded from WEEE Directive, such as large-scale stationary industrialtherefore, subjected to the exclusion from the scopeof the WEEE Directive. The instrument should be disposed of in accordance with local and national legislation/regulations.。
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a rXiv:077.2654v1[he p-ex]18J u l27The measurement of the absolute branching ratio of the K +→π+π0(γ)decay at KLOE.KLOE Collaboration:F.Ambrosino,A.Antonelli,M.Antonelli,F.Archilli,C.Bacci,P.Bel-trame,G.Bencivenni,S.Bertolucci,C.Bini,C.Bloise,S.Bocchetta,V.Bocci,F.Bossi,P.Branchini,R.Caloi,P.Campana,G.Capon,T.Capussela,F.Ceradini,S.Chi,G.Chiefari,P.Ciambrone,E.De Lucia,A.De San-tis,P.De Simone,G.De Zorzi,A.Denig,A.Di Domenico,C.Di Do-nato,S.Di Falco,B.Di Micco,A.Doria,M.Dreucci,G.Felici,A.Fer-rari,M.L.Ferrer,G.Finocchiaro,S.Fiore,C.Forti,P.Franzini,C.Gatti,P.Gauzzi,S.Giovannella,E.Gorini,E.Graziani,M.Incagli,W.Kluge,V.Kulikov,cava,nfranchi,J.Lee-Franzini,D.Leone,M.Martini,P.Massarotti,W.Mei,S.Meola,S.Miscetti,M.Moulson,S.M¨u ller,F.Mur-tas,M.Napolitano,F.Nguyen,M.Palutan,E.Pasqualucci,A.Passeri,V.Patera,F.Perfetto,M.Primavera,P.Santangelo,G.Saracino,B.Sci-ascia,A.Sciubba,F.Scuri,I.Sfiligoi,T.Spadaro,M.Testa,L.Tortora,P.Valente,B.Valeriani,G.Venanzoni,R.Versaci,G.Xu.AbstractThe preliminary result on the absolute branching ratio of the decay K +→π+π0(γ),obtained by the KLOE experiment operating at the DAΦNE Frascati φ-factory,is presented.1DA ΦNE and KLOEThe DAΦNE e +e −collider operates at a total energy W =1020MeV,the mass of the φ(1020)-meson.Since 2001,the KLOE experiment has col-1lected an integrated luminosity of about2.5fb−1.Results presented be-low are based on an integrated luminosity of about250pb−1.The KLOE detector consists of a large cylindrical drift chamber,DC,surrounded by a lead/scintillating-fiber electromagnetic calorimeter,EMC.The drift chamber [1]is4m in diameter and3.3m long,has full stereo geometry and operates with a90%helium-10%isobutane gas mixture.The momentum resolution is σ(p T)/p T∼0.4%.Two track vertices are reconstructed with∼3mm resolu-tion.The calorimeter[2],composed of a barrel and two endcaps,covers98% of the solid angle.Energy and time resolution areσ(E)/E=5.7%/E(G eV)⊕100p s.A superconducting coil surrounds the detector and provides a solenoidalfield of0.52T.The KLOE trigger[3], uses calorimeter and drift chamber information.For the present analysis, only events triggered by the calorimeter have been used.2The tag mechanismTheφ-meson decays most of the times into K¯K pairs;these are quasi anti-collinear in the laboratory due to the small crossing angle of the e+e−beams. Therefore the detection of a K(¯K)guaranties the presence of a¯K(K)of given momentum and direction.Therefore identified K∓decays tag a K±beam and provide the normalization sample for signal count.This procedure is a unique feature of aφ-factory and gives the possibility of measuring absolute branching ratios.Charged kaons are tagged using their two-body decays,K±→µ±νµand K±→π±π0,accounting for∼85%of the total decay channels.We have about1.5×106K+K−events/pb−1.The two body decays are identified as peaks in the momentum spectrum of the charged decay particle evaluated in the kaon rest frame and assuming the pion mass.3Measurement of the absolute branching ra-tio of the K+→π+π0(γ)decay.The measurement of the branching ratio(BR)is performed using250pb−1 collected atφpeak.The normalization sample is given by K−→µ−signal decay channel,we require the tagging kaon alone to satisfy the EMC trigger request,hereafter self-triggering tag.Nevertheless a residual depen-dency of the tagging criteria on the decay mode of the signal kaon is still present and it is accounted for in thefinal branching ratio measurement.The decision of using K−to tag and K+for signal search has been taken to neglect corrections to the BR from nuclear interactions(NI)of the kaon (σNI(K+)∼σNI(K−)/102).The choice of K−µ2decays for tagging purpouses allows us to separate as much as possible the tag hemisphere from the sig-nal hemisphere,minimizing possible interference in track reconstruction and cluster association.The signal selection of K+→π+π0(γ)decays uses DC information only. The K+is identified by a positive track moving outwards in the DC with momentum70<p K<130MeV/c and having point of closest approach (PCA)to the interaction point withx2V+y2V<150cm,with the momentum difference between the kaon and the secondary−320<∆p=|−→p K|−|−→p sec|<−50MeV/c and the charged decay particle momentum in the kaon rest frame in pion mass hypothesis 50<p∗<370MeV/c.After this selection,the K+→π+π0(γ)signal count is extracted from the fit of the p∗distribution in the window starting from p∗cut=180MeV/c(see figure1).This spectrum exhibits two peaks,thefirst at about236MeV/c from K+→µ+νdecays,Kµ2peak,and the second at about205MeV/c from K+→π+π0decays,Kπ2peak;lower p∗values are due to three body decays.The momenta of the charged secondaries produced in the kaon decay have been evaluated in the kaon rest frame using the pion mass hypothesis. Therefore the Kπ2peak,evaluated using the correct mass hypothesis,appears to be symmetric while the Kµ2peak is asymmetric do to the incorrect mass hypothesis used(pion instead of muon).Thefit to the p∗distribution is done using the following three contributions:1.Kµ2peak:this contribution accounts for K+→µ+ν(γ)decays and it istaken directly from a DATA control sample selected using calorimetric information only;3Figure1:Spectra of the charged secondary momentum in the kaon mass rest frame assuming the pion mass obtained from MonteCarlo simulation. Two peaks are visible,the Kπ2peak at205MeV and the Kµ2peak at236 MeV.Blue corresponds to K+→µ+ν,red to K+→π+π0and green to three−body decays.2.Kπ2peak:this contribution accounts for K+→π+π0(γ)decays and it istaken directly from a DATA control sample selected using calorimetric information only;3.three−body decays:this contribution accounts for three−body decaysand it is taken from MC simulation.Figure2shows the result of thefit of the p∗distribution performed on the selected DATA ing a total number of tagging events N tag= 12,113,686and p∗cut=180MeV/c,we obtain N K+→π+π0(γ)|F IT=818,347±1,912.Different colours indicate the different contributions:green for K+→π+π0(γ)decays,red for K+→µ+ν(γ)decays and light blue for three−body decays.The efficiency has been evaluated directly on DATA from a control sample selected using calorimetric information only,to avoid correlation with the DC driven sample selection.Given the tag by K−→µ−Figure2:Fit of the p∗distribution:black dots are DATA to befit and solid black line is thefit output.The three contributions used tofit the DATA are:Kµ2peak(red),Kπ2peak(green)and three−body decays(light blue). decays identified via the reconstruction ofπ0→γγdecay vertices.Cor-rections to the efficiency accounting for possible distortions induced by the control sample selection have been evaluated using MC simulation.A preliminary evaluation of systematic uncertainties has been done and the preliminary measurement of the absolute branching ratio of the K+→π+π0(γ)decay,at the few permil level of precision,will be presented at the conference.References[1]M.Adinolfiet al.,[KLOE Collaboration],The tracking detector of theKLOE experiment,Nucl.Instrum.Meth A488200251[2]M.Adinolfiet al.,[KLOE Collaboration],The KLOE electomagneticcalorimeter,Nucl.Instrum.Meth A48220023645[3]M.Adinolfiet al.,[KLOE Collaboration],The trigger system of the KLOEexperiment,Nucl.Instrum.Meth A4922002134[4]S.Eidelman et al.,Particle Data Group,Phys.Lett.B592200416。