语言学的名词解释

When I was preparing the postgraduate entrance examination of NNU(Nanjing Normal University),some of these following concepts had been tested,but there's no specific or clear explanation in the textbook required by the university.As in preparing the second-round examination I read them in other relevant books, I wrote down here for your reference.Hope they are useful to some of you.
1. Acculturation(同化过程）is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group.
2. Adjacency pair（相邻语对）;a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.
3. affix: a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its meaning in some way.
4. agreement (concord)（一致）: a grammatical phenomenon in which the form of one word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word which is grammatically linked to it. E.g. in the sentence The boy goes to school every day.There is an agreement in number between boy and goes.
5.articulators（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds.
6.aspect(体）: the grammatical category representing distinction in the temporal structure of an event. English has two aspect construction---the perfect and the progressive.(完成体和进行体)
7.aspiration(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes follows the pronounciation of a stop consonant.
E.g. /p/ in the word pit.
8.consonant（辅音）; a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction. Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.
9. converstional implicature（会话含义）:meanings that are explicable in the light of converational maxims.
municative competence（交际能力）; the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.
11. constituent（成分）: a syntactic unit that functions as part of a large unit within a sentence; typical constituent types are verb phrase, noun phrase, prepositional phrase and clause.
12.case(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional languages by which the form of a noun or noun phrase varies for grammatical or semantic reasons. English has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but English pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin.
13.clause（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It may be a sentence or part of a sentence.
14.closed class（封闭词类）: a group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members.
15.coinage（创新词）: the construction and addition of new words.
16.distribution(分布）: the set of positions in which a given linguistic element or form can appear in a language.
17.duality（双重结构）: a type of double-layer structure in which a small number of meaningless units are combined to produce a large number of meaningful units.
18.entailment（包含）; the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one(the second)
is inferred from the truth of the other.
19.euphemism（委婉语）: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects,e.g. powder room for toilet.
20.garden path sentence（花园小径句）: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or a phrase but later discovers that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence
21.free variation;(自由变异) a relation between two speech sounds such that either one can occur in a certain position and the substitution of one for the other never makes any difference in the meaning of the word. For instance, the unexploded(失去爆破) stop /d/ in the phrase Good morning is in free varitation with the exploded(爆破)counterpart.
22.inflection（屈折变化）: the morphological process by which affixes combine with words or stems to indicate such grammatical categories as tense or plurity.
ernment（支配）: the grammatical phonomenon in which the presence of a particular word in a sentence requires a second word which is grammatical linked with it to appear in a particular form. E.g. a preposition or a verb requires that the pronoun following it be in the objective form,as in with me,to him.
nguage universal(语言共性): any property that is shared by most,if not all, human lanugages.
25.lingua franca: ( 通用语) A language variety used for communication among groups of people wo do not otherwise share a common language. For example, English is the lingua franca of the international scientific community.
26.macrosociolinguistics; The study of the effect of language on society.
27.microsociolinguistics: The study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,including cultural norms, expetations and contexts,on the way language is used. It is often simply called sociolinguistics.
28.paradigmatic relation: (纵组合关系)The substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms(letters,words and phrases)can be substituted for each other in the same position in a word or sentence. E.g, b,p,s,f are in paradigmatic relation in the words bit,pit,sit,fit, so are Nature,Beauty, Love, Honesty in the sentences:
Nature purifies the mind.
Beauty purifies the mind.
Love purifies the mind.
Honesty purifies the mind.
29.syntagmatic relation: (横组合关系) The relation between any linguistic elements which are simultaneously present in a structure. E.g. in the word bit, b, i,t are in syntagmatic relation, so are nature, purifies, the, mind, in the sentence Nature purifies the mind.
30.presupposition（预设）: implicit assumptions about the world acquired to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate,e,g, “ some tea has already been taken”is a presuppostion of “Take some more tea”.
31.prototype(典型): What members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category,e.g.for some English spe akers “cabbage”(rather than,say,carrot)might be the prototypical vegetable.
32.root(词根): the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped from a complex word. E.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.
33.stem（词干）: the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word.
34.taboo（禁忌语）:words that are offensive or embarrassing, considered inappropriate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.
35.selectional restriction(选择限制): a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meaning.
36.linguistic universal:(语言共性) The linguistic universals are principles that enable children to acquire a particular language unconsciously, without instruction in the early years of life. As a whole they are referred to as Universal Grammar.
37.contrastive distribution(对比分布)：If the speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context and the substitution results a contrast in meaning, we say they are in contrastive distribution.
38.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level of single words is reached.
39.endocentric construction: (向心结构或内心结构)One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases.
40.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构)the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.
41.politeness can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person’s public self-image.
42.PP(politeness principle)tact maxim;generosity principle;approbation maxim;modesty maxim;agreement maxim;sympathy maxim.
43.irony(反语)is the use of words to express something other than and especially the opposite of the literal meaning of the utterance.
44.code-switching: (语码转换) means the alternation between two or more languages,language varieties or registers in communication.
45.affective filter(情感过滤)：A screen of emotion that can block language acquisition or learning if it keeps the learners being too self-conscious or too embarrassed to take risks during communicative exchanges.
46.Conversion（转类构词）is a change in the grammatical function of a word without adding or removing any part of it. A word belonging to one part of speech is extended to another part of speech. It is also called functional shift or zero derivation.
47.lexical meaning VS grammatical meaning(词汇意义与语法意义)
The meaning of a sentence is carried by the words proper as well as by the patterns of word order that is part of the grammatical system of a language. The part of the sentence meaning contributed by words is called the lexical meaning and the part of sentence meaning that depends upon the way the words are put together is called grammatical meaning, in which the function words and the word order play a very important role.
48.paralinguistic meaning VS non-linguistic meaning (副语言意义与非语言意义)
In human communication, apart from the linguistic meaning conveyed by language itself,there are numerous paralinguistic meanings and non-linguistic meanings that are perceived simultaneously by the hearer. Paralinguistic meanings are those attached to the verbal expressions by quality of voice,tempo of speech,posture,facial expression and gestures. Non-linguistic meanings are those
indicated by non-verbal noises such as cough, sigh, tongue-clicking, various kinds of body languages and different contexts of situation.
49.denotation VS connotation (外延与内涵)
Denotation is a straightforward, literal meaning of the word every member of the language speaking community will agree on. Connotation is not the basic meaing of the word but some emotive or evaluative meaings associated with the word by individual language users in their mind.
50.linguistic relativity VS linguistic determinism (语言相对论与语言决定论)
The Sapir-Wholf Hypothesis states that there is a systematic relationship between the grammatical categories of the language a person speaks and how that person both understands the world and behaves in it. It boils down to two principles: linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.
Linguistic relativity states that disctinctions encoded in one language are unique to that langage alone, and that there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.
Linguistic determinism refers to the idea that the language we use determines, to some extent, the way in which we view and think about the world around us. This concept has two versions; strong
determinism and weak determinism. The strong version, which has few followers today, holds that language actually determines thought, whereas that weak version, which is widely accepted today, merely holds that language affects thought.。