管理心理学(双语)笔记整理

ORGANIZATIONAND MANAGEMENT
组织与管理
组织：为达成个人和组织目标而一起工作的人的集合。

An organization is a collection of people who work together to achieve individual and organizational goals.
问题1:家庭是组织吗？
不是，组织是专业的，而且联系是有限的
组织行为(OB)研究组织中个体和群体活动的影响因素以及组织对这些因素的干预和管理。

Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of factors that affect how individuals and groups act in organizations and how organizations manage their environments.
理解、分析和描述组织中的行为活动管理者通过改进、促进或改变工作行为，
使组织中的个体、群体和整个组织达成目标
1.组织成员的个人目标与组织目标不是天然契合的
2.不同的人具有不同的认识方式和行动方式
管理：通过对组织中的人、财、物及其他资源进行计划、组织（分工）、领导和控制，以提高组织效率。

Management is the process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling an organization’s human, financial, material, and other resources to increase its effectiveness.
管理者：有一个或以上下属，对下属工作进行监督。

Manager:Any person who supervises one or more subordinates.
管理者角色（Mintzberg): Managerial roles identified by Mintzberg :
领袖代表 领导 Figurehead Leader 联络人 监察者 Liaison Monitor 传播人 发言人 Disseminator Spokesperson 企业家 平息动荡者 Entrepreneur Disturbance handler 资源分配者 谈判者 Resource allocator Negotiator 概念技能:对境况进行分析判断，以确立其中的因果关系。

Conceptual Skills:The ability to analyze and diagnose a situation and distinguish between cause and effect.
人际技能:理解他人和群体，与其工作，引导他们和控制其行为的能力。

Human Skills:The ability to understand, work with, lead, and control the behavior of other people and groups.
技术技能:与工作相关的专业知识和技术。

Technical Skills:Job-specific knowledge and techniques.
Discussion:Person and Organization 人的心理行为与组织运行发展
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES: PERSONALITY AND ABILITY
个体差异：人格与能力
人与人之间最根本的差异在三个方面：人格、智力、选择。

At the root of all human differences are three main factors —personality 、intelligence and decision
人格:个体相对稳定的感受、思考和行动模式。

人格一旦形成，很难改变。

Personality:The pattern of relatively enduring ways in which a person feels, thinks, and behaves.
—Generally stable in the context of work —在相应的工作情景中有稳定一致的表现
—Can influence career choice, job satisfaction, stress, leadership, and even performance —对职业选择、工作满意度、工作压力、领导关系和工作表现存在影响
特质:人格的组成单位，指个体（不同方面的）特有的感受、思考和行动的倾向。

Trait:A specific component of personality that describes particular tendencies a person has to feel, think, and act in certain ways.
Big Five questions:
1.Is she outgoing?
2.Is she crazy?
3.Is she friendly?
4.Is she reliable?
5.Is she interesting?
The Big Five Model of Personality大五人格模型
1、Extroversion: The tendency to experience positive emotional states and feel good about oneself and the world around.
外向性：对自己和周围世界持积极情绪和感受的倾向。

2、Neuroticism: A parameter of emotional stability. The tendency to experience negative emotional states and view oneself and the world around negatively, such as anxiety, anger, envy,guilt. 神经质：情绪稳定指标。

对自己和周围世界持消极体验的倾向，如焦虑、生气、妒忌、罪感等。

3、Agreeableness: The tendency to get along well with others.
宜人性：容易与人相处倾向。

4、Conscientiousness: The extent to which a person is careful, scrupulous, and persevering.
认真度：仔细、严谨、坚持程度。

5、Openness to Experience: The extent to which a person is original, has broad interests, and is willing to take risks.
开放性：独创、兴趣广泛、愿冒险程度。

Advice to Managers管理者建议
Acknowledge and appreciate that workers’ feelings, thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors are partly determined by their personalities, which are difficult to change. Realize that you might need to adjust your own feelings and actions to work effectively with others.
工作人员的感受、思考、态度和行动在一定成程度上取决于其人格，难以改变，管理者应该欣然接受这一事实，必要时调整自己的感受和行动，从而与其他人高效地一起工作。

When you are trying to understand why workers have certain attitudes and behave in certain ways, remember that attitudes and behaviors are determined by the interaction of an individual’s personality and the situation in which the individual works.
为什么工作人员会持某种态度或表现出某种行为？注意：态度和行为取决于个体的人格和工作环境的交互作用。

When feasible, structure an individual’s work situation to fit his or her personality. A good match is likely to result in positive attitudes and behaviors.
如果条件允许，调整工作人员的工作环境以适应其人格特点，工作环境与人格的适配往往导致积极的态度和行为。

Encourage an acceptance and appreciation of the diverse personalities in your organization.
鼓励在组织中接受并欣赏人格的多样化。

Locus of Control(心理控制源)
外控型：相信事情由命运、运气或其他外在因素决定。

External Locus of Control: Describes people who believe that fate, luck, or outside forces are responsible for what happens to them.
内控型：相信事情由能力、努力程度或其他自身行动因素决定。

Internal Locus of Control: Describes people who believe that ability, effort, or their own actions determine what happens to them.
Self-Monitoring(自我监控)
在他人面前，个体对自我表现的控制程度。

——高或低
The extent to which people try to control the way they present themselves to others.——Can be high or low
Self-Esteem（自尊）
个体对自己和能力感到自豪的程度。

——高或低——无情境特异性
The extent to which people have pride in themselves and their capabilities.
——Can be high or low ——Not situation specific
Type A vs. Type B PersonalityA型与B型人格
A型人格：渴望成就、喜欢竞争、高度的急迫感。

Type A: A person who has an intense desire to achieve, is extremely competitive, and has a strong sense of urgency.
B型人格：随和、放松。

Type B: A person who tends to be easygoing and relaxed.
McClelland’s Needs麦克利兰需求理论
成就需要：渴望良好地完成富有挑战性的任务，自我设置高目标，力求达到目标。

Need for Achievement: The desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet one’s own high standards.
关系需要：渴望与他人建立并维持良好的关系。

Need for Affiliation: The desire to establish and maintain good relations with others.
权力需要：渴望对他人进行情感和行为控制，影响他人。

Need for Power: The desire to exert emotional and behavioral control or influence over others.
Advice to Managers（管理者建议）
1、Realize and accept that some workers are more likely than others to be positive and enthusiastic because of their personalities. Similarly, realize and accept that some workers are more likely than others to complain and experience stress because of their personalities. 由于具有不同的人格特点，一些工作人员比其他人更积极热情，一些工作人员有更多的抱怨和感到更多的压力。

2、Provide an extra measure of d irect supervision to workers who don’t take the initiative to solve problems on their own and always seem to blame someone or something else when things go wrong.
当事情不顺利时，一些工作人员不主动解决自身的问题，常责怪他人或环境，对他们的工作应给予特别的直接监督。

4、Provide additional encouragement and support to workers with low self-esteem who tend to belittle themselves and question their abilities.
对于看低自己、怀疑自己能力的自尊水平低的工作人员，应给予特别的鼓励和支持。

5、Realize and accept that Type A individuals can be difficult to get along with and sometimes have a hard time working in teams.
A型人格的个体不好相处，可能难于在团队里工作。

6、Let subordinates who seem overly concerned about other people liking them know that sometimes it is necessary to give honest feedback and be constructively critical (such as when supervising others).
对于过分在意别人是否喜欢自己的下属，让他们知道，有时诚恳的工作反馈和建设的批评是必要的（如监督别人时）。

Ability(能力)
•The mental or physical capacity to do something.
•从事某项工作所需的心理或生理品质。

•Types of ability（能力类型）
–Cognitive ability（认知能力）
–Physical ability（身体能力）
•Motor skill（动能）
•Physical skill（身体技巧）
–Emotional intelligence（情绪能力）
Managing Ability in Organizations（组织中对能力的管理）
•Selection（选拔）
–Identify tasks to be accomplished
–确定要达成的任务
–Identify abilities needed to accomplish tasks
–确定达成任务需要的能力
–Develop accurate measures of abilities
–开发准确测试能力的工具
•Placement（匹配）
–Match workers to jobs to capitalize on their abilities
–人岗匹配，以利用其能力
•Training（培训）
WORK EXPERIENCES: VALUES AND ATTITUDES
工作价值与工作态度
Work Experience（工作体验）
Work Values（工作价值）
工作人员对工作应该带来的结果（可以获得什么）以及怎样工作所持的个人信念。

A worker’s personal convictions about what outcomes one should expect from work and how one should behave at work.
•The most general and long-lasting feelings and beliefs people have that contribute to how they experience work.
•影响工作体验的最广泛持久的观念。

•Values can be intrinsic(i.e., related to the nature of work itself) or extrinsic(i.e., related to the consequences of work).
•可以是内在的（与工作本质有关）也可以是外在的（与工作带来的结果有关）。

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Work Values内在工作价值与外在工作价值
Work Attitudes （工作态度）
• Collections of feelings, beliefs, and thoughts about how to behave that people currently
hold about their jobs and organizations.
• 针对其工作和组织，工作人员目前所持的关于如何行动的感受、观念和想法。

• Compared to values, attitudes are
– More specific
–
Not as long lasting
• 与工作价值相比，态度~
– 更具特异性 – 没有那么持久
• Specific work attitudes:（两种工作态度：）
– Job satisfaction is the collection of feelings and beliefs that people have
about their current jobs.
– 工作满意度：工作人员针对目前工作所持的感受和观念。

– Organizational commitment is the collection of feelings and beliefs that
people have about their organizations as a whole.
– 组织承诺：工作人员针对所在组织所持的感受和观念。

情感要素：对于自己工作或组织的感受（情绪、情感）
认知要素：对自己工作或组织状态的观念
行为要素：对自己工作或组织如何行动的想法
Work Moods （工作心境）
• How people feel at the time they actually perform their jobs. • 工作中工作人员眼下的感受。

• More transitory than values and attitudes. • 较价值和态度更短暂。

• Can generally be categorized as positive or negative. • 可以大体上分为积极的和消极的两大类。

•
Determining factors:（决定因素：）
• Personality （人格）
• Work situation （工作状况）
• Circumstances outside of work （工作外的环境因素）
Advice to Managers （管理者建议）
• Do not assume that most workers have strong intrinsic work values just because you
do.
• 不要因为你自己有高的内在工作价值，就认为大多数工作人员也这样。

• Realize that any attempt you make to improve attitudes, motivation, or performance
will be most eff ective when the change you implement is consistent with workers’ values.
• 当你试图提高工作人员的工作态度、工作动机或者工作业绩时，最有效的做法是你
所作出的改变与工作人员的工作价值适配。

• Make the work environment pleasant and attractive to help promote positive moods. • 使工作环境更加愉悦、有吸引力，从而使工作人员心境更积极。

Job Satisfaction （工作满意度）
The factors affecting job satisfaction （影响工作满意度的因素）
Theories of Job Satisfaction （有关工作满意度的理论）
Each theory of job satisfaction takes into account one or more of the four main determinants of job satisfaction and specifies, in more detail, what causes one worker to be satisfied with a job and another to be dissatisfied. 就工作满意度的以上四类决定因素，每个理论针对其中的一类或几类因素进行探讨，具体来说，就是什么原因导致某一工作人员对工作满意另一个则不满意。

Influential theories of job satisfaction include 关于工作满意度，有影响的理论包括：
• The Facet Model 要素模型
• Herzberg’s Motivator -Hygiene TheoryHerzberg 的激励-保健理论
•The Discrepancy Model差异模型
•The Steady-State Theory稳态理论
These different theoretical approaches should be viewed as complementary.
这些理论存在差异，相互补充。

The Facet Model（要素模型）
•Focuses primarily on work situation factors by breaking a job into its component elements, or job facets, and looking at how satisfied workers are with each.
首先将工作解构为组成成分，即要素，然后分析工作人员在各要素上的满意程度。

• A worker’s overall job satisfaction is determined by summing his or her satisfaction with each facet of the job.
工作人员的总体满意度是其在各要素上的满意度的总和。

•Sample job facets（要素示例）
•Ability utilization: the extent to which the job allows one to use one’s abilities.
能力利用度：工作人员利用自己多少能力去完成工作。

•Activity: being able to keep busy on the job.
工作活动度：工作忙碌程度。

•Human relations supervision: the interpersonal skills of one’s boss.
监督关系：上司的人际技能。

Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory（Herzberg 激励-保健理论）
Every worker has two sets of needs or requirements: motivator needs and hygiene needs. 工作人员具有两类需要：激励需要和保健需要。

•Motivator needs are associated with the actual work itself and how challenging it is.
激励需要：与工作本身特点及其挑战性有关。

–Facets: interesting work, autonomy, responsibility
–相当于工作要素中的工作兴趣、工作自主度、工作责任
•Hygiene needs are associated with the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed.
保健需要：与完成工作的生理和心理情境有关。

–Facets: physical working conditions, pay, security
–相当于工作要素中的工作物质条件、薪酬、工作安全
Hypothesized relationships between motivator needs, hygiene needs, and job satisfaction:
激励需要、保健需要与工作满意度之间的理论关系
When motivator needs are met, workers will be satisfied; when these needs are not met, workers will not be satisfied.
当激励需要得到满足时，工作人员对工作满意；当激励需要不能得到满足时，工作人员不能获得对工作的满意（没有满意）。

*When hygiene needs are met, workers will not be dissatisfied; when these needs are not met, workers will be dissatisfied.
当保健需要得到满足时，工作人员不会对工作不满意；当保健需要不能得到满足时，工作人员对工作不满意。

The Discrepancy Model（差异模型）
•To determine how satisfied they are with their jobs, workers compare their job to some “ideal job.”
•工作人员将自己的工作与“理想的工作”比较，从而表现出相应的满意水平。

This “ideal job” could be
所谓“理想的工作”，可以是~
–What one thinks the job should be like.
–一个人认为工作应该是怎样的。

–What one expected the job to be like
–一个人期望的工作状况
–What one wants from a job
–一个人想从工作得到什么
–What one’s former job was like
–一个人以前的工作状况
•Can be used in combination with the Facet Model.
•在实际应用中可与要素模型结合
The Steady-State Theory（稳态理论）
•Each worker has a typical or characteristic level of job satisfaction, called the steady state or equilibrium level.
•每个工作人员都有一个特征性的工作满意水平，称为满意度稳态或满意度均衡水平。

•Different situational factors or events at work may move a worker temporarily from this steady state, but the worker will eventually return to his or her equilibrium level.
•不同的环境因素或工作事件可能让工作人员的满意度暂时偏离该稳态水平，但工作人员最终会回到自己的均衡水平。

Advice to Managers（管理者建议）
•Realize that some workers are going to be more satisfied than others with the same job simply because they have different personalities and work values. Also realize that you can take steps to increase levels of job satisfaction because it is determined not only by personality but also by the work situation.
•对于同样的工作，一些工作人员较另一些工作人员更满意，原因可能是他们有不同的人格特点和工作价值。

但工作满意度还取决于工作状况，因此管理者仍可以提高工作人员的满意水平。

•Try to place newcomers in work groups whose members are satisfied with their jobs.
•将新来的工作人员安置到满意度高的工作群体中去工作。

•Ask workers what facets of their jobs are important to them, and do what you can to ensure that they are satisfied with these facets.
•询问工作人员哪些工作要素对他们来说更重要，尽可能保证工作人员对这些（重要的）工作要素满意。

•Because job satisfaction has the potential to impact workers’ behaviors in organizations and their well-being, use existing measurement scales to periodically survey your subordinates’ levels of job satisfaction. When levels of job sat isfaction are low, follow the advice in the preceding step.
•由于工作满意度对工作人员行为和身心健康具有潜在影响，利用测量工具定期评估下属的工作满意度水平，如果工作满意度太低，按下一条建议予以改善。

•Recognize that workers’ evaluations of job facets, not what you think about them, determine how satisfied workers are and that changing some facets may have longer-lasting effects on job satisfaction than changing others.
•对于工作人员对工作要素的评价，要有清楚的认识，不要想当然。

弄清针对各要素，工作人员的满意度水平如何，以及调整哪些要素会对工作满意度有更持久的影响。

Potential Consequences of Job Satisfaction（工作满意度的潜在影响）
①Performance: Satisfied workers are only slightly more likely to perform at
a higher level than dissatisfied workers.
工作业绩：满意的工作人员比不满意的工作人员仅表现出轻微较高的工作业绩。

•Satisfaction is most likely to affect work behaviors when workers are free to vary their behaviors and when a worker’s attitude is re levant to the behavior
in question.
•当工作人员可以自主行动，当他的态度与正在进行的工作活动有关时，满意度更可能对其工作行为造成影响。

②Absenteeism: Satisfied workers are only slightly less likely to be absent
than dissatisfied workers.
缺席：满意的工作人员比不满意的工作人员仅表现出轻微的较少缺席。

Determinants of Absence from Work（缺席的决定因素）
③Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB): Satisfied workers are more
likely to engage in this behavior than dissatisfied workers.
组织公民行为（OCB）：满意的工作人员较不满的工作人员倾向于表现出更多的组织公民行为。

–OCB: Behavior that is above and beyond the call of duty but is nonetheless necessary for organizational survival and effectiveness
–OCB：超越工作责任要求的、对组织生存和效率有利的行为。

•Helping coworkers, spreading goodwill
•对同事的帮助，表示友好
④Worker well-being: Satisfied workers are more likely to have strong
well-being than dissatisfied workers.
工作人员的身心健康：满意的员工较不满的员工身心更健康。

–Worker well-being: How happy, healthy, and prosperous workers are
–工作人员的身心健康：工作人员的幸福、健康、蓬勃的生命状态。

⑤Turnover: Satisfied workers are less likely to leave the organization than
dissatisfied workers.
跳槽：满意的工作人员较不满意的工作人员较小可能离开组织。

Advice to Managers（管理者建议）
•Do not assume that poor performers are dissatisfied with their jobs or that good performers are satisfied with their jobs.
•不要牵强地认为工作业绩差的工作人员对工作不满意，或者工作业绩好的工作人员对工作满意。

•Do not assume that workers who are absent are dissatisfied or that they were not motivated to come to work. Absence is also a function of ability to attend.
•不要牵强地认为缺席的员工对工作不满意或者缺乏上班的动机，缺席同时也受出勤能力的影响。

•Manage absenteeism. Don’t try to eliminate it, and keep in mind that a certain level of absence is often functional for workers and organizations.
•对缺席的管理：不要试图消除缺席，适度的缺席对工作人员和组织都有好处。

•Realize that turnover has both costs and benefits for an organization and that you need to evaluate both. In particular, before becoming concerned about worker turnover, examine the performance levels of those who quit.
•跳槽对组织有利也有害，需要权衡利弊。

特别是，应首先评价跳槽者的工作业绩。

•If workers do only what they are told and rarely, if ever, exhibit organizational citizenship behavior, measure their levels of job satisfaction, identify the job facets they are dissatisfied with, and make changes where possible.
•如果工作人员仅仅做要求他们做的事，而很少表现出组织公民行为，应评估他们的满意度，弄清对哪些要素他们感到不满意，可能的话，对这些工作要素作出调整。

•Even if job satisfaction does not seem to have an effect on important behaviors in your organization, keep in mind that it is an important factor in worker well-being.
•尽管工作满意度对重要的工作行为似乎没有多大影响，但它是工作人员身心健康的
一个重要影响因素。

Organizational Commitment（组织承诺）
•Affective commitment exists when workers are happy to be members of an organization, believe in and feel good about the organization and what it stands for, are attached to the organization, and intend to do what is good for the organization.
情感承诺：工作人员乐意成为组织一员，对组织及其所代表的东西持积极观念且感觉良好，依恋组织，愿意做对组织有利的事情。

•Continuance commitment exists when workers are committed not so much because they want to be but because they have to be; the costs of leaving the organization are too great.
持续承诺：工作人员并非想成为组织的一员，而是不得不留下来，比如离开组织的成本太高。

Advice to Managers（管理者建议）
•Adopt socially responsible policies and programs such as supporting protection of the environment and helping out the community in which your organization is located.
•采用对社会负责任的政策，开展有利社会的项目，比如支持环境保护、为所在社区提供帮助。

•Be committed to your employees by, for example, showing concern for their well-being, helping them when they have hard times, and soliciting their input on decisions that will affect them.
•通过关心工作人员的身心健康、在他们困难的时候给予帮助、进行与他们相关的决策时请他们参与等办法，来提高工作人员的组织承诺度。

PERCEPTION AND ATTRIBUTION
知觉与归因
⏹Perception （知觉）
●Definition: Perception （概念：知觉）
●The accuracy of perception（知觉的准确性）
①Perceiver（知觉者）
Schemas（图式）
Motivational state and mood （动机与心境）
②Target （知觉对象）
Ambiguity（模糊）
Social status（社会地位）
Use of impression management（采用印象管理手段）
③Biases and problems in perception（知觉偏差）
⏹Attribution（归因）
●Attribution theory（归因理论）
●Attribution biases（归因偏差）
Perception（知觉）
•The process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret the input from their senses to give meaning and order to the world around them.
•个体选择、组织和解释来自感官的信息，赋予周围环境意义和秩序的过程。

•Social perception(or person perception) is the study of how people form impressions of and make inferences about other people.
•社会知觉（对人的知觉）探讨人们如何形成对他人的印象和如何推论他人。

Components of Perception（知觉的构成要素）
•The perceiver is the person trying to interpret some observation that he or she has just made, or the input from his or her senses.
•知觉者：对观察到的东西或者来自感官的信息进行解释的人。

•The target of perception is whatever the perceiver is trying to make sense of.
•知觉对象：知觉者试图解释的东西。

—In OB terms, the target of perception is often another person.
—在组织行为领域，知觉对象通常指另一个人。

•The situation is the context in which perception takes place.
•知觉环境：知觉发生的环境。

The Accuracy of Perceptions（知觉的准确性）
•The accuracy of perceptions is critical, however, for a number of managerial functions.
•对于一些管理职能来说，知觉的准确性很重要。

–Motivating subordinates
–激励下属
–Treating subordinates fairly and equitably
–公平、平等地对待不同的下属
•The perceptual process does not always yield accurate perceptions.
•知觉过程并非总是获得准确的知觉结果。

•Managers who understand what perceptions are, how they are formed, and what influences them are in a good position to ensure that their perceptions are as accurate as possible.
•了解知觉、理解知觉的形成过程以及其影响因素，可以使管理者能更好地做到尽可能确保知觉的准确性。

图式
知觉者知觉对象
动机状态
心境
Schemas（图式）
•Definition:Abstract knowledge structures that are stored in memory and make possible the organization and interpretation of information about targets of perception.
•定义：指抽象的知识结构，存在于记忆中，是组织和解释知觉对象信息的基础。

•Schemas are the product of past experiences and knowledge gathered from a variety of sources.
•图式是综合过去各种知识和经验的结果。

•Schemas determine:（图式决定了…）
•What information is attended to and what information is ignored
•哪些信息被加工，哪些信息被忽略
•How information is interpreted
•信息以何种方式被解释
•Once schemas are formed, they are resistant to change.
•图式一旦形成，就很难改变
The Functionality of Schemas（图式的作用）
•Schemas can be functional because they help us make sense of a confusing array of sensory input, help us choose what information to pay attention to and what to ignore, and guide our perceptions of often ambiguous information.
•图式让我们对纷繁混乱的感官输入进行识别，让我们选择哪些信息被关注哪些信息被忽略，引导我们处理（通常是）模糊的信息。

•Schemas can be dysfunctional, however, if they result in inaccurate perceptions.
•当图式导致不准确的知觉结果时，即为图式失灵。

•Stereotypes are examples of dysfunctional schemas.
•刻板印象就是图式失灵的例子。

•Definition: A set of overly simplified and often inaccurate beliefs about the typical characteristics of a particular group.
•定义：关于特定群体的典型特征的一系列过分简单且通常不准确的观念。

•Stereotyped individuals are often assigned to schemas only because they possess a single distinguishing characteristic (e.g., race, gender)
•当知觉对象具有某一简单特征时，就被刻板地归入某些图式（如种族、性别）。

Motivational State and Mood（动机状态和心境）
•Motivational State: The needs, values, and desires of a perceiver at the time of perception.
•动机状态：知觉发生时知觉者的需求、价值观和欲望。

•Mood:How a perceiver feels at the time of perception.
•心境：知觉过程中，知觉者的（情绪）感受。

Characteristics of the Target（知觉对象的特点）
Ambiguity（模糊）
•Ambiguity refers to a lack of clearness or definiteness.
•模糊指缺乏清晰性和确定性。

•As the ambiguity of a target increases, it becomes increasingly difficult for a perceiver to form an accurate perception.
•随着知觉对象模糊性的增加，知觉者形成准确知觉结果就变得更加困难。

•When a target is ambiguous, the perceiver needs to engage in a lot more interpretation and active construction of reality to form a perception of the target.
•当知觉对象模糊时，知觉者需要进行更多的解释、更多地去构建现实，以便形成知觉结果。

•The more ambiguous a target is, the more potential there is for errors in perception.
•知觉对象越模糊，知觉出现错误的可能性就越大。

Social Status（社会地位）
•Social status is a person’s real or perceived position in society or in an organization.
•社会地位指一个人事实上或者被认为在社会或组织中所处的位置。

•Targets with relatively high status are perceived to be smarter, more credible, more knowledgeable, and more responsible for their actions than lower-status targets.
•比起地位较低的知觉对象，有较高社会地位的知觉对象被认为更聪明、更可靠、更有知识、对自己的行为更负责任。

Impression Management（印象管理）
•Impression management is an attempt to control the perceptions or impressions of others.
•印象管理：试图控制别人（对自己的）知觉或印象。

•Targets are especially likely to use impression management tactics when interacting with perceivers who have power over them and on whom they are dependent for evaluations, raises, and promotions.
•当知觉者拥有权力，知觉对象有赖于知觉者的评价、涨薪和升职时，知觉对象尤其容易采用印象管理策略。

•Individuals who are high in self-monitoring are more likely than individuals who are low in self-monitoring to engage in impression management tactics.
•比起自我监控水平低的个体，自我监控水平高的个体更倾向于采用印象管理策略。

Impression Management Tactics（印象管理策略）
Salience（突出）
•Salience is the extent to which a target of perception stands out in a group of people or things.
•突出：指知觉对象突显于一群人或环境的程度。

•Causes of salience （导致突出的原因）
–Being novel: Anything that makes a target unique in a situation (e.g., being
the only young person).
–新颖使知觉对象在一环境中显得独特。

（如：是唯一的年轻人）
–Being figural: Standing out from the background (e.g., by wearing bright clothes).
–形象独特使知觉对象从背景中突显出来。

（如穿明亮颜色衣服）
–Being inconsistent with other people’s expectations: Behaving or looking in a way that is out of the ordinary.
–出人意料：表现出非常态的行为和外表。

•Consequences of salience（突出的结果）
–Extreme evaluations (positive or negative)
–极端评价（积极或消极）
–Stereotyping
–刻板定型
Advice to Managers（管理者建议）
•Be careful not to jump to conclusions about coworkers, superiors, and subordinates simply because they appear to fit one of your preexisting schemas. Wait to form your opinions until you have gathered enough information to make a fair judgment.
•在评价共事者、上司、下属时，不要因为他们符合你已有的某一图式就草草地下结论，等收集的信息足以作出公平评价时，再确定你的看法。

•Make sure your perceptions of workers are based on their skills, capabilities, accomplishments, on-the-job behaviors, and levels of job performance.
•确保你对工作人员的评价是基于他们的技能、能力、成就、工作中的行动表现和业绩水平。

•Do not allow your perceptions to be influenced by characteristics of a target (such as race, age, and gender) that are unrelated to job behaviors and performance.
•别让知觉对象的种族、年龄、性别等特征影响你的知觉，这些对工作行为和工作业绩并没有影响。

•Try to treat organizational members who stand out from others the same as you treat those who do not stand out.
•尽力做到像对待其他人一样对待突出的组织成员。

Biases and Problems in Perception（知觉偏见与问题）。