The Plato and The Republic

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Unit 3

Tom: But why (3)________ the stories are sometimes ___________ changed (change) in films? Jack: Because films and books are different. Some people in the book are not included in the film, but others are more important than they are in the book.
—Is the film called Snow White? 这部电影是叫《白雪公主》吗？(一般疑问句) —Yes, it is. / No, it isn’t. 是的。/不是。 —How many people were mentioned in the conversation? 对话中提到了几个人？(特殊疑问句) —Two. 两个。
Complete the passage with the correct form of the words and expression in brackets. My favourite funny story in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is when Tom (1)________ is told (tell) by his aunt to paint the gate white. The work is a punishment because he missed school one day. Of course, he does not want to do any work.
Compare the sentences below with the sentences in the grammar box above. 1. Many people still read their works today. 2. Confucius’s ideas still influence us. 3. People all over the world still read and love it.

古今一脉承的英语作文

In the vast expanse of human history,the thread of continuity has been woven through the fabric of time,connecting the ancient with the modern.This unbroken lineage is not only a testament to the resilience of human culture but also a beacon that guides us through the complexities of the present,drawing wisdom and inspiration from the past.The ancient world,with its rich tapestry of civilizations,has left an indelible mark on the modern era.From the architectural wonders of the Egyptians and the Greeks to the philosophical musings of Confucius and Socrates,the ancients have bequeathed to us a wealth of knowledge and artistic expression that continues to influence and inspire.Their innovations in science,mathematics,and engineering have laid the groundwork for the technological advancements we enjoy today.The English language itself is a living example of this continuity.Rooted in the Germanic and Latin tongues,it has evolved over centuries,absorbing elements from the French, Norse,and other languages,reflecting the historical interactions and exchanges among different cultures.The English we speak today is a bridge between the past and the present,a linguistic testament to the enduring nature of human communication.In literature,the works of Shakespeare,Chaucer,and Homer continue to captivate audiences,their themes and narratives as relevant today as they were centuries ago.The human condition,with its joys and sorrows,its triumphs and tragedies,is a constant that transcends time.The stories of love,betrayal,and redemption that these ancient authors penned resonate with us,reminding us of our shared humanity.The arts,too,bear witness to the unbroken thread of tradition.The paintings of the Renaissance,the sculptures of the ancient Greeks,and the music of the Baroque period all speak to us across the ages,their beauty and mastery a testament to the enduring power of creativity.Modern artists,in turn,draw inspiration from these ancient masterpieces,reinterpreting and reimagining them for contemporary audiences.In the realm of philosophy and thought,the ideas of the ancients continue to shape our understanding of the world.The teachings of Buddha,the principles of Confucianism,the logic of Aristotle,and the ethical theories of Plato all contribute to the rich tapestry of human thought.They challenge us to question,to reflect,and to seek wisdom in our daily lives.The practice of governance and the development of laws also owe much to the ancient world.The Roman Republic and the Athenian democracy laid the foundations for modern political systems,with their emphasis on the rule of law,the separation of powers,and the participation of citizens in the political process.In conclusion,the thread of continuity that links the ancient and the modern is a powerful reminder of our shared heritage.It is a reminder that,despite the passage of time and the changes that have occurred,there are certain universal truths and values that have stood the test of time.By embracing this continuity,we can draw strength from the past,enrich the present,and shape a future that honors the legacy of our ancestors.。

柏拉图

• The topic of love and the art of rhetoric
• Three speeches:
Lysias' speech First speech of Socrates Second speech of Socrates (Madness; The soul; The madness of love; Discussion of rhetoric and writing)
• he helped others recognize on their own what is real, true, and good (Plato, Meno, Theaetetus)
• Socrates adamantly insisted he was not a teacher (Plato, Apology 33a-b) refused all his life to take money for what he did.
All our information about him is second-hand.
His mother was a midwife; His father was stonemason.
Three primary sources:
a comic playwright of ancient Athens Clouds
• 所谓理念的回忆，是指人的不朽灵魂，在见到尘世的美而回忆起上界里真正的美。
• 诗人只有在被诗神凭附之后，摆脱了下界一切具体事物的干扰，不再模仿的时候，他才能通过灵魂对上界的回忆直接把握住真善美，才能吟出好诗。(Muses, poetry)
参考资料《柏拉图文艺对话集》朱光潜译
The Theory of Recollection

欧洲历史人物英语作文

欧洲历史人物英语作文The European continent has been the birthplace of many influential figures throughout history, whose legacies have left an indelible mark on the world. From political leaders to artists, philosophers, and scientists, these individuals have shaped the course of European and global history. In this essay, we will explore the lives and contributions of several prominent European historical figures.One of the most renowned European historical figures is the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. Born in Athens around 428 BC, Plato is considered one of the most influential thinkers of all time. He was a student of the legendary Socrates and went on to establish the first institution of higher learning in the Western world, the Academy in Athens. Plato's philosophical works, such as "The Republic" and "The Symposium," delve into the nature of justice, the ideal society, and the pursuit of knowledge. His ideas on the forms and the allegory of the cave have had a lasting impact on Western philosophy and continue to be studied and debated by scholars today.Another pivotal figure in European history is the Italian Renaissance artist and polymath, Leonardo da Vinci. Born in 1452, da Vinci's genius spanned a wide range of disciplines, including painting,sculpture, architecture, engineering, and science. He is perhaps best known for his masterpieces such as the "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper," which showcase his unparalleled artistic talent and technical mastery. However, da Vinci's contributions extend far beyond the realm of art. He was a prolific inventor, designing innovative machines and conceptualizing ideas that were centuries ahead of their time, including the helicopter, the tank, and the double-hulled ship. Da Vinci's insatiable curiosity and boundless creativity have made him one of the most celebrated figures in European history.Another prominent European historical figure is the British Prime Minister, Sir Winston Churchill. Born in 1874, Churchill played a pivotal role in the 20th century, leading the United Kingdom during the darkest days of World War II. As the Prime Minister from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955, Churchill was instrumental in rallying the British people and their allies to defeat Nazi Germany. His stirring speeches, such as "We shall fight on the beaches" and "This was their finest hour," have become iconic symbols of British resilience and determination. Beyond his wartime leadership, Churchill was also a renowned statesman, historian, and Nobel laureate in literature, recognized for his masterful command of the English language and his contributions to the field of political philosophy.The German-born physicist Albert Einstein is another Europeanhistorical figure whose impact on the world is incalculable. Born in 1879, Einstein is widely regarded as the most influential scientist of the 20th century, revolutionizing our understanding of the universe with his groundbreaking theories of relativity. His famous equation, E=mc^2, has become a symbol of scientific genius and has had far-reaching implications in fields ranging from physics to astrophysics. Einstein's work not only advanced our scientific knowledge but also challenged the traditional boundaries of human thought, inspiring generations of scientists and thinkers to question the fundamental nature of reality.These are just a few examples of the many remarkable European historical figures who have left an indelible mark on the world. From philosophers and artists to scientists and political leaders, these individuals have contributed to the rich tapestry of European history, shaping the course of civilization and inspiring countless others to pursue their own dreams and ambitions. Their legacies continue to resonate today, serving as a testament to the enduring power of human ingenuity, creativity, and determination.。

柏拉图therepublic

Plato：Book VII of The RepublicKey conceptsAllegory；knowledge；becoming/being/ the good；puppet show；Darkness and light；shadows；education；underground den；eyes and visionThe Allegory of the CaveHere's a little story from Plato's most famous book, The Republic. Socrates is talking to a young follower of his named Glaucon, and is telling him this fable to illustrate what it's like to be a philosopher -- a lover of wisdom: Most people, including ourselves, live in a world of relative ignorance. We are even comfortable with that ignorance, because it is all we know. When we first start facing truth, the process may be frightening, and many people run back to their old lives. But if you continue to seek truth, you will eventually be able to handle it better. In fact, you want more! It's true that many people around you now may think you are weird or even a danger to society, but you don't care. Once you've tasted the truth, you won't ever want to go back to being ignorant![Socrates is speaking with Glaucon][Socrates:] And now, I said, let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightened or unenlightened: --Behold! human beings living in a underground den, which has a mouth open towards the light and reaching all along the den; here they have been from their childhood, and have their legs and necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see before them, being prevented by the chains from turning round their heads. Above and behind them a fire is blazing at a distance, and between the fire and the prisoners there is a raised way; and you will see, if you look, a low wall built along the way, like the screen which marionette players have in front of them, over which they show the puppets.[Glaucon:] I see.And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall carrying all sorts of vessels, and statues and figures of animals made of wood and stone and various materials, which appear over the wall? Some of them are talking, others silent.Y ou have shown me a strange image, and they are strange prisoners.Like ourselves, I replied; and they see only their own shadows, or the shadows of one another, which the fire throws on the opposite wall of the cave?True, he said; how could they see anything but the shadows if they were never allowed to move their heads?And of the objects which are being carried in like manner they would only see the shadows?Y es, he said.And if they were able to converse with one another, would they not suppose that they were naming what was actually before them?V ery true.And suppose further that the prison had an echo which came from the other side, would they not be sure to fancy when one of the passers-by spoke that the voice which they heard came from the passing shadow?No question, he replied.To them, I said, the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images.That is certain.And now look again, and see what will naturally follow if the prisoners are released and disabused of their error. At first, when any of them is liberated and compelled suddenly to stand up and turn his neck round and walk and look towards the light, he will suffer sharp pains; the glare will distress him, and he will be unable to see the realities of which in his former state he had seen the shadows; and then conceive some one saying to him, that what he saw before was an illusion, but that now, when he is approaching nearer to being and his eye is turned towards more real existence, he has a clearer vision, -what will be his reply? And you may further imagine that his instructor is pointing to the objects as they pass and requiring him to name them, -- will he not be perplexed? Will he not fancy that the shadows which he formerly saw are truer than the objects which are now shown to him?Far truer.And if he is compelled to look straight at the light, will he not have a pain in his eyes which will make him turn away to take and take in the objects of vision which he can see, and which he will conceive to be in reality clearer than the things which are now being shown to him?True, he said.And suppose once more, that he is reluctantly dragged up a steep and rugged ascent, and held fast until he 's forced into the presence of the sun himself, is he not likely to be pained and irritated? When he approaches the light his eyes will be dazzled, and he will not be able to see anything at all of what are now called realities.Not all in a moment, he said.He will require to grow accustomed to the sight of the upper world. And first he will see the shadows best, next the reflections of men and other objects in the water, and then the objects themselves; then he will gaze upon the light of the moon and the stars and the spangled heaven; and he will see the sky and the stars by night better than the sun or the light of the sun by day?Certainly.Last of he will be able to see the sun, and not mere reflections of him in the water, but he will see him in his own proper place, and not in another; and he will contemplate him as he is.Certainly.He will then proceed to argue that this is he who gives the season and the years, and is the guardian of all that is in the visible world, and in a certain way the cause of all things which he and his fellows have been accustomed to behold? Clearly, he said, he would first see the sun and then reason about him.And when he remembered his old habitation, and the wisdom of the den and his fellow-prisoners, do you not suppose that he would felic itate himself on the change, and pity them?Certainly, he would.And if they were in the habit of conferring honours among themselves on those who were quickest to observe the passing shadows and to remark which of them went before, and which followed after, and which were together; and who were therefore best able to draw conclusions as to the future, do you think that he would care for such honours and glories, or envy the possessors of them? Would he not say with Homer,Better to be the poor servant of a poor master, and to endure anything, rather than think as they do and live after their manner?Y es, he said, I think that he would rather suffer anything than entertain these false notions and live in this miserablemanner.Imagine once more, I said, such an one coming suddenly out of the sun to be replaced in his old situation; would he not be certain to have his eyes full of darkness?To be sure, he said.And if there were a contest, and he had to compete in measuring the shadows w ith the prisoners who had never moved out of the den, while his sight was still weak, and before his eyes had become steady (and the time which would be needed to acquire this new habit of sight might be very considerable) would he not be ridiculous? Men w ould say of him that up he went and down he came without his eyes; and that it was better not even to think of ascending; and if any one tried to loose another and lead him up to the light, let them only catch the offender, and they would put him to death.No question, he said.This entire allegory, I said, you may now append, dear Glaucon, to the previous argument; the prison-house is the world of sight, the light of the fire is the sun, and you will not misapprehend me if you interpret the journey upwards to be the ascent of the soul into the intellectual world according to my poor belief, which, at your desire, I have expressed whether rightly or wrongly God knows. But, whether true or false, my opinion is that in the world of knowledge the idea of good appears last of all, and is seen only with an effort; and, when seen, is also inferred to be the universal author of all things beautiful and right, parent of light and of the lord of light in this visible world, and the immediate source of reason and truth in the intellectual; and that this is the power upon which he who would act rationally, either in public or private life must have his eye fixed.I agree, he said, as far as I am able to understand you.Moreover, I said, you must not wonder that those who attain to this beatific vision are unwilling to descend to human affairs; for their souls are ever hastening into the upper world where they desire to dwell; which desire of theirs is very natural, if our allegory may be trusted.Y es, very natural.And is there anything surprising in one who passes from divine contemplations to the evil state of man, misbehaving himself in a ridiculous manner; if, while his eyes are blinking and before he has become accustomed to the surrounding darkness, he is compelled to fight in courts of law, or in other places, about the images or the shadows of images of justice, and is endeavouring to meet the conceptions of those who have never yet seen absolute justice?Anything but surprising, he replied.Any one who has common sense will remember that the bewilderments of the eyes are of two kinds, and arise from two causes, either from coming out of the light or from going into the light, which is true of the mind's eye, quite as much as of the bodily eye; and he who remembers this when he sees any one whose vision is perplexed and weak, will not be too ready to laugh; he will first ask whether that soul of man has come out of the brighter light, and is unable to see because unaccustomed to the dark, or having turned from darkness to the day is dazzled by excess of light. And he will count the one happy in his condition and state of being, and he will pity the other; or, if he have a mind to laugh at the soul which comes from below into the light, there will be more reason in this than in the laugh which greets him who returns from above out of the light into the den.That, he said, is a very just distinction.But then, if I am right, certain professors of education must be wrong when they say that they can put a knowledge into the soul which was not there before, like sight into blind eyes.They undoubtedly say this, he replied.Whereas, our argument shows that the power and capacity of learning exists in the soul already; and that just as the eye was unable to turn from darkness to light without the whole body, so too the instrument of knowledge can only by the movement of the whole soul be turned from the world of becoming into that of being, and learn by degrees to endure the sight of being, and of the brightest and best of being, or in other words, of the good.V ery true.And must there not be some art which will effect conversion in the easiest and quickest manner; not implanting the faculty of sight, for that exists already, but has been turned in the wrong direction, and is looking away from the truth?Y es, he said, such an art may be presumed.And whereas the other so-called virtues of the soul seem to be akin to bodily qualities, for even when they are not originally innate they can be implanted later by habit and exercise, the of wisdom more than anything else contains a divine element which always remains, and by this conversion is rendered useful and profitable; or, on the other hand, hurtful and useless. Did you never observe the narrow intelligence flashing from the keen eye of a clever rogue --how eager he is, how clearly his paltry soul sees the way to his end; he is the reverse of blind, but his keen eyesight is forced into the service of evil, and he is mischievous in proportion to his cleverness.V ery true, he said.But what if there had been a circumcision of such natures in the days of their youth; and they had been severed from those sensual pleasures, such as eating and drinking, which, like leaden weights, were attached to them at their birth, and which drag them down and turn the vision of their souls upon the things that are below --if, I say, they had been released from these impediments and turned in the opposite direction, the very same faculty in them would have seen the truth as keenly as they see what their eyes are turned to now.V ery likely.Y es, I said; and there is another thing which is likely. or rather a necessary inference from what has preceded, that neither the uneducated and uninformed of the truth, nor yet those who never make an end of their education, will be able ministers of State; not the former, because they have no single aim of duty which is the rule of all their actions, private as well as public; nor the latter, because they will not act at all except upon compulsion, fancying that they are already dwelling apart in the islands of the blest.V ery true, he replied.Then, I said, the business of us who are the founders of the State will be to compel the best minds to attain that knowledge which we have already shown to be the greatest of all-they must continue to ascend until they arrive at the good; but when they have ascended and seen enough we must not allow them to do as they do now.What do you mean?I mean that they remain in the upper world: but this must not be allowed; they must be made to descend again among the prisoners in the den, and partake of their labours and honours, whether they are worth having or not.But is not this unjust? he said; ought we to give them a worse life, when they might have a better?Y ou have again forgotten, my friend, I said, the intention of the legislator, who did not aim at making any one class in the State happy above the rest; the happiness was to be in the whole State, and he held the citizens together by persuasion and necessity, making them benefactors of the State, and therefore benefactors of one another; to this end he created them, not to please themselves, but to be his instruments in binding up the State.True, he said, I had forgotten.Observe, Glaucon, that there will be no injustice in compelling our philosophers to have a care and providence of others; we shall explain to them that in other States, men of their class are not obliged to share in the toils of politics: and this is reasonable, for they grow up at their own sweet will, and the government would rather not have them. Being self-taught, they cannot be expected to show any gratitude for a culture which they have never received. But we have brought youinto the world to be rulers of the hive, kings of yourselves and of the other citizens, and have educated you far better and more perfectly than they have been educated, and you are better able to share in the double duty. Wherefore each of you, when his turn comes, must go down to the general underground abode, and get the habit of seeing in the dark. When you have acquired the habit, you will see ten thousand times better than the inhabitants of the den, and you will know what the several images are, and what they represent, because you have seen the beautiful and just and good in their truth. And thus our S tate which is also yours will be a reality, and not a dream only, and will be administered in a spirit unlike that of other States, in which men fight with one another about shadows only and are distracted in the struggle for power, which in their eyes is a great good. Whereas the truth is that the State in which the rulers are most reluctant to govern is always the best and most quietly governed, and the State in which they are most eager, the worst.Quite true, he replied.And will our pupils, when they hear this, refuse to take their turn at the toils of State, when they are allowed to spend the greater part of their time with one another in the heavenly light?Impossible, he answered; for they are just men, and the commands which we impose upon them are just; there can be no doubt that every one of them will take office as a stern necessity, and not after the fashion of our present rulers of State.Y es, my friend, I said; and there lies the point. Y ou must contrive for your future rulers another and a better life than that of a ruler, and then you may have a well-ordered State; for only in the State which offers this, will they rule who are truly rich, not in silver and gold, but in virtue and wisdom, which are the true blessings of life. Whereas if they go to the administration of public affairs, poor and hungering after the' own private advantage, thinking that hence they are to snatch the chief good, order there can never be; for they will be fighting about office, and the civil and domestic broils which thus arise will be the ruin of the rulers themselves and of the whole State.Most true, he replied.。

欧洲文化入门资料-推荐下载

1. The Historical Context1). In a more remote period of Greek history, probably around 1200B.C. ,a war was fought between Greece（希腊）and Troy(特洛伊）2). Greek culture reached a high point of development in the5th century B.C.What marked the high point of development in Greek culture in the 5th century B.C.?1). The high point of development in Greek culture was marked by (a)the successful repulse of the Persian invasion early in the5th century B.C., (b) the establishment of democracy and (c) the flourishing of science, philosophy, literature, art and historical writing in Athens（雅典）.2). the 5th century B.C. closed with civil war between Athens andSparta（斯巴达） in Greece.3). in the second half of the 4th century B.C., all Greece wasbrought under the rule of Alexander, King of Macedon（马其顿王国）.4). in 146 B.C. the Romans conquered the Greece.2. Social and Political StructureWhat were the main features of ancient Greek society?1). Athens was a democracy, where only the adult male citizens hadthe rights.2). The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labor.3). The Greeks loved sports. Once every four years, they had a big festival on Olympus Mount which included contests of sports.4). Revised in 1896, the Games have become the world’s foremost amateur sports competition.3. Homer (about 700 B. C.)（荷马）What did Homer do?（荷马史诗名词解释？）1). Ancient Greeks considered Homer to be the author of their epics:the Iliad《伊利亚特》and the Odyssey《奥德赛》.2). Homer probably lived around 700 B.C.3). The Iliad and the Odyssey are not about events of Homer’s own time, but about great men and wars about a remoter age, probably inthe period of 1200—1100 B.C.Drama1). Early in their remote past, the Greeks started to perform playsat religious festivals.2). Out of these religions a powerful drama developed in the 5thcentury B.C.3). Performances were given in open-air theatres, with the audience sitting on stone benches and looking down at the stage from three sides.Outstanding dramatists1). The outstanding dramatists of ancient Greece were Aeschylus（埃斯库罗斯）, Sophocles（索福克勒斯）, Euripides（欧里庇得斯） and Aristophanes（阿里斯托芬）.A. Aeschylus (525—456B.C.)a. Aeschylus is noted for his vivid character portrayal and majestic poetry.b. Aeschylus wrote plays such as Prometheus Bound《被缚的普罗米修斯》, Persians《波斯人》 and Agamemnon《阿伽门农》.B. Sophocles (496—406B.C.)a. Sophocles was the author of plays like Oedipus the King《奥狄普斯王》,Electra《伊莱克特拉》 and Antigone《安提戈涅》.b. Oedipus the King is the story of a man who unknowingly committed a terrible sin by killing his father and marrying his mother.c. The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud’s term “the Oedipus complex”（奥狄普斯情结） was also derived from Sophocles’s play.C. Euripides(484—406B.C.)a. Euripides wrote mainly about women in such plays as Andromache Medea and Trojan Women. Less heroic more like ordinary peopleb. Euripides may be called the first writer of “problem plays”.c. 19th century, Elizabath called him Euripides the humanD. ComedyAristophanes(about 450—380B.C.)1). Aristophanes wrote such plays as Frogs《蛙》,Clouds《云》,Wasps《黄蜂》 and Birds《鸟》.PhilosophersA. Socrates (about 470—399B.C.)苏格拉底a. We known Socrates chiefly through what Plato recorded of him inhis famous Dialogues.b. The method of argument Socrates used in exposing fallacies has come to be known as the dialectical method（ie the method of argument, by questions and answers.).c. In 399BC, at the age of seventy Socrates was put on trial on a charge of “injuring the city” by not acknowledging its gods andcorrupting the young. This trial was recorded by Plato in the dialogue “The Apology of Socrates”.B. Plato (about 428—348 B.C.)柏拉图a. Plato’s Dialogues《对话录》 are important not only asphilosophical writing but also as imaginative literature.b. Of the Dialogues Plato wrote, 27 have survived, including the Apology《申辩》,Symposium《会饮篇》或译为《飨宴篇》, and theRepublic《理想国》.c. Plato’s Apology was about Socrates’ defense of himself at the trial.d. Plato’s Symposium dealt with beauty and love.e. Plato’s Republic was about the idea state ruled by a philosopher but barring poets.f. Plato’s comprehensive system of philosophy dealt with, amongother things, the problem of how, in the complex, ever-changing world, men were to obtain knowledge.g. The reply Plato gave (to the problem of how men were to obtain knowledge) was: men have knowledge because of the existence ofcertain general “ideas”, like beauty, truth, goodness.h. According to Plato, only such “ideas” as beauty, truth, goodness are completely real, while the physical world is only relatively real.i. Plato’s philosophy is called Idealism because in his system of philosophy only such “ideas” as beauty, truth and goodness are regarded as completely real while the physical world is regarded as only relatively real.C. Aristotle (384—322B. C.)亚里士多德a. Of Aristotle’s numerous works, the following are perhaps still important to scholars and general readers alike: Ethics《伦理学》, Politics《政治学》,Poetics《诗学》, and Rhetoric《修辞学》.b. Aristotle’s Ethics was an introduction to moral philosophy.c. Aristotle’s Poetics was a treatise on literary theory.d. Aristotle’s Rhetoric dealt with the art of persuading an audience.In what way or ways did Aristotle differ from his teacher Plato?1). For one thing, Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact. This is different from Plato’s reliance on subjective thinking.2). Also, Aristotle thought that “form” (=idea) and matter together made up concrete individual realities. Here, too, he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world.What is Aristotle’s most influential writing to students of literature?1). To students of literature, Aristotle’s most influential of writing is Poetics.D. Contending Schools of Thoughta. The Sophists 诡辩派1). The most eminent of the Sophists was Protagoras（普罗塔格拉）, born about 500 B. C. He is chiefly noted for his doctrine “man is the measure of all things”.b. The Cynics犬儒派1). The word “cynic” means “dog” in Greek.2). The Cynics got their name because Diogenes（第欧根尼）(about 412—323 B.C.), one of their leaders, decided to live like a dog.3). Diogenes rejected all conventions.4). Diogenes advocated self-sufficiency and extreme simplicity in life.5). Diogenes proclaimed his brotherhood not only with the whole human race, but also with animals.6). On the other hand, Diogenes had no patience with the rich and powerful.7). A story has it that Alexander the Great visited him and asking if he wanted any favor, Diogenes replied: “Only stand out of my light”.c. The Sceptics怀疑派1). The Sceptics followed Pyrrhon（皮朗）, who held that not all knowledge was attainable.d. The Epicureans伊壁鸠鲁派1). The Epicureans were disciples of Epicurus (about 341—270 B.C.), who believed pleasure to the highest good in life, but by pleasure he meant, not sensual enjoyment, but freedom from pain and emotional upheaval, which he thought could be attained by the practice of virtue.e. The Stoics斯多葛派1). To the Stoics, the most important thing in life was not “pleasure”, but “duty”.2). The chief Stoic was Zeno（齐诺）.3). Zeno believed that there is no such thing as chance, and that the cause of nature is rigidly determined by natural laws.4). In the life of an individual man, Zeno believed that virtue is the sole good.II. Roman Culture1. Romans and Greeksa. The burning of Corinth in 146 B.C. marked the Roman conquest of Greece, which was then reduced to a province of Roman Empire.b. Latin was the official language of the west half of the Roman Empire, Greek that of the eastern half.What did the Romans have in common with the Greeks? And what was the chief difference between them?a. The Romans had a lot in common with the Greeks.b. Both the Romans and Greeks had traditions rooted in the idea of the citizen-assembly, hostile to monarchy and to servility.c. Their religious are alike enough for most of their deities to be readily identified—Greek Zeus with Roman Jupiter, Greek Aphrodite with roman Venus, and so on—and their myths to be fused.d. Their languages worked in similar ways, and were ultimately related, both being members of the Indo-European language family which stretches from Bangladesh to Iceland.e. There were one big difference. The Romans built up a vast empire; the Greeks didn’t, except for the brief moment of Alexander’s conquests, which soon disintegrated.2. Roman history1). The year 27 B.C. divided the history of Rome into two periods.2). Before 27 B.C. Rome had been a republic.The two important contributions made by the Romans to European cultureI. The Pax RomanaII. Roman Law1) The emperors relied on a strong army—the famous Roman legions—and an efficient bureaucracy to exert their rule, which was facilitated by a well-developed system of roads. Thus the Romans enjoyed a long period of peace lasting two hundred years, a remarkable phenomenon in history known as the Pax Romana.2). Another important contribution made by the Romans to European culture was Roman Law.The decline of the Roman Empire(5个时间)1). The empire began to decline in the 3rd century, increasingly troubled by the inroads of northern tribes such as the Goths.2). In the fourth century the emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium, and renamed it Constantinople (modern Istanbul).3). After 395, the (Roman) empire was permanently divided into East (the Byzantium Empire) and West.4). In 476 the last emperor of the West was deposed by the Goths and this marked the end of the West Roman Empire.5). The East Roman Empire collapsed when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453.4. Architecture, Painting and SculptureA. Architecture1). The Pantheon is the greatest and best preserved Roman temple, which was built in 27 B. C. and reconstructed in the 2nd century A. D. It is a round, domed form and has the world’s first vast interior space.2). Pont du Gard is an exceptionally well-preserved aqueduct that spans a wide valley in southern France.3). The Colosseum is an enormous amphitheatre built in the centre of Rome in imperial times. A masterpiece of engineering, it held more than 5,000 spectators. Its interior is two-thirds of a mile round.II. The Old Testament(1). The Bible《圣经》 is a collection of religious writings comprising two parts: the Old Testament《旧约》 and the New Testament《新约》.(2). The Old Testament is about God and Laws of God.(3). The New Testament is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ.1. The Pentateuch《摩西五经》，《旧约全书》的前五卷(1). The oldest and most important of the 39 books of the Old Testament are the five books, called Pentateuch.(2). The first five books of the Old Testament are Genesis《创世记》又译《创世纪》,Exodus《出埃及记》,Leviticus《利未记》,Numbers《民数记》 and Deuteronomy《申命记》.(3). Genesis is a religious account of the origin of the Hebrew people, including the origin of the world and man, the career of Isaac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.(4). Exodus is a religious history of the Hebrews during theirflight from Egypt, the period when they began to receive God’s Law.(5). Leviticus is a collection of primitive laws.(6). Numbers is a combination of the account of the flight from Egypt with two censuses about the Exodus.(7). Deuteronomy is about the final words of Moses（摩西《圣经》故事中犹太人古代领袖） to his people, restating his orders and fifty years’ experiences as a leader.(8). in the beginning, says the Bible, God created the heaven and earth.(9). When the world was formed, God created man and woman—Adam and Eve.A. The Fall of Mana. Adam (亚当） and Eve（夏娃） lived in perfect happiness in the Garden of Eden（伊甸园）. But at the temptation of the serpent one day, Eve picked the fruit from the forbidden tree and shared it with Adam. Immediately afterwards, they were driven from Paradise and went forth into the world.The great flood1). For many hundred years the family of man multiplied and spread over the earth. Because Adam and Eve had disobeyed God and passed on the knowledge of wickedness, man became more and more corrupt. Consequently, God decided to put an end to this by destroying alllife on earth in a great flood.B. Noah’s Ark诺亚方舟a. There was, however, one good man, Noah, who still remembered God and tried to be at peace with his conscience. So God spoke to Noah about His intention and told him to build an ark to protect him and his kins from the waters. Noah followed God’s instruction.IV. The New TestamentWhat writings make up the New Testament?(1). Towards the end of the fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity. The four accounts were believed to have been written by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. They tell of the birth, teaching, death and resurrection of Jesus.(2). Then come: the Acts of Apostles《使徒行传》, a history of the early Christian movement; the Epistles《使徒书》, or letters to the church groups around the Mediterranean; and lastly the Book of Revelation《启示录》, a visionary account of the final triumph of God’s purpose.1. Birth of JesusAccording to St. Matthew《马太福音》, Jesus was a child of the Holy Ghost.2. Jesus is tempted by the DevilAccording to St. Matthew, Jesus was led up by the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted by the devil in order to see whether Jesus was absolutely faithful to God’s teachings.5. The crucifixionAccording to St. John《约翰福音》 19, the Jews had Jesus crucified because he had made himself the Son of God.II. Manor and Church1. FeudalismFeudalism in Europe was mainly a system of holding land in exchange for military service.A. Growth of FeudalismCharles Martel 查理·马特a. In 732 Charles Martel, a Frankish ruler, gave his soldiers estates known as fiefs as a reward for their service.b. Kingdoms of Western Europe were divided into thousands of feudal manors or farming communities.B. The Manora. The centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor.b. Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lord. (12th century manor was made of stone, called castles)C. Knighthood and Code of Chivalrya. A noble began his education as a page (侍从或见习骑士） at the age of seven. He was taught to say his prayers, learned good manners and ran errands for the ladies. At about fourteen, the page became a squire（骑士的年轻扈从）. He was taught the duties of a knight and practiced using a sword, lance and shield. He went into battle with his master. If the squire proved to be a good fighter, he would be made a knight（骑士） at a special ceremony known as dubbing（骑士授予仪式）.b. As a knight, he was pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the Western idea of good manners developed.名词解释1. Iliad（《伊利亚特》）: 1) It is one of the two great ancient Greek epics by Homer. 2) It deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of, led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of probably in the period 1200-1100 B. C. 3) The heroes are Hector on the Trojan side and Achilles and Odysseus on the Greek. 4) In the final battle, Hector was killed by Achilles and was sacked and burned by the Greeks.2．Herodotus（希罗多德）: 1) He is one of great ancient Greek historians. 2) He is often called “Father of History. 3) He wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians. 4) His history, full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue, is wonderfully readable.5) His object in writing was “that the great and wonderful deeds done by Greeks and Persians should not lack renown.”3．Socrates: 1) He was the philosopher of ancient Greece in the 5th and 4th century. 2) He was considered one of the three greatest names in European philosophy. 3) He hold that philosophy took the aim to reach the conclusion of oneself and virtue was knowledge. 4) His thoughts were recorded in Dialogues by Plato. 5) He devised the dialectical method.4. Dialectical method（辩证法）: 1) It was devised by ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. 2) It is a method of argument, by questions and answers.5. Plato: 1) He was the greatest philosopher of ancient, pupil of Socrates. 2) His Dialogues are important not only as philosophical writing but also as imaginative literature. Of the Dialogues he wrote, 27 have survived, including: the Apology, Symposium and the Republic.3) Plato built up a comprehensive system of philosophy. 4) His philosophy is called idealism.6. Diogenes（狄奥艮尼）（北京市2002年自考真题名词解释）: He was one of the Cynic’s leaders in ancient Greece, who decided to live like a dog. 2) The word “cynic” means “dog” in Greek. 3) He rejected all conventions, advocated self-sufficiency and extreme simplicity in life.7．Stoics（斯多咯派）: 1) It was one of four ancient Greek schools of philosophers in the 4th century B. C. 2) To them, the most important thing in life was “duty”. 3) It developed into the theory that one should endure hardship and misfortune with courage. 4) The chiefStoic was Zeno.8．Doric Style（陶立克柱）: 1) It is one of three ancient Greek architecture styles. 2) It is also called the masculine style. 3) Itis sturdy, powerful, severe-looking and showing a good sense of proportions and numbers. 4) The Doric style. is monotonous and unadorned.9．Pax Romana（罗马和平）: 1）In the year 27 B.C. Octavius took supreme power as emperor with the tile of Augustus. 2)Two centuries later, the reached its greatest extent in the North and East. 3) The emperors mainly relied on a strong army-the famous Roman Legions and an influential bureaucracy to exert their rules. 4) Thus the Roman enjoyed a long period of peace lasting 200 years. This remarkable phenomenon in the history is known as Pax Romana.10. Virgil（维吉尔）: 1) He was the greatest of Latin poets. 2) He wrote the great epic, the Aeneid. 3) The poem opened out to the future, for Aeneas stood at the head of a rce of people who were to found the first the Roman republic and then the Roman Empire.1. The Bible: 1) The Bible is a collection of religious writings comprising two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. 2) The former is about God and the laws of God; the latter, the doctrine of Jesus Christ.2. The Old Testament: 1)The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament. 2) The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God. 3)The word “Testament” means “agreement”, the agreement between God and3. The New Testament: 1) The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament. 2) The New Testament is aboutthe doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ. 3)The word “Testament” means “agreement”, the agreement between God and4. Pentateuch（摩西五经）: 1) In the Old Testament, the oldest and most important are the first five books, called Pentateuch.2) Pentateuch contains five books: Genesis (创世记), Exodus (出埃及记), Leviticus(利未记), Numbers (民数记), Deuteronomy (申命记).5．Genesis： 1） Genesis is the first one of the five books in Pentateuch in Old Testament. 2) It tells about a religious account of the origin of the Hebrews people, including the origin of the world and of man, the career of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.6. Exodus: 1) Exodus is the second one of the five books in Pentateuch in the Old Testament. 2) It tells about a religioushistory of the Hebrews during their flight from Egypt Led by Moses. 3) During the period they began to receive God’s Law.7. Noah’s Ark（挪亚方舟）: 1) For many hundred years after Adam and Eve were driven out of Eden, the family of man multiplied and spread over the earth, but they became more and more corrupt 2) Thus God decided to destroy all life on earth in a great flood. 3) Because Noah always kept his faith in God, God spoke to him about Hisintention and told him to build an ark to protect him and his kinfrom the waters. 4) .Noah followed God’s instructions. 5) For 40days it rained, the whole earth was covered with water, those sheltered in the ark being the only survivals.8. The Prophets (先知)：1）For more than a thousand years in the Middle East there had been a class of people known as “Prophets” or the spokesmen of God.2） Earlier prophets lived in groups as temple officials. Later on there appeared in dependent prophet. 3）The Prophets can be grouped into the Major Prophets and MinorProphets.（分为大小先知）9．The Book of Daniel（《但以理书》）： 1）The Book of Daniel belongs to The Old Testament of the Bible. 2)The book appeared in the early days of Jews’ revolt against the Syrian King Antiochus IV. 3) It isa story mixed with vision, describing how Daniel and his friends were taken prisoner to after the fall of and how they refused to compromise their faith.10．The Edict of Milan（米兰赦令）: 1) Roman emperor Constantine believed that God had helped him in winning the battle for the throne, so he issued the Edict of Milan in 313. 2) It granted religious freedom to all, made Christianity legal.11． The four accounts in the New Testament（四福音书）: 1) The four accounts are the first four books in the New Testament. 2) They were believed to have been written by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, four of Jesus’ early followers. 3) They tell of the birth, teaching,death and Resurrection of Jesus.12．King James’ version of Bible（钦定版本圣经）: 1）As the most important and influential of English Bible, it is also called the “Authorized” version. 2) It was produced by 54 biblical scholars at the command of King James, and was published in 1611. 3) With its simple, majestic Anglo-Saxon tongue, it is know as the greatest bookin the English language.1．the Middle ages（中世纪）（北京市2002年自考真题名词解释）: 1) In European history, the thousand-year period from the 5th century to15th century following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in thefifth century is called the Middle Ages.2)The middle ages is socalled because it came between ancient times and modern times. 3) During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite was the Christian church.4) Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of years. It shaped people’s lives. That is why the Middle Ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.2．Feudalism（封建主义）：1）Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding — a system of holding land in exchange for militaryservice. 2）The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.3．Fiefs（封地，采邑）：1）In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service. 2）The subdivisions were called fiefs.4. vassals（诸侯）: 1)In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service. 2)The subdivisions were called fiefs.3) The owners of the fiefs w call vassals.5. Code of Chivalry (骑士制度):1) In the Middle Ages of western Europe, as a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fightfor the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. 2) These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.6. dubbing (骑士头衔加冕仪式) : After a knight was successful in his trails and tournaments, there was always a special ceremony to award him with a title, knight. This special ceremony is called dubbing.7. The Manor (庄园)： 1） The centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor. 2）Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords. 3）By the twelfth century manor houses were made of stone and designed as fortresses. They came to be called castles.。

欧文名词解释

The Introduction of European Culture- English TermsDivision One Greek Culture and Roman Culture1. Iliad（《伊利亚特》）:1) It is one of the two great ancient Greek epics by Homer.2) It deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece, led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy probably in the period 1200-1100 B. C.3) The heroes are Hector on the Trojan side and Achilles and Odysseus on the Greek.4) In the final battle, Hector was killed by Achilles and Troy was sacked and burned by the Greeks.2．Herodotus（希罗多德）:1) He is one of great ancient Greek historians.2) He is often called ―Father of History.3) He wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians.4) His history, full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue, is wonderfully readable.5) His object in writing was ―that the great and wonderful deeds done by Greeks and Persians should not lack renown.‖3．Socrates:1) He was the philosopher of ancient Greece in the 5th and 4th century.2) He was considered one of the three greatest names in European philosophy.3) He holds that philosophy took the aim to reach the conclusion of oneself and virtue was knowledge.4) His thoughts were recorded in Dialogues by Plato.5) He devised the dialectical method.4. Dialectical method（辩证法）:1) It was devised by ancient Greek philosopher Socrates.2) It is a method of argument, by questions and answers.5. Plato:1) He was the greatest philosopher of ancient Greece, pupil of Socrates.2) His Dialogues are important not only as philosophical writing but also as imaginative literature. Of the Dialogues he wrote, 27 have survived, including: the Apology, Symposium and the Republic.3) Plato built up a comprehensive system of philosophy. 4) His philosophy is called idealism.6. Diogenes（狄奥根尼）（北京市2002年自考真题名词解释）:1) He was one of the Cynic’s leaders in ancient Greece, who decided to live like a dog.2) The word ―cynic‖ means ―dog‖ in Greek.3) He rejected all conventions, advocated self-sufficiency and extreme simplicity in life.7．Stoics（斯多咯派）:1) It was one of four ancient Greek schools of philosophers in the 4th century B. C.2) To them, the most important thing in life was ―duty‖.3) It developed into the theory that one should endure hardship and misfortune with courage.4) The chief Stoic was Zeno.8．Doric Style（陶立克柱）:1) It is one of three ancient Greek architecture styles.2) It is also called the masculine style.3) It is sturdy, powerful, severe-looking and showing a good sense of proportions and numbers.4) The Doric style is monotonous and unadorned.9．Pax Romana（罗马和平）（北京市2001年自考真题名词解释）:1) In the year 27 B.C. Octavius took supreme power as emperor with the tile ofAugustus.2) Two centuries later, the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent in the North and East.3) The emperors mainly relied on a strong army-the famous Roman Legions and an influential bureaucracy to exert their rules.4) Thus the Roman enjoyed a long period of peace lasting 200 years. Thisremarkable phenomenon in the history is known as Pax Romana.10. Virgil（维吉尔）:1) He was the greatest of Latin poets.2) He wrote the great epic, the Aeneid.3) The poem opened out to the future, for Aeneas stood at the head of a race of people who were to found the first the Roman republic and then the Roman Empire.Division Two The Bible and Christianity1. The Bible:1) The Bible is a collection of religious writings comprising two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament.2) The former is about God and the laws of God; the latter, the doctrine of Jesus Christ.2. The Old Testament:1)The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament.2) The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God.3)The word ―Testament‖ means ―agreement‖, the agreement between God and Man.3. The New Testament:1) The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament.2) The New Testament is about the doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ.3)The word ―Testament‖ means ―agreement‖, the agreement between God and Man.4. Pentateuch（摩西五经）:1) In the Old Testament, the oldest and most important are the first five books, called Pentateuch.2) Pentateuch contains five books: Genesis (创世记), Exodus (出埃及记),Leviticus(利未记), Numbers (民数记), Deuteronomy (申命记). 5．Genesis：1) Genesis is the first one of the five books in Pentateuch in Old Testament.2) It tells about a religious account of the origin of the Hebrews people, including the origin of the world and of man, the career of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.6. Exodus:1) Exodus is the second one of the five books in Pentateuch in the Old Testament.2) It tells about a religious history of the Hebrews during their flight from Egypt led by Moses.3) During the period they began to receive God’s Law.7. Noah’s Ark（挪亚方舟）:1) For many hundred years after Adam and Eve were driven out of Eden, the family of man multiplied and spread over the earth, but they became more and more corrupt2) Thus God decided to destroy all life on earth in a great flood.3) Because Noah always kept his faith in God, God spoke to him about His intention and told him to build an ark to protect him and his kin from the waters.4) Noah followed God’s instructions.5) For 40 days it rained, the whole earth was covered with water, those she ltered in the ark being the only survivals.8. The Prophets (先知)：1) For more than a thousand years in the Middle East there had been a class of people known as ―Prophets‖ or the spokesmen of God.2) Earlier prophets lived in groups as temple officials. Later on there appeared in dependent prophet.3) The Prophets can be grouped into the Major Prophets and Minor Prophets.（分为大小先知）9．The Book of Daniel：1) The Book of Daniel belongs to The Old Testament of the Bible.2)The book appeared in the early days of Jews’revolt against the Syrian King Antiochus IV.3) It is a story mixed with vision, describing how Daniel and his friends were taken prisoner to Babylon after the fall of Jerusalem and how they refused to compromise their faith.11．The four accounts in the New Testament（四福音书）:1) The four accounts are the first four books in the New Testament.2) They were believed to have been written by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, four of Jesus’ early followers.3) They tell of the birth, teaching, death and Resurrection of Jesus.12．King James’ version of Bible（钦定版本圣经）:1）As the most important and influential of English Bible, it is also called the ―Authorized‖ version.2) It was produced by 54 biblical scholars at the command of King James, and was published in 1611.3) With its simple, majestic Anglo-Saxon tongue, it is know as the greatest book in the English language.Division Three The Middle Ages1．the Middle ages（中世纪）（北京市2002年自考真题名词解释）:1) In European history, the thousand-year period from the 5th century to 15th century following the fall of the W estern Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.2)The Middle Ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times.3) During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.4) Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of years. It shaped people’s lives. That is why the Middle Ages is also called the ―Age of Faith‖.2．Feudalism（封建主义）：1）Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding —a system of holding land in exchange for military service.2）The word ―feudalism‖ was derived from the Latin ―feudum‖, a grant of land.3．Fiefs（封地，采邑）：1）In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service.2）The subdivisions were called fiefs.4. vassals（诸侯）:1)In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service.2)The subdivisions were called fiefs.3) The owners of the fiefs w call vassals.5. Code of Chivalry (骑士制度):1) In the Middle Ages of western Europe, as a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth.2) These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.6. dubbing (骑士头衔加冕仪式) :After a knight was successful in his trails and tournaments, there was always a special ceremony to award him with a title, knight. This special ceremony is called dubbing.7. The Manor (庄园)：1）The centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor.2）Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords.3）By the twelfth century manor houses were made of stone and designed as fortresses. They came to be called castles.8．The Catholic Church(天主教):1) In the medieval ―age of faith‖, almost all Europeans belonged to the Catholic Church.2) The word ―catholic‖ meant ―universal‖3) The Catholic Church was highly centralized and disciplined international organization and the Pope was the head of the Church. He not only ruled Rome and parts of Italy as a king, he was also the head of all Christian churches in western Europe. Those who opposed the Pope lost their membership and their political right.4) The Church even set up a church court-the Inquisition to stamp out so-called heresy.5) Latin was the accepted official language in the Roman Catholic Church.6)This Church had great influence on people’s daily life and the western thinking.9．Monasticism (修道院制度):1）Heeding the spiritual message of Christianity, between 300 and 500 A.D., many men withdrew from worldly contacts to deserts and lonely places.2) This movement developed into the establishment of monasteries（修道院）and convents (女修道院) for monks and nuns.3）Some of the hermits were great scholars known as ―Father of the Church‖, whose work is generally considered orthodox..4) Three representatives were St. Jerome, Augustine of Hippo and St. Benedict.10.Benedictine Rule(本尼迪克特教团)：1) It was founded by St. Benedict, a great monk in 529 A. D.2) The monks who followed Benedict’s rule promised to give up all their possession before entering the monastery.3) They wore simple clothes and ate only certain simple foods.4) They could not marry and had to obey without question the orders of the abbot.5) They had to attend service seven times during the day and once at midnight.6) In addition, they were expected to work five hours a day in the fields surrounding the monastery.12．The Crusades（十字军东征）（北京市2001年自考真题名词解释）:1) In 1071 Palestine fell to the armies of the Turkish Moslems who attacked the Christian pilgrims, killing many of them and sold many others as slaves.2) News of this kink roused great indignation among Christians in western Europe.3) The result was a series of holy wars called the Crusades which went on about 200 years.4) All the soldiers going to Palestine wore a red cross on the tunics as a symbol of obedience to God.5) There were altogether eight chief Crusades from 1096 to 1291.6) Although the Crusades did not achieve their goal to regain the Holy land, they had an important effect on the future of both the East and the W est. They brought the East into closer contact with the W est. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe.13. Carolingian Renaissance（加洛林复兴）：1) In early medieval period, the Emperor of the Romans, Charlemagne, encouraged learning by setting up monastery schools, giving support toscholars and setting scribes to work copying various ancient books.2) Because the scribes performed their tasks well, few of the ancient works that had survived until that time were ever lost.3)The result of Charlemagne’s efforts is usually called the ―Carolingian Renaissance‖.4)The term is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus.5) The most interesting side of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.14. Alfred the Great（阿尔弗雷德大王）（北京市2003年自考真题名词解释）: 1) As the ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of W essex, he contributed greatly to the medieval European culture.2) He worried about the disappearance of learning and made W essex the Anglo-Saxon cultural centre by introducing teachers and scholars, founding new monasteries, and promoting translations into the vernacular from Latin works.3)He also inspired the compilation of the Anglo Saxon Chronicles. 15．National Epic(民族史诗)：1）The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature.2）―National epic‖ refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states that came into being in the Middle Ages. 3）Literary works were no longer all written in Latin.4）It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.16．Beowulf（《贝奥武甫》）：1) It is an Anglo-Saxon epic in 8th century.2) It originates from the collective efforts of oral literature.3) The story is set in Denmark or Sweden and tells how the hero, Beowulf, defeats the monster Grendel and Grendel’s mother, a sea monster, but eventually receives his own death in fighting with a fire dragon.4) It marks the beginning of English literature.17. Song of Roland （《罗兰之歌》）：1）It is the most well-known of a group of French epics known as La Chanson de Gestes.2) It tells how Roland, one of Charlemagne’s warriors, fights in Spain and dies defending a pass in the Pyrenees.18. The Divine Comedy（《神曲》）：1) It was written by the greatest poet of Italy, Dante.2) It is one of the landmarks of world literature.3) The poem itself is the greatest Christian poem with a profound vision of the medieval Christian world, and expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed the spirit of Renaissance.4) It was written in Italian rather than in Latin, which influenced decisively the evolution of European literature away from it origins in Latin culture to a new varied expression.19. The Canterbury Tales（《坎特伯雷故事集》）：1) The Canterbury Tales was written by English poet Chaucer.2) The book contains twenty-four tales bold by a group of pilgrims on their journey to Canterbury.3) Most of the tales are written in verse which reflects Chaucer’s innovation by introducing French and Italy writing into the English native alliterative verse(头韵).4)The Canterbury Tales is the best representative of the Middle English, paving the way to Modern English.20. Gothic（哥特式建筑）(北京市2001自考真题名词解释)：1）The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of western Europe.2) It flourished and lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th.3) More churches were built in this manner tan in any other style in history.4) The Gothic was an outgrowth of the Romanesque, but it reflected a much more ordered feudal society with full confidence.5) Gothic cathedrals soared high, their windows, arches and towers reaching heavenward, flinging their passion against the sky. They were decorated with beautiful stained glass windows and sculptures.Division Four Renaissance and Reformation 1．Renaissance（文艺复兴）：1）As a period in western civilization, generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century.2) Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture.3) The word ―Renaissance‖ means revival, specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture.4)Renaissance, in essence, was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of conservatism in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of therising bourgeoisie, to lift the restrictions in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.5) During the period of Renaissance, old sciences revived and new sciences emerge, national languages and national cultures free from the absolute control of the Papal authority in Rome took shape and art and literature flourished as never before.2．Humanism (人文主义)：1）Humanism is the essence of Renaissance.2) Humanists in Renaissance believed that human beings had rights to pursue wealth and pleasure and they admired the beauty of human body.3) This belief ran counter to the medieval ascetical idea of poverty and stoics,, and shifted man’s interest from Christianity to humanity, from religion to philosophy, fro heaven to earth, from the beauty of God to the beauty of human in all its joys, senses and feelings.4) Theologically, the humanists were religious. But they began to look at the problems of God and Providence with a view to understanding man’s work and man’s earthly happiness.5) The philosophy of humanism is reflected in the art and literature in Italy and the rest of Europe, to pass down as the beginning of the history of modern man, who, instead of brooding about death and the other world, lives and works for the present and future progress of mankind.3. Leonard De Vinci（北京市2004年自考真题名词解释）:1) He was a painter, a sculptor, an architect, a musician, an engineer and a scientist, who was born in Florence in Italy.2) He was a Renaissance man in the true sense of the word.3) He had profound understanding of art, which exerted great influence among the painters of his own generation, and generations to follow.4）His major works are Last Super and Mona Lisa.4. Michelangelo（米开朗基罗）:1) Michelangelo was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect and poet.2) He was a towering figure of the Renaissance.3) By art, he expressed his vision of man, man’s beauty, man’s nobility, his own anguish and his own energy, a means by which he made inquiry into the reality.4) His major works are David , Moses and Sistine Chapel.5. Raphael（拉斐尔）:1) Raphael was one of major painters during the Renaissance.2) In his work, there is the exquisite harmony and balance of the High Renaissance.3) Raphael was best known for his Madonna (Virgin Mary). He painted hisMadonnas in different postures.4) Because of his Madonnas with sweet expressions, he came to be known as the elegant Raphael.6．High Renaissance（文艺复兴全盛时期）:1) The Renaissance in Italy reached its height in the 16th century with its center moving to Milan, then to Rome, and created High Renaissance (1490-1530). 2) Meantime by the beginning of the 16th century, Venetian art had come into being in full glory.3) The representatives in this period were De Vinci, Michelangelo. Raphael and Titian.7．Reformation（宗教改革）（北京市２００１年自考真题名词解释）：1) The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political movement.2) It was led by Martin Luther and wept over the whole Europe.3) This movement was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible.4) The Reformists believed in direct communication between the individual and God, engaged themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues, urged the Church to have institutional reforms and were interested in liberation national economy and politics from the interference of the Roma n Catholic Church and carrying out wars in the interests of peasants and revolution of the bourgeoisie.5) The Reformation dealt the feudal theocracy a fatal blow and shattered Medieval Church’s stifling control over man, thus paving the way for capitalism.８．Martin Luther（马丁•路德）:1）He was the German leader of the Protestant Reformation.2) His doctrine marked the first break in the unity of the Catholic Church.3) His doctrines were: men are redeemed by faith and not by the purchase of indulgence; Bible was the supreme authority and man was only bound to the law of the word of God, not the word of the clergy; all believers were priests, and all occupations were holy.9. John Calvin（约翰•加尔文）:1) He was a French theologian who put his theological thoughts in his Institues of the Christian Religion, which was called as Calvinism.2) He rejected the papal authorities and devoted himself to the work ofreformation in Geneva, where he set himself the task of constructing a government based on the subordination of the state to the church, a type of government which later came to be know as the Presbyterian government.3) Calvin’s influence was widespread, particularly in England and Scotland, andthe Netherlands.10. Calvinism（加尔文主义）（北京市２００３年自考真题名词解释）:1) Calvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance.2)Calvinism held that the absolute authority of the God’s will, holding that only those specially elected by God are saved, and that any form of sinfulness was a likely sigh of damnation whereas hard work and thrifty way of life could be a sign of salvation.3) This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path that many historians have suggested that Calvinism was one of the main courses the capitalist spirit.11. Counter-Reformation（反宗教改革）:1) By late 1520 the Roman Catholic Church had lost its control over the church in Germany and the movement against the Roman Catholic Church had swept over the whole of Europe, shaking the very foundation of the Roman Catholic Church.2) The Roman Catholic Church did not stay idle. They gathered their forces to examine the Church institutions and introduce reforms and improvements, to bring back its life.3) In time, the Roman Catholic Church did re-establish itself as a dynamic force in European affairs.4) This recovery of power is often called by historians the Counter-Reformation.12. Jesuits/The Society of Jesus（耶酥会）:1) In the Counter-Reformation, a Spaniard Ignatius and his followers called themselves the Jesuits, members of the Society of Jesus.2) The Jesuits went through strict spiritual training and organized their own colleges to train selected youth who would be centre of their influence in the next generation.3) The Jesuits made it their life long work to spread the orthodox faith.13. Don Quixote（《堂吉珂德》）:1) Don Quixote is the greatest work by Spanish novelist Cervantes...2) The novel depicts the various adventures of Don Quixote and his servant Sancho Panza and offers a picture of Spain in the 17th century with various characters and landscapes.3) It was a parody satirizing a very popular type of literature at the time, the romance of chivalry.4) This book is recognized as the father of the modern European novel.14. William Shakespeare（莎士比亚）:1) Shakespeare is the greatest poet and dramatist in English literature.2) He was a man of the late Renaissance who gave the fullest expression tohumanist ideals.3) He produced a lot of works, including Hamlet, O thello, King Lear and Macbeth, which exerted great impact on the world literature and was regarded as one of the two reservoirs of modern English language.15. Columbus（哥伦布）:1) He was an Italian navigator.2) Under the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, He sailed west to reach the orient.3) He left Palos in 3 August, 1492 with three ships and reached the Bahamas on 12 October 1492, which was claimed to be the New W orld.16. Copernicus（哥白尼）:1) He was a Polish astronomer who put forward revolutionary ideas in astronomy in 17th century.2) He believed that the earth and other planets orbit about the sun and that earth is not at the centre of the universe.3) He set forth his beliefs in the book The Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs and came to be known as father of modern astronomy.4) He was also the forerunner of modern science.Division Five The Seventeenth Century1. Kepler’s Laws（开普勒定律）:1) The first important astronomer after Copernicus to adopt the heliocentric theory was the German scientist Kepler.2) Kepler is best known for his discovery of the three laws of planetary motion, the three laws being called Kepler’s Laws.3) They may be stated as follows each planet moves in an ellipse, with sun at one focus; each planet moves more rapidly when near the sun than farther from it; the distance of each planet from the sun bears a definite relation to the time period of its revolution around the sun.4) They formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton’s discovery of the laws of gravitation.2. the laws of gravitation（万有引力定律）：1）The law of the universal gravitation is considered to be one of the most important discoveries in the history of science.2) It was discovered by English scientist, Isaac Newton.3) It states that the sun, the moon, the earth, the planets, and all the other bodies in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is called gravitation.4) From his law of universal gravitation Newton was able to deduce the orbits ofcomets, the tides, and even the minute departures from elliptical orbits on the part of the planets.3. the Great Instauration（伟大的复兴）:1) To expect any great advancement in science, English philosopher Francis Bacon held, we must begin anew.2) The fresh start required the mind to overcome all the preconceptions, all the prejudices, all the assumptions, sweep away all the fallacies and false beliefs. In a word it is to break with the past, and to restore man to his lost mastery of the natural world. This was what Bacon called the Great Instauration. 4．Inductive method（归纳法）：1）Inductive method was established by English philosopher Francis Bacon in 17th century.2) Induction means reasoning from particular facts or individual cases to a general conclusion.3). Induction was put over against deductive method.5. Thomas Hobbes’s political thought（霍布斯的政治思想）（北京市2004年真题名词解释）:1) Thomas Hobbes held that men are enemies and at war with each other.2) In order to get men out of the miserable condition of war, there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish.3) He preferred monarchy.6. Lock’s Social Contract（洛克的社会契约论）：1）He believed that political society and government rest on a rational foundation.2) He emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail.3) Absolute monarchy is contrary to the original social contract and dangerous to liberty.4) The ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.5) The people shall be judge when circumstances render rebellion legitimate.7. The English Revolution:1) The English Revolution took place in the middle of the 17th century.2) Among the causes of this revolution were the growth of capitalism, the break-up of serfdom and the Puritan Movement.3) In 1642, the Civil W ar broke out between the king and the Parliament. Led by Cromwell, the English bourgeoisie won the victory, and Charles I was captured and beheaded in 1649 and a republic was born.8.The Glorious Revolution（光荣革命）:1) During the restoration in England, many revolutionary leaders and those who。

法律知识导读(英文)第十五单元 The Republic

• Socrates points of view on justice: • He defines justice as "working at that which he is
naturally best suited," and "to do one's own business and not to be a busybody“, and justice is the cause and condition of their existence. • He separates people into three types: soldier, producer, ruler. • Justice is the result of a "well ordered" soul.
• (In Books VII-X) support of Plato's criticism of the forms of government. (timocracy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny)
The Dialectical Forms of Government • timocracy • oligarchy (also called plutocracy) • democracy • tyranny (also called despotism).
法律知识导读（英文）第十五单元 The Republic
Lead-in
• 《理想国》，又译作《国家篇》、《共和国》，是古希腊著名哲学家柏拉图（Plato 公元前427-公元前347年）重要的对话体著作之一。它是以苏格拉底为主角用对话体写成，共分为10卷。这部 “哲学大全”不仅是柏拉图对自己前此哲学思想的概括和总结，而且是当时各门学科的综合，它探讨了哲学、政治、伦理道德、教育、文艺等等各方面的问题，以理念论为基础，建立了一个系统的理想国家方案。它是西方政治思想传统的最具代表性的作品，通过苏格拉底与他人的对话，给后人展现了一个完美优越的城邦。

Plato The Republic

A Brief Analysis of Happiness——From The Republic The Republic is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato around 380 BC concerning the definition of justice and the virtue and character of the just city and the just man.The dramatic date of the dialogue has been much debated and through it must take place some time during the Peloponnesian War.It is Plato’s best-known work and has proven to be one of the most intellectually and historically influential works of philosophy and political theory.In the book,Socrates discuss the meaning of justice and examine whether or not the just man is happier than the unjust man by concerning a series of different cities with various Athenians and foreigners.The participants also discuss the theory of forms,the immortality of the soul,the roles of the philosopher and of poetry in society.The topic of happiness as the eternal subject of human being is also the inevitable problem of ethnics.As justice is one of the most important elements to human life,happiness is as important as the most fundamental element to maintain normal operation and steady development of human society.Plato is the first ideologist who firstly demonstrated the justice and happiness systematically in western society.“The Republic”includes Plato’s systemati c account of Justice and pursuit of happiness.Both early Platonic ethical and political philosophy take root in the account of justice.It is a main criterion for Plato to evaluate the values in the physical world. “The Republic”,as called “Politeia”, has a subhead of“Theory of Justice”; “Politeia” demonstrates the justice wholly; the Plato’s deep thinking on city-state Athens as a great philosopher and his responsibility for concerning the country as the thinker are embodies from criticism on several popular justice ideas to the definition of happiness,the virtue,from national to individual,and from the way to seek happiness to realize the happiness.Plato was born in an eventful time when the flourishing period was taken up by the continuous wars in Athens.Born in a noble family,Plato was influenced by politics at an early age.After experiencing the brutal Peloponnesian War and the death of Socrates,he began to deeply think city-state Athens.“The Republic”is the solution put forward by Plato when he had an Athenian political problem.In Plato's The Republic, justice is depicted as a major part in a perfect society. Justice is said to breed a good society, whereas injustice will breed a bad one. Plato defines justice in dialogue as “keeping what is properly one's own and doing one's own job.”Under the rules set for this perfect society, people are to practice the one profession at which they perform best. This profession also corresponds to a certain social class. Under no circumstances can one change this profession. Along with a set occupation, Plato has also determined that the perfect community would regulate what children (and the community) are taught, and to what the children will be exposed.In Plato's perfect society, regulating the stories, songs, poems, and actions told to children is meant to enforce the standard of how people should act, think, and believe. Plato states that his “first business is to supervise the production of stories, and chooseonly those we think suitable, and reject the rest.”I n these,Plato has described a ideal society.In the society,People are engaged on the pursuit of justice.And all those are in order to realize happiness.In many dialogues Plato grapples with the question of how we are to live a good life.He begins from an assumption which he shares with the rest of his society,namely that we all seek eudaimonia,which means happiness.What we think of as ethics emerges as the concern not just to live one’s life,but to do it well,to make a good life.It is sharply distinguished from modern notions of happiness,which identify it from modern notions of happiness,which identify it with feeling good;happiness in all ancient thinkers is the achievement of someone who lives an admirable,enviable life.Plato never doubts that this is where ethical concern starts.He gives,however,a radically different answer than most people,and most other philosophers,to the question of what it is to live an admirable,enviable life and so to achieve happiness.Socrates’ belief in the reality of moral pro perties leads to an important consequence concerning happiness.According to classical views of happiness,one’s own happiness is something that one can be mistaken about. In other words, you may think you are happy and yet not actually be happy. This thought sounds strange to modern ears. According to most contemporary views of happiness, if you think you’re happy, then you’re happy. In fact, it may seem as if thinking and feeling that you are happy is just about all there is to being happy. According to modern views of happiness, then, there’s nothing more to being happy than thinking and feeling happy and, since you know how you feel, you can’t be mistaken about whether you are happy.However, for the classical view of happiness, it makes sense to ask, “I kn ow you feel happy and think you are happy, but how do you know that you really are happy?” Many modern conceptions of happiness imply that having ample amounts of pleasure can make you happy, even if you are completely lacking in moral virtue.Many people,in the modern as much as in the ancient world,find it natural to say that a happy life is one in which you are successful;the happy person will be,typically,the rich,secure person who has achieved something in life.It sounds odd,indeed perverse,to say that someone could be happy,could be living a life you admire and try to emulate,if he or she turned out to be rejected and unsuccessful.But Plato was influenced by the example of Socrates,who gave up worldly success for philosophy,and who ended up condemned as a criminal and executed.But in Plato’s opinion,Socrates has lived a admirable life.And so,most people must be wrong about how to achieve a happy life.Where do most people go wrong?They think that their life will go well and that they will be happy if they have the things that most people think are good-health,wealth,good looks and so on.But are these things good?Do they do you any good-do they benefit you?Plato thinks that you are here like a craftsperson with tools and material-they do not do you any good until you put them to use.Do something with them.Moreover,you have to do the right things with them,put them to use which is expert and intelligent,or they will not benefit you,indeed may do you harm.For example,someone who wins the lottery may well not be made any happier by just having the money.Unless she puts it to intelligent use,the money may donothing for her,or even ruin her life.Happiness cannot just be the stuff you have;you have to put it to good use,deal with it in the way that a craftsperson deals with his materials,before it will benefit you and so make your life better.Hence we find that the virtues,which enables us to deal well with the material advantages of our life,are called“divine goods”,which has been mentioned in the Laws.In cont rast to the “human goods”constituted by those material advantages.Without the divine goods,we will lose the benefit of the human ones.So the value for us of health,wealth and the like depends on our possession of virtues like courage and justice.And the virtues depend in turn for their value in a human life on the practical reasoning which forms them and guides their application.Hence virtues which make something out of the stuff of our lives are identified with wisdom,the practical intelligence which guided virtuous living.Socrates claims that all that is relevant to the issue of whether someone is happy or not is whether they are virtuous.If we know a course of action is wrong,then we should not do it and no amount of anything we could gain or lose by doing the action makes any impact on this point.Even if your life is at risk,you should not try to save it by compromising your values.We can get it from the Crito.Socrates examines why he should or should not try to escape from prison before execution as following:Socrates:We should now examine this-whether it is just for me to try to escape,or not.If it turns out to be just,let us try,and if not,;let’s drop it.But these considerations you mention,about spending money,and reputation,and bringing up my children,I suspect,Cristo,that these are in truth considerations that appeal to……most people.But for us,since the argument demands it,there is nothing else to examine expect what we just said,namely,whether we shall be acting justly or whether we shall in truth be acting unjustly if we do all this.And if this will clearly be an unjust action for us to do,then there is no need at all for us to take into account whether I will have to die if I stay and do nothing,or have to suffer anything else whatever rather than do wrong.Why is Socrates so sure that the claims of virtue cannot be compromised-cannot indeed be weighed up against considerations like those of money,security and so on?We have seen that virtue is not just one good thing for me to have,something that might be measured against other good things,such as wealth or security.Rather,virtue is a “divine”good.It is either the only unconditional good,or the only thing which is good at all.And it holds this position because it is virtue which enables us to put other conventionally good things to good use.Hence,it is what makes the difference between having things like health and wealth benefit us or do us no good,or even ruin our lives.Hence virtue is often thought of as a kind of skill or expertise-a kind of practical knowledge which is applied in making materials into a unified and finished product.The idea here is a powerful one.By the time I start thinking about how to live my life well,I already have a life.I have a set of commitments and relationships,such as my family and my job and a set of goals,my ambitions and dreams.I also,typically,want to be a good person,to be courageous rather than cowardly, fairrather than unjust and the like.Plato tells us, uncompromisingly, that virtue has a special role and a special kind of values.To be virtuous is not just to have some goods like wealth,health and so on.It also includes virtue.Rather,virtue is the controlling and defining element in your life.Everything else is just material for it to work on and it produces a result which is either a well-organized whole or,if it fails,a mess.If we look at things this way, we can appreciate why Plato sees the role of virtue as so crucial in a life.Although sometimes we find Plato putting forward the idea that it is not enough to transform your life by getting virtue to direct your priorities,he for the most part thinks of virtue as a practical kind of knowledge,exercised in and on the agent’s life.As we have seen,Plato thinks that becoming virtuous is crucial for someone hoping to achieve what everyone hopes to achieve,namely happiness.How is a person to become virtuous?Aristotle,Plato’s pupil,thinks that we start by taking as role models the virtuous people in our community,proceed to emulate and to criticize the content of their deliberations.If we develop well,we achieve virtue that is richer,more reflective and unified than what we start with.But we will not go far wrong in beginning from our community’s standards.Plato wholly disagrees.Some of his most vivid passages present the person who aspires to virtue as being quite at odds with their community,finding little sympathy or support for their own ideas.The more talented and sensitive a person is,,the more they will be moulded by the various kinds of pressure that society brings to bear.Plato recognizes that these pressures are not all of an overtly moral or political kind.What we call a society’s culture affects people in lots of ways.In particular,Plato is the first to emphasize the importance of what we call the arts in forming the values of the members of a society.The role played in our society by films,television and books was played in Plato’s Athens by the performance of dramas in the theatre,festivals.Plato’s distrust of effects of popular culture in stiflin g individual thought comes out vividly in this passage from the Republic.Socrates:The nature of the person who loves wisdom,as we laid it down,will necessarily arrive as it grows at every virtue,if,that is,it gets appropriate teaching.But if it is sown,and nurtured as it grows,in one that is inappropriate,then,unless some god happens to rescue it,it must turn out quite the opposite.Or do you too think what most people do,namely that some young people are corrupted by sophists,and that it’s some sophis ts,private people,who do the corrupting to any great extent?Don’t you think that it’s the very people who say this who are the greatest sophists of all,and who do the most complete educating,producing people to be the way they want them,young and old,men and women?When?He said.When many of them are sitting together in an assembly,the law-courts,the theatre,the camp or some other general meeting of a lot of people;they make a huge uproar as they criticize some things said or done and praise others-excessively in both cases-by yelling and banging,and as well as them,therocks and the surrounding place echo the uproar of praise and blame and return it doubled.When things are like this,what heart will a young man have,as the saying goes?What kind of individual education of his will hold out and not be swept away by criticism and praise of this sort,being carried off by the flood wherever it goes,so that he agrees with them about fine and base things,practices what they do,and becomes just like them.Plato takes these very seriously,refusing to regard them as mere harmless entertainment.This theory still has significance nowadays.For example,students use the electric product as a toy rather than a tool.They are little thinking by themselves.It does harm to their creation.They will easily be seduced by the world and have no their own idea.Virtue is both necessary and sufficient for happiness.Virtue is necessary for happiness in the sense that you can’t truly be happy without being virtuous. Of course, yo u can feel happy and may have a life filled with fun and good times, but you won’t have lived the most excellent kind of life a person can live if you are a moral reprobate. According to Socrates, virtue is sufficient for happiness because he thought that if you have virtue, you don’t need anything else to be happy. You may not be the wealthiest, prettiest, most successful person in the world, but if you are honest, wise, fair, courageous and self-controlled, your life and character will merit praise and respect.If you cultivate the “four cardinal virtues”(courage, wisdom, justice and self-control) throughout your entire life—though you achieve nothing else—you will have lived a truly excellent life.Wisdom is a centrally important component of happiness for several reasons.To begin with, Socrates famously maintained that “the unexamined life is not worth living”.If we unreflectively go through life, not thinking about what kind of life we are living and what kind of goals we should be pursuing, the gift of rationality—the capacity for critical thinking—has been wasted on us.Moreover, we cannot develop virtue without wisdom.Since virtue is both necessary and sufficient for happiness and since happiness is obviously important to all of us, we need wisdom to know whether what we are pursuing in our lives will really bring us happiness.Once we understand that only virtue can bring us happiness, we will want to make sure that we don’t miss it. Therefore, Socrates believed that we should “discuss virtue every day”, regardless of our chosen profession.Furthermore, one cannot become an excellent human being blindly,foolishly or by accident.It takes a concerted effort on our part.Failing to become virtuous, however, can come about without lifting a finger.Since virtue does not fall into one’s lap but must be pursued, we must have the wisdom to know that we are pursuing the right thing and are headed in the right direction.Without wisdom, this would not be possible.Thus, philosophical investigation for Socrates was more than a trivial way to pass the time. It was an important component of the truly best kind of life that human beings can live. One cannot be happy without being virtuous, and one cannot be virtuous without being wise.Socrates presents an argument as to what happiness is that is as powerful today as when he first discussed it over 2400 years ago.In conclusion, Socrates is concerned to establish two main points: 1) happiness is what all people desire: since it is alwaysthe goal of our activities, it is an unconditional good; 2) happiness does not depend on external things, but rather on how those things are used. A wise person will use money in the right way in order to make his life better; an ignorant person will be wasteful and use money poorly, ending up even worse than before. Hence we cannot say that money by itself will make one happy. Money is a conditional good, only good when it is in the hands of a wise person.This same argument can be redeployed for any external good: any possessions,any qualities, even good looks or abilities.A handsome person,for example,can become vain and manipulative and hence misuse his physical gifts.Similarly,an intelligent person can be an even worse criminal than an unintelligent one.Happiness consists merely in the satisfaction of our desires. For in order to determine which desires are worth satisfying,we have to apply our critical and reflective wisdom.We have to arrive at an understanding of human nature and discover what brings out the best in the human being–which desires are mutually reinforcing,and which prevent us from achieving a sense of overall purpose and well-functioning.In a word,we should use a scientific understanding of the human mind in order to find out what truly leads to human happiness.。

柏拉图的思想主张英语作文

柏拉图的思想主张英语作文Title: The Philosophical Dynamism of Plato's Thought Plato, the illustrious philosopher, proposed theories that resonate with timeless wisdom. His allegory of the cave epitomizes human perception and knowledge. In this, prisoners confined from birth only see shadows on the wall, unaware of the real world outside. This narrative underscores Plato’s belief in a higher realm of ideal Forms, where true knowledge exists, contrasting the illusory nature of our perceived reality.Moreover, Plato's Theory of Forms, expounded upon in works like "The Republic," postulates that universal truths or 'Forms' are what gives objects their defining characteristics. This concept suggests a separation between the visible, material world and the intelligible realm of eternal Forms. For instance, while multiple apples may vary, the perfect 'Form' of an apple is flawless and unchanging.In political philosophy, Plato advocated for a governing class of 'philosopher kings' who, having accessed the Forms, could justly govern. This reflects his conviction in the importance of philosophical contemplation for effective leadership.Additionally, Plato emphasized education's role in developing the mind's eye to perceive these Forms. Only through enlightened understanding can one navigate the complexities of reality and achieve justice and harmony, both personally and societally.In essence, Plato's philosophy champions the ascent of human intellect from mere shadow-viewing to illumination in truth's sunlight, advocating for an enlightened society guided by those who have attained profound wisdom.。

柏拉图和亚里士多德

博雅教育（liberal education)

课程：有用的与文雅的实用业务：读写和绘画善德操修：音乐和体操
“人类天赋具有求取勤劳服务同时又愿获得安闲的优良本性” “人生之所以不惜繁忙，其目的正是获致闲暇”， “而闲暇比勤劳更为高尚”。

“一味追求实效和近利的教育是鄙陋的行当”。
Pre-reading Questions
1. What do you know about Aristotle? 2. What’s the main idea of Aristotle’s educational thought? 3. What’s the background of Aristotle’s educational thought? Are there any relationship between Plato’s and Aristotle’s educational thought?

所谓学习，就是把已经忘记了的知识回忆起来。
“如果是我们在出世前获得了知识，出世时把它丢了，后来又通过使用各种感觉官能重新得到了原来具有知识，那么，我们称为学习的这个过程，实际上不就是恢复我们固有的知识吗? 我们把它称为回忆对不对呢? 完全对。……那些所谓学习的人后来只不过在回忆，而学习只不过是回忆”。

亚里士多德 (Aristotle， 384 BC 322 BC ）
图3：《雅典学派》（油画），意大利文艺复兴时期拉斐尔作，画中央站立者为柏拉图和亚里士多德

《亚历山大大帝 Alexander》（2004）
2、哲学思想：形式和质料/三个灵魂理论
由理念到实体实体由“物质”(也称“质料”)和“形式”结

高中英语哲学思想单选题50题

高中英语哲学思想单选题50题1. Which of the following statements best represents the idea of Plato's Theory of Forms?A. The physical world is the ultimate reality.B. Ideas are more real than the physical objects.C. Sensory experiences are the only source of knowledge.D. Everything is constantly changing and unpredictable.答案：B。

柏拉图的理念论认为理念（形式）比具体的物质世界更真实，A 选项说物质世界是终极现实，与柏拉图的观点相悖；C 选项感官经验是唯一知识来源并非柏拉图的观点；D 选项一切都在不断变化且不可预测不符合柏拉图的理念论。

2. In Aristotelian philosophy, the concept of "entelechy" refers to:A. The potentiality of a thing to become something else.B. The final cause that guides the development of a thing.C. The randomness in the evolution of all beings.D. The complete absence of purpose in nature.答案：B。

亚里士多德哲学中的“隐德来希”指的是引导事物发展的最终原因，A 选项指的是事物成为其他东西的可能性；C 选项说的是所有生物进化的随机性不符合；D 选项自然界完全没有目的也不正确。

3. According to Stoicism, which of the following is most important for a person to achieve inner peace?A. Pursuing pleasure and material wealth.B. Controlling one's emotions and accepting fate.C. Always striving to change the external world.D. Focusing on personal achievements and recognition.答案：B。

男女是否具有平等理性——柏拉图《理想国》文本解读

收稿日期：２０１９０２２３；修回日期：２０１９０３１４
基金项目：东北师范大学马克思主义学部项目（２０１８Ａ１１０）。作者简介：张博（１９９２—），男，黑龙江鹤岗人，硕士生，主要从事柏拉图哲学研究。Ｅｍａｉｌ：ｚｈａｎｇｂ３３７＠ｎｅｎｕ．ｅｄｕ．ｃｎ
男女平等问题一直是时代的热点，不管在什么领域，女权主义运动以及女性主义一直是社会讨论的一个焦点。在哲学领域，大多数研究者认为，古希腊时期的哲学是一种歧视女性的、男女不平等的哲学思想，习惯以男性的角度去看待和探究世界，在谈论到女性的时候，通常持一种蔑视的态度。比如亚里士多德就曾经说过 “妇女确实具有思虑机能但并不充分”［２］，“雌性之为雌性正是由于某种无能”，只能生成 “提供某种构成月经的质料 ”［３］２９。素有古希腊哲学源头之称的柏拉图却是西方思想史上第一个提出男女平等思想的哲学家。在柏拉图的经典著作《理想国》中，实现 “理想城邦 ” 的关键在于 “三大立法 ”：男女平等、公有制以及哲学家治国，其中 “男女平等 ” 思想是理想城邦建立成功的 “第一立法 ”。对于他的 “男女平等 ” 思想，学界一直持存两种不同看法。一种认为柏拉图是第一个提出男性和女性都具有同样天赋的人，他首先提出了男女平等的思想，也是第一位提倡男女教育平等的哲学家。弗拉斯托斯曾指出： “柏拉图给予女护卫者以平等的教育权、职业选择权和参政权。”［４］ “在妇女问题上，柏拉图倾向于男女平等的观点。”［５］但是，另一种观点认为，柏拉图也像其他哲学家一样，提出了许多歧视女性、贬低女性、认为女性比男性低等的观点。柏拉图在《理想国》中不止一次提到女性是天生有缺陷的，软弱、爱慕虚荣、不适宜教育儿童等。 “柏拉图依然认为女性是处于弱势的、《理想国》中的思想还是无法消除柏拉图强烈的男权性质。”［６］普卢姆伍德曾说过，在柏拉图看来，只有当女性的灵魂是男性的或者她们的身体属于男性模式时，女性才是完美的。［７］这些观点认为，柏拉图关于男女平等的观点中也有着对女性的歧视，凸显其观点不足的思想。在对两种观点都有一个分析解读的基础上，对《理想国》原著进行诠释并且重新梳理柏拉图的男女平等思想脉络后，认为柏拉图思想总体上是支持

第一章柏拉图和他的《理想国》

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6、柏拉图《理想国》中的政治信念A
“一般来说，政治家没有人是诚实的，也没有什么为正义而战的斗士。一个人若是要为正义而战和拯救正义，那就会像一个置身于野兽之中的人那样，他既不愿意参与他们的罪行，又无力单独防御他们的暴力，因此他就会于国家于朋友无益，徒然地糟蹋了自己的生命而对己对人都做不成任何好事情。他不如保持自己的平静，走他自己的路。”
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四、《理想国》的总体简介
1、《理想国》不属于某一具体学科
《理想国》这部“哲学大全”不仅是柏拉图对
自己前此哲学思想的概括和总结，而且是当时各门学科的综合，它探讨了哲学、政治、伦理道德、教育、文艺等等各方面的问题，以理念论为基础，建立了一个系统的理想国家方案。
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2、书名的翻译
Republic: on justice. （1）20世纪20年代，吴献书全译本《理想国》。（2）《政制》、《论公正》、《王制》。 politeia-res publica-republic. politeia，意为“政制”或“宪法”，这个词来自于polis（城邦）。当一群人居住在一起形成一个城邦时，住在polis（城邦）中的polites （公民）就需要一种politeia（政制）以确保他们生活在一起。
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3、文本的思维进路与内容2/3
（2）可是，当构建出一个城邦之后，城邦自身就涌现出很多问题，如：公民教育问题、男女平等问题等等，这些问题都需要解决。此外，还需要考虑这种城邦如何实现的问题。据此，柏拉图提出了他的“哲学王”的思想，即有知识的哲人做统治者才能解决上述问题。（卷5）
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3、文本的思维进路与内容3/3
《理想国》：西方第一部政治学著作
《理想国》堪称西方第一部政治学著作，柏拉图在其中讨论了国家的起源、性质、结构等根本问题；区分了不同的政体，比较它们的优劣得失，寻找它们的历史发展规律。更重要的是，柏拉图设计了一套政治蓝图，既带有乌托邦的理想色彩，又有阶级国家的痕迹，对于西方政治思想具有难以估量的影响。

Plato-The-Republic

A Brief Analysis of Happiness——From The Republic The Republic is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato around 380 BC concerning the definition of justice and the virtue and character of the just city and the just man.The dramatic date of the dialogue has been much debated and through it must take place some time during the Peloponnesian War.It is Plato’s best-known work and has proven to be one of the most intellectually and historically influential works of philosophy and political theory.In the book,Socrates discuss the meaning of justice and examine whether or not the just man is happier than the unjust man by concerning a series of different cities with various Athenians and foreigners.The participants also discuss the theory of forms,the immortality of the soul,the roles of the philosopher and of poetry in society.The topic of happiness as the eternal subject of human being is also the inevitable problem of ethnics.As justice is one of the most important elements to human life,happiness is as important as the most fundamental element to maintain normal operation and steady development of human society.Plato is the first ideologist who firstly demonstrated the justice and happiness systematically in western society.“The Republic”includes Plato’s systematic account of Justice and pursuit of happiness.Both early Platonic ethical and political philosophy take root in the account of justice.It is a main criterion for Plato to evaluate the values in the physicalworld. “The Republic”,as called “Politeia”, has a subhead of“Theory of Justice”; “Politeia” demonstrates the justice wholly; the Plato’s deep thinking on city-state Athens as a great philosopher and his responsibility for concerning the country as the thinker are embodies from criticism on several popular justice ideas to the definition of happiness,the virtue,from national to individual,and from the way to seek happiness to realize the happiness.Plato was born in an eventful time when the flourishing period was taken up by the continuous wars in Athens.Born in a noble family,Plato was influenced by politics at an early age.After experiencing the brutal Peloponnesian War and the death of Socrates,he began to deeply think city-state Athens.“The Republic”is the solution put forward by Plato when he had an Athenian political problem.In Plato's The Republic, justice is depicted as a major part in a perfect society. Justice is said to breed a good society, whereas injustice will breed a bad one. Plato defines justice in dialogue as “keeping what is properly one's own and doing one's own job.”Under the rules set for this perfect society, people are to practice the one profession at which they perform best. This profession also corresponds to a certain social class. Under no circumstances can one change this profession. Along with a set occupation, Plato has also determined that the perfect community would regulate what children (and the community) are taught, and to what the children will be exposed.In Plato's perfect society, regulating the stories, songs, poems, andactions told to children is meant to enforce the standard of how people should act, think, and believe. Plato states that his “first business is to supervise the production of stories, and choose only those we think suitable, and reject the rest.”In these,Plato has described a ideal society.In the society,People are engaged on the pursuit of justice.And all those are in order to realize happiness.In many dialogues Plato grapples with the question of how we are to live a good life.He begins from an assumption which he shares with the rest of his society,namely that we all seek eudaimonia,which means happiness.What we think of as ethics emerges as the concern not just to live one’s life,but to do it well,to make a good life.It is sharply distinguished from modern notions of happiness,which identify it from modern notions of happiness,which identify it with feeling good;happiness in all ancient thinkers is the achievement of someone who lives an admirable,enviable life.Plato never doubts that this is where ethical concern starts.He gives,however,a radically different answer than most people,and most other philosophers,to the question of what it is to live an admirable,enviable life and so to achieve happiness.Socrates’belief in the reality of moral properties leads to an important consequence concerning happiness.According to classical views of happiness,one’s own happiness is something that one can be mistaken about. In other words, you may think you are happy and yet not actually be happy. This thought sounds strange to modern ears. According to most contemporaryviews of happiness, if you think you’re happy, then you’re happy. In fact, it may seem as if thinking and feeling that you are happy is just about all there is to being happy. According to modern views of happiness, then, there’s nothing more to being happy than thinking and feeling happy and, since you know how you feel, you can’t be mistaken about whether you are happy.However, for the classical view of happiness, it makes sense to ask, “I know you feel happy and think you are happy, but how do you know that you really are happy?”Many modern conceptions of happiness imply that having ample amounts of pleasure can make you happy, even if you are completely lacking in moral virtue.Many people,in the modern as much as in the ancient world,find it natural to say that a happy life is one in which you are successful;the happy person will be,typically,the rich,secure person who has achieved something in life.It sounds odd,indeed perverse,to say that someone could be happy,could be living a life you admire and try to emulate,if he or she turned out to be rejected and unsuccessful.But Plato was influenced by the example of Socrates,who gave up worldly success for philosophy,and who ended up condemned as a criminal and executed.But in Plato’s opinion,Socrates has lived a admirable life.And so,most people must be wrong about how to achieve a happy life.Where do most people go wrong?They think that their life will go well and that they will be happy if they have the things that most people think are good-health,wealth,good looks and so on.But are these things good?Do theydo you any good-do they benefit you?Plato thinks that you are here like a craftsperson with tools and material-they do not do you any good until you put them to use.Do something with them.Moreover,you have to do the right things with them,put them to use which is expert and intelligent,or they will not benefit you,indeed may do you harm.For example,someone who wins the lottery may well not be made any happier by just having the money.Unless she puts it to intelligent use,the money may do nothing for her,or even ruin her life.Happiness cannot just be the stuff you have;you have to put it to good use,deal with it in the way that a craftsperson deals with his materials,before it will benefit you and so make your life better.Hence we find that the virtues,which enables us to deal well with the material advantages of our life,are called“divine goods”,which has been mentioned in the Laws.In contrast to the “human goods”constituted by those material advantages.Without the divine goods,we will lose the benefit of the human ones.So the value for us of health,wealth and the like depends on our possession of virtues like courage and justice.And the virtues depend in turn for their value in a human life on the practical reasoning which forms them and guides their application.Hence virtues which make something out of the stuff of our lives are identified with wisdom,the practical intelligence which guided virtuous living.Socrates claims that all that is relevant to the issue of whether someone is happy or not is whether they are virtuous.If we know a course of action iswrong,then we should not do it and no amount of anything we could gain or lose by doing the action makes any impact on this point.Even if your life is at risk,you should not try to save it by compromising your values.We can get it from the Crito.Socrates examines why he should or should not try to escape from prison before execution as following:Socrates:We should now examine this-whether it is just for me to try to escape,or not.If it turns out to be just,let us try,and if not,;let’s drop it.But these considerations you mention,about spending money,and reputation,and bringing up my children,I suspect,Cristo,that these are in truth considerations that appeal to……most people.But for us,since the argument demands it,there is nothing else to examine expect what we just said,namely,whether we shall be acting justly or whether we shall in truth be acting unjustly if we do all this.And if this will clearly be an unjust action for us to do,then there is no need at all for us to take into account whether I will have to die if I stay and do nothing,or have to suffer anything else whatever rather than do wrong.Why is Socrates so sure that the claims of virtue cannot be compromised-cannot indeed be weighed up against considerations like those of money,security and so on?We have seen that virtue is not just one good thing for me to have,something that might be measured against other good things,such as wealth or security.Rather,virtue is a “divine”good.It is either the only unconditional good,or the only thing which is good at all.And it holds thisposition because it is virtue which enables us to put other conventionally good things to good use.Hence,it is what makes the difference between having things like health and wealth benefit us or do us no good,or even ruin our lives.Hence virtue is often thought of as a kind of skill or expertise-a kind of practical knowledge which is applied in making materials into a unified and finished product.The idea here is a powerful one.By the time I start thinking about how to live my life well,I already have a life.I have a set of commitments and relationships,such as my family and my job and a set of goals,my ambitions and dreams.I also,typically,want to be a good person,to be courageous rather than cowardly, fair rather than unjust and the like.Plato tells us, uncompromisingly, that virtue has a special role and a special kind of values.To be virtuous is not just to have some goods like wealth,health and so on.It also includes virtue.Rather,virtue is the controlling and defining element in your life.Everything else is just material for it to work on and it produces a result which is either a well-organized whole or,if it fails,a mess.If we look at things this way, we can appreciate why Plato sees the role of virtue as so crucial in a life.Although sometimes we find Plato putting forward the idea that it is not enough to transform your life by getting virtue to direct your priorities,he for the most part thinks of virtue as a practical kind of knowledge,exercised in and on the agent’s life.As we have seen,Plato thinks that becoming virtuous is crucial for someone hoping to achieve what everyone hopes to achieve,namely happiness.How is a person to become virtuous?Aristotle,Plato’s pupil,thinks that we start by taking as role models the virtuous people in our community,proceed to emulate and to criticize the content of their deliberations.If we develop well,we achieve virtue that is richer,more reflective and unified than what we start with.But we will not go far wrong in beginning from our community’s standards.Plato wholly disagrees.Some of his most vivid passages present the person who aspires to virtue as being quite at odds with their community,finding little sympathy or support for their own ideas.The more talented and sensitive a person is,,the more they will be moulded by the various kinds of pressure that society brings to bear.Plato recognizes that these pressures are not all of an overtly moral or political kind.What we call a society’s culture affects people in lots of ways.In particular,Plato is the first to emphasize the importance of what we call the arts in forming the values of the members of a society.The role played in our society by films,television and books was played in Plato’s Athens by the performance of dramas in the theatre,festivals.Plato’s distrust of effects of popular culture in stifling individual thought comes out vividly in this passage from the Republic.Socrates:The nature of the person who loves wisdom,as we laid it down,will necessarily arrive as it grows at every virtue,if,that is,it getsappropriate teaching.But if it is sown,and nurtured as it grows,in one that is inappropriate,then,unless some god happens to rescue it,it must turn out quite the opposite.Or do you too think what most people do,namely that some young people are corrupted by sophists,and that it’s some sophists,private people,who do the corrupting to any great extent?Don’t you think that it’s the very people who say this who are the greatest sophists of all,and who do the most complete educating,producing people to be the way they want them,young and old,men and women?When?He said.When many of them are sitting together in an assembly,the law-courts,the theatre,the camp or some other general meeting of a lot of people;they make a huge uproar as they criticize some things said or done and praise others-excessively in both cases-by yelling and banging,and as well as them,the rocks and the surrounding place echo the uproar of praise and blame and return it doubled.When things are like this,what heart will a young man have,as the saying goes?What kind of individual education of his will hold out and not be swept away by criticism and praise of this sort,being carried off by the flood wherever it goes,so that he agrees with them about fine and base things,practices what they do,and becomes just like them.Plato takes these very seriously,refusing to regard them as mere harmless entertainment.This theory still has significance nowadays.Forexample,students use the electric product as a toy rather than a tool.They are little thinking by themselves.It does harm to their creation.They will easily be seduced by the world and have no their own idea.Virtue is both necessary and sufficient for happiness.Virtue is necessary for happiness in the sense that you can’t truly be happy without being virtuous. Of course, you can feel happy and may have a life filled with fun and good times, but you won’t have lived the most excellent kind of life a person can live if you are a moral reprobate. According to Socrates, virtue is sufficient for happiness because he thought that if you have virtue, you don’t need anything else to be happy. You may not be the wealthiest, prettiest, most successful person in the world, but if you are honest, wise, fair, courageous and self-controlled, your life and character will merit praise and respect.If you cultivate the “four cardinal virtues”(courage, wisdom, justice and self-control) throughout your entire life—though you achieve nothing else—you will have lived a truly excellent life.Wisdom is a centrally important component of happiness for several reasons.To begin with, Socrates famously maintained that “the unexamined life is not worth living”.If we unreflectively go through life, not thinking about what kind of life we are living and what kind of goals we should be pursuing, the gift of rationality—the capacity for critical thinking—has been wasted on us.Moreover, we cannot develop virtue without wisdom.Since virtue is both necessary and sufficient for happiness and since happiness is obviouslyimportant to all of us, we need wisdom to know whether what we are pursuing in our lives will really bring us happiness.Once we understand that only virtue can bring us happiness, we will want to make sure that we don’t miss it. Therefore, Socrates believed that we should “discuss virtue every day”, regardless of our chosen profession.Furthermore, one cannot become an excellent human being blindly,foolishly or by accident.It takes a concerted effort on our part.Failing to become virtuous, however, can come about without lifting a finger.Since virtue does not fall into one’s lap but must be pursued, we must have the wisdom to know that we are pursuing the right thing and are headed in the right direction.Without wisdom, this would not be possible.Thus, philosophical investigation for Socrates was more than a trivial way to pass the time. It was an important component of the truly best kind of life that human beings can live. One cannot be happy without being virtuous, and one cannot be virtuous without being wise.Socrates presents an argument as to what happiness is that is as powerful today as when he first discussed it over 2400 years ago.In conclusion, Socrates is concerned to establish two main points: 1) happiness is what all people desire: since it is always the goal of our activities, it is an unconditional good; 2) happiness does not depend on external things, but rather on how those things are used. A wise person will use money in the right way in order to make his life better; an ignorant person will be wasteful and use money poorly, ending up even worse than before. Hence we cannot say that money by itselfwill make one happy. Money is a conditional good, only good when it is in the hands of a wise person.This same argument can be redeployed for any external good: any possessions,any qualities, even good looks or abilities.A handsome person,for example,can become vain and manipulative and hence misuse his physical gifts.Similarly,an intelligent person can be an even worse criminal than an unintelligent one.Happiness consists merely in the satisfaction of our desires. For in order to determine which desires are worth satisfying,we have to apply our critical and reflective wisdom.We have to arrive at an understanding of human nature and discover what brings out the best in the human being–which desires are mutually reinforcing,and which prevent us from achieving a sense of overall purpose and well-functioning.In a word,we should use a scientific understanding of the human mind in order to find out what truly leads to human happiness.Welcome To Download !!!欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考！。

柏拉图《理想国》中的正义思想探析

柏拉图‘理想国“中的正义思想探析陈磊闫明[摘要] 论正义”既是‘理想国“的副标题,又是贯穿‘理想国“始终的思想主线㊂危亡的政局与世俗的谬误是柏拉图通过‘理想国“思考正义问题的动因㊂他在由大见小的正义追寻中发现了城邦正义和个人正义,开启了个人与共同体统一关系的探讨,描绘了一幅整体和谐的正义图景,但究其根本不难发现,共同体的和谐运作才是柏拉图正义思想的真正重心㊂马克思作为科学社会主义的创始人,虽然没有关于正义的专门著作,但却吸收㊁融合了人类思想史上正义理论的各种积极成果,坚持历史唯物主义的基本原则,以全人类的解放为目标,从分工㊁个人和共同体三个层面实现了对柏拉图正义理论的超越㊂[关键词]柏拉图;‘理想国“;正义;城邦正义;个人正义[基金项目]吉林省社会科学基金博士和青年扶持项目新时代高校青年马克思主义者培养常态化机制及其创新模式建设研究”(2020C003);吉林省教育厅十三五”科学研究规划项目新中国成立70年来思想政治教育的基本经验研究”(J J K H20200924S Z);吉林省教育科学十三五”规划思政专项新时代大中小学思政课教学内容一体化建设研究”(G S19033)㊂[作者简介]陈磊(1984-),女,法学博士,长春中医药大学马克思主义学院讲师(长春130117);闫明(2000-),男,中国政法大学国际法学院学生(北京102249)㊂一㊁正义问题的提出:在政局的危亡与世俗的谬误中渴望正义正义是人类社会的永恒话题,早在古希腊时期,柏拉图在其代表作‘理想国“中就已对正义问题做了系统论述㊂波普尔指出, ‘理想国“可能是关于正义有史以来最精致的专著”①㊂论正义”既是‘理想国“的副标题,又是贯穿‘理想国“始终的思想主线㊂而危亡的政局与世俗的谬误是柏拉图通过‘理想国“思考正义问题的动因㊂①[英]波普尔:‘开放社会及其敌人“第一卷,陆横等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2016年,第194页㊂(一)时代背景:政局的危亡如若全面深入了解柏拉图‘理想国“中的正义思想,首先有必要考察当时希腊雅典的时代背景㊂柏拉图之所以思考正义问题,是与他所生活的那个时代中的某些社会问题息息相关的㊂柏拉图生活在一个战乱和政治冲突的时期㊂公元前431年,雅典与斯巴达为争夺希腊霸权爆发了伯罗奔尼撒战争,曾为雅典缔造黄金时代的领袖伯里克利于战争的第三年死于瘟疫,柏拉图于战争的第四年诞生,这场战争断断续续持续了27年,最终以雅典失败告终㊂①持续的战争不仅消耗了大量的军力和财力,带来了可怕的流行病㊁饥荒㊁内战,还使雅典开始了为期八个月三十僭主”专政时期㊂柏拉图在‘第七封信“中这样评价三十僭主的恐怖统治: 我当时还年轻,相信他们会引导城邦从不正义的生活走向正义的生活,并且管理它’,这是他们的说法,所以我抱着极大的兴趣观察今后的动向㊂然而,我看到仅仅在一个很短的时期内,这些人就使得人们重新怀念起从前的政府来,认为比较起来那才是黄金时代㊂”②因此,民主政体被废后又代之而起,可民主制的重建并不意味着柏拉图的痛苦得到了缓解㊂在柏拉图心目中,苏格拉底是所有人中最正直的一位,也是柏拉图对话最青睐的人物㊂可在公元前399年,他最挚爱的老师苏格拉底被处以极刑,这使柏拉图深受刺激,对民主政治彻底失望,对有序城邦极度渴望㊂处于那样一个礼崩乐坏”的年代,雅典城邦危机四伏,政局腐朽动荡,柏拉图从政的念头一再破灭,不得不重新思考自己的政治立场,试图构建正义至善的理想城邦,他对正义问题”的思考无疑是深深受到了这种紧要性的驱迫㊂(二)思想背景:世俗正义观的谬误严峻的战争更使传统的道德十分脆弱,不堪一击㊂人们仅是在一定程度上对正义有着不同看法和表达㊂‘理想国“开篇第一卷便首先引入了当时雅典人持有的关于正义的种种流行意见,这构成了柏拉图正义理论的思想背景,也使得正义问题以一种辩证的方式展开㊂柏拉图虽置身‘理想国“对话之外,但他借苏格拉底之口,为探讨正义精心谋划了一个理想的城邦㊂全书都采取了打辩论的方式,这也是苏格拉底所擅长的㊂第一卷辩论的主题即是正义是什么”,面对几位辩手提出的几种世俗的正义观,苏格拉底经验丰富,娓娓道来,逐一反驳㊂一号辩手克法洛斯(C e p h a l u s)认为正义就是有话实说,有债照还”③㊂克法洛斯是当地富商家财万贯,在与苏格拉底日常交谈人有钱之后最大的好处是什么”引出辩题正义是什么”㊂克法洛斯回答,有了钱财最大的好处是不用因为拖欠别人债务和亏欠神的祭品而心惊胆战,可以很正直㊁很正义地生活,不用害怕死后下地狱受罚,由此得出有话实说,有债照还”的正义定义㊂苏格拉底提出质疑,如果我从别人那里借了一件武器,那个人却恰好精神错乱甚至行为暴力,那么还应该诚实地归还武器给他吗?如若归还武器给他错伤无辜,结果适得其反,反倒是不正义的㊂那么, 有话实说,有债照还”岂不有时是正义的,而有时却不是正义的?面对苏格拉底的追问,克法洛斯一个回合便退下阵来,承认这不是一个好定义但也不愿再辩,以献祭上供为由退场㊂克法洛斯把正义看①②③傅佩荣:‘柏拉图哲学“,北京:东方出版社,2013年,第3页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘柏拉图全集“第四卷,王晓朝译,北京:人民出版社,2017年,第79页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,北京:商务印书馆,2017年,第6页㊂作衰老面临死亡时心境平和㊁问心无愧的一种手段,这虽代表了一般人的正义观,但这只是金钱赎买带来的事后正义,金钱也并非衡量正义的标准㊂这种把正义当作是达到目的的工具性手段的观点,并未关涉正义的本质,具有明显缺陷,柏拉图自然无法认同㊂二号辩手即克法洛斯的儿子玻勒马霍斯(P o l e m a r c h u s),认为正义就是利友而害敌”①㊂玻勒马霍斯作为接班人对父亲定义中的还债”予以限定,认为父亲的说法合乎诗人西蒙尼德的观点㊂西蒙尼德认为正义就是给每个人以恰如其分的报答,使每个人得到他应得之份㊂可如何理解每个人应得之份”,以及将恰如其分的报答给予什么人”呢?玻勒马霍斯遂即解释,正义就是把友善给予友人㊁帮助朋友,把恶给予敌人㊁伤害敌人,引入了利友而害敌”的正义观㊂苏格拉底立即诘问,正义的应用领域是什么呢即正义在什么行动和目的之下最能造福朋友,损害敌人呢?玻勒马霍斯回答说,正义可以在战争中联友攻敌㊂苏格拉底由此质疑其定义的有限性, 那岂不意味着正义在不打仗的和平时期毫无用处”玻勒马霍斯虽然认为正义”在平时应该也是有用的,但却在苏格拉底的步步追问下不得不承认,正义仅在起保管作用时有用,在他物有用时正义却无用㊂苏格拉底继续诘难,任何一种技艺都有正反两方面的作用和功能,既能帮助人,也能伤害人㊂如果正义能帮人保管钱财的话,那他也可能是最会窃取钱财的㊂在苏格拉底的连番辩驳下,玻勒马霍斯已晕头转向㊁无力招架,但仍坚持帮助朋友,伤害敌人是正义的”②㊂于是苏格拉底转换思路,又指出了其定义的核心缺陷,即伤害敌人是不正义的㊂因为,正义作为一种德性”,它不会伤害任何人, 伤害不是好人的功能,而是和好人相反的人的功能”③㊂玻勒马霍斯无奈只好败下阵来㊂其实,这一正义主张反映了希腊的传统价值,类似于以牙还牙㊁以怨报怨㊂柏拉图就是要拷问这一普遍道德,希望人们反思原有道德并放弃报复㊂自己的恩师苏格拉底面对雅典人的死刑判决,宁愿拒绝逃生机会,也不愿以违背雅典法律的方式伤害和报复雅典人㊂因为,所有的报复在他看来都是不道德㊁不正义的㊂④即使在正义失序的城邦中,苏格拉底仍不惜以死为代价,忠诚维护着法律和正义㊂三号辩手智者学派的色拉叙马霍斯(T h r a s y m a c h u s)发表长论,提出正义就是强者的利益”⑤㊂这种强权即正义”的观点有许多人赞同,认为谁有权,谁就可以根据其自身利益定义正义㊂古希腊时期这种理论也是统治阶级进行强权统治的理论依据,正义成为统治者掩盖赤裸裸权力运作并实现自己利益的遮羞布㊂苏格拉底详尽地提出了自己的反对意见㊂他首先指出统治者在立法时并非一贯正确, 无意中也会规定出对自己有害的办法来”⑥㊂此时,正义非但不是强者的利益,反而变成了强者的损害㊂于是,色拉叙马霍斯强调他是指最严格意义上的强者,即统治者真是统治者的时候,是没有错误的,他总是定出对自己最有利的种种办法,叫老百姓照办”⑦㊂苏格拉底又举例说明, 技艺除了寻求对象的利益以外,不应该去寻求对其他任何事物的利益”⑧,实施技艺是为了改①②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第8页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第12页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第14页㊂余纪元:‘<理想国>讲演录“,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2009年,第38页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第18页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第21页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第22页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第24页㊂进其对象㊂正如一个严格意义上的医生掌握医术是为了病人的利益,骑术是为了马匹的利益㊂同理,统治者管理城邦要尽力谋求老百姓的利益, 在任何政府里,一个统治者,当他是统治者的时候,他不能只顾自己的利益而不顾属下老百姓的利益,他的一言一行都为了老百姓的利益”①㊂至此,正义的定义已被完全颠倒过来㊂色拉叙马霍斯似乎意识到自己陷入了辩论的被动局面,便举例并把话题转向辩护正义的人跟不正义的人相比,总是处处吃亏”②,认为不正义比正义更有益㊂苏格拉底宣称这一论证所关注的不是普通的题目,而是关乎我们应当如何生活的问题㊂它牵涉到每个人一生的道路问题究竟做哪种人最为有利?”③为了尽力说服色拉叙马霍斯,苏格拉底从社会和个人两方面进行了论证㊂社会层面,任何社会团体想要保持强大的力量,凭借的是团体内部成员间的正义和谐,正义有利于社会团体的团结和强大㊂个人层面,保持德性之人热爱生命,善于管理和计划自己的生活,将其特殊功能完美发挥,这个正义的人必定生活的好;反之,失去德性之人消极懈怠,不能很好发挥特殊功能,生活一团糟,这个不正义者不可能生活得好㊂④由此推论, 正义者是快乐的,不正义者是痛苦的”⑤, 不正义绝对不会比正义更有利”⑥㊂色拉叙马霍斯虽然勉强承认辩驳不过苏格拉底,但显然并没有真正心服口服㊂苏格拉底在第一卷中逐一瓦解了以上传统的正义观念,但他也坦言自己对正义的界定很不充分,因为在找到正义的实质之前我们不能知道关于正义的任何知识㊂苏格拉底本以为辩论就此结束,可柏拉图的两位兄长格劳孔和阿德曼托斯在第二卷开篇又提出了挑战㊂他们认为色拉叙马霍斯屈服的太快了些,苏格拉底的驳斥也无法令人信服和满意㊂于是,第四组辩手格劳孔兄弟首先提出正义应该是最好的那种善,即我们选择正义,是因为它本身也是因为它的后果㊂然后又从三个方面重构了色拉叙马霍斯的正义观点:一是论述了正义的起源和本质;二是通过金戒指的故事说明如果没有外界惩罚,每个人都会做不道德的事;第三,让正义和不正义各趋极端,比较极端不正义比极端正义生活好㊂格劳孔重构的正义观与色拉叙马霍斯的观点虽有一致之处,但也有所不同㊂色拉叙马霍斯侧重强调正义是强者们带有欺骗性的一种伪善”,格劳孔侧重强调正义是弱者们出于恐惧”的一种妥协”㊂可见,人们并不是发自内心真正热爱正义”,要么出于强者的伪善”,要么出于弱者的恐惧”㊂⑦人们追求正义并非因其自身值得选择,而是另有目的㊂这种现实令人痛心,为了保卫正义,格劳孔和阿德曼托斯希望苏格拉底能够挺身而出,即便穷根究底也要弄清楚什么是正义,并证明正义自身比不正义要好㊂这回苏格拉底没有立刻反驳,而是以探寻正义的真正内涵引出整个‘理想国“需要论证和解决的核心问题的方式予以正面回应㊂所以此处,我们尽管仍然疑惑什么是正义”,可是我们的疑惑不再完全没有目标㊂⑧柏拉图①②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第25页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第26页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第27页㊂石文亭:‘<理想国>正义思想研究“,陕西师范大学2016年硕士学位论文㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第42页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:.‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第43页㊂王玉峰:‘城邦的正义与灵魂的正义:对柏拉图<理想国>的一种批判性分析“,北京:北京大学出版社,2009年,第28页㊂P l a t o.T h eR e p u b l i co f P l a t o.T r a n s l a t e d w i t h N o t e sa n d a nI n t e r p r e t i v e E s s a y b y A l l a n B l o o m,N e w Y o r k:B a s i cB o o kI n c.,1968,p.337.借苏格拉底之口探求正义的思辨之路,由此真正展开㊂二㊁正义内容的探寻:在个人与城邦的类比中发现正义关于正义,有城邦的正义也有个人的正义㊂人是被缩小的城邦,城邦是被放大的个人㊂个人灵魂的正义是不容易发现的,于是,柏拉图想要通过由大见小的类比方法先行考察城邦里的正义,再寻找个人的正义㊂(一)城邦正义柏拉图在第二卷后半部分至第四卷,一直在竭力构建最好的城邦,这个城邦建立的原则是每个人必须在国家里执行一种最适合他天性的职务”①,以便能够从这个秩序井然㊁好的国家里找到正义㊂城邦产生的根源是人们经济生活方面的某种不自足,即源于相互需要和分工而非统治者的利益㊂因此,城邦成员被划分为三个阶层:统治者㊁辅助者和劳动者㊂统治者是具有超高智慧和能力,真正关心国家利益,最愿毕生鞠躬尽瘁,为国家利益效劳的护卫者中的少数最优秀者㊂辅助者是具有勇敢品质,能够胜任作战守护城邦,并执行统治者法令的人㊂劳动者包括人数众多的农民㊁手艺人和生意人,他们需要安分守己㊁认真劳作,服从统治者的领导㊂最终建成的善的城邦具有智慧㊁勇敢㊁节制和正义的美德㊂智慧是城邦统治者特有的用来考虑整个国家大事,改进对内对外关系的知识㊂勇敢是护卫者具备的一种精神上的能力,即关于可怕事物和不可怕事物的符合法律精神的正确信念的完全保持”②,不致被苦恼㊁害怕和欲望所迷惑㊂智慧和勇敢处于国家的不同部分,而节制是贯穿全体公民的, 一种好秩序或对某些快乐与欲望的控制”③,是国家里或个人身上表现出的一致性和协调㊂统治者运用智慧处理好国家的内政外交,护卫者运用勇敢的品质保家卫国,劳动者运用自身的天赋技能从事生产,辛勤劳作,即生意人㊁辅助者和护国者这三种人在国家里各做各的事而不相互干扰时,便有了正义,从而也就使国家成为正义的国家了”④㊂至此,我们在这个至善的城邦中照见了大写的正义”㊂(二)个人正义一个理想正义城邦的建立,离不开正义个人的存在㊂将城邦与个人类比,个人灵魂里也存在三种品质,即理智㊁激情和欲望㊂理智是灵魂的理性部分,用以思考推理,为整个心灵利益起谋划作用;激情是我们借以发怒的东西, 愤怒有时作为欲望之外的一个东西和欲望发生冲突”⑤,因此它是理智的盟友;欲望是人们用以感觉爱㊁饿㊁渴等物欲骚动的心灵无理性部分, 每一种欲望本身只要求得到自己本性所要求得到的那种东西”⑥㊂一个正义的人,理智部分是智慧的,领导着激情和欲望,相应于城邦中的统治者;激情部分是勇敢的,无论什么时候都谨记理智教导的内容,相应于城①②③④⑤⑥[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第156页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第151页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第152页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第158页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第168页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第164页㊂邦中的护卫者,是理智的天然辅助者; 各种各样的欲望㊁快乐和苦恼都是在小孩㊁女人㊁奴隶和那些名义上叫做自由人的为数众多的下等人身上出现的”①,相应于城邦中的劳动者,欲望部分在理智和激情的教化训练下,远离贪婪,即一个人灵魂里较坏的部分受天性较好的部分控制”,这就是节制的㊂在国家里存在的东西在每一个个人的灵魂里也存在着,且数目相同㊂我们以什么为根据承认国家是正义的,我们也将以同样的根据承认个人是正义的㊂”②既然国家的正义在于三种人在国家里各做各的事,那么,个人正义就是灵魂里理智㊁激情和欲望三种品质各起各的作用,互不干涉,自身秩序井然,达到一种协调与和谐的状态㊂柏拉图还强调, 各起各的天然作用,不起别种人的作用,这种正确的分工乃是正义的影子”③,真正的正义不是关于外在的各做各的事”,而是关于内在的,即关于真正本身,真正本身的事情㊂④三㊁正义理论的重心:在共同体的和谐运作中彰显正义人类自然是趋向于城邦生活的动物”⑤, 国家首先是从人类的需要中发现它的凝聚力的”⑥㊂柏拉图的理想城邦就是在公民相互需要和分工基础上组成的共同体㊂他在这个稳定而有序的城邦共同体中通过由大见小的类比方法找到了个人正义,个人正义与城邦正义异名同质,互为条件㊂个人的正义的实现需要依靠城邦的正义,而城邦正义的实现又依附于个人的正义㊂个人正义固然重要,但实际上,城邦的整体利益即共同体的和谐运作才是柏拉图追寻正义的根本重心㊂共同体的和谐运作不仅是柏拉图照见个人正义的媒介和手段,更是柏拉图构建理想国探寻正义的首要宗旨,以下分析我们不难看出端倪㊂首先,希腊政局混乱的现实催生了柏拉图对理想城邦的渴求,共同体的和谐运作是他构建理想国的重要目的㊂伯罗奔尼撒战争使城邦的稳定和谐岌岌可危㊂一生坚持行正义”的苏格拉底死于政治迫害,让柏拉图十分痛心,看透了腐朽政治的奄奄一息,也坚定了追寻正义理想国的决心㊂面对时代留给他的难题,柏拉图始终希望能够从政一展宏图,拯救混乱的城邦于危难,一有机会就尝试把理想国的伟大构想付诸实践,可他三次赴西西里之行都未能如愿,‘理想国“著作表达了他对正义城邦的神驰向往㊂而且,雅典在伯罗奔尼撒战争中惨败,不可忽视的一个关键的原因就是,伯利克里去世后,雅典统治者争权夺利,将个人利益置于城邦利益之上㊂柏拉图所致力于构筑的理想城邦则恰恰相反,更为关注城邦的整体利益㊂⑦因此,共同体的和谐运作的愿望既是柏拉图创作‘理想国“的起因,也是‘理想国“企图达成的目的㊂其次,柏拉图认为财产和家庭不利于统治者和辅助者才能的发挥,容易妨碍他们全身心的为城邦整体谋利益,体现了柏拉图个人正义让位和服务于城邦正义的主张㊂柏拉图认为私有财产是自①②③④⑤⑥⑦[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第153页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第171页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第174页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第175页㊂[古希腊]亚里士多德:‘政治学“,吴寿彭译,北京:商务印书馆,2017年,第7页㊂[英]厄耐斯特㊃巴克:‘希腊政治理论:柏拉图及其前人“,卢华萍译,长春:吉林人民出版社,2003年,第230页㊂[古希腊]修昔底德:‘伯罗奔尼撒战争史“,谢德风译,北京:商务印书馆,1985年,第150页㊂私和贪欲的根源,必须禁止政治权利和经济权利的结合㊂为实现城邦的统一与和谐,避免统治者和辅助者受一己私利的影响,柏拉图强调要在统治者和辅助者两个阶层消灭私有制和家庭㊂通过废除小家,成就大家,使全城邦融合一体,培养统治者和辅助者的集体主义精神㊂这样人们就不再有你我之分,利益之争,大家意见相同,目标一致,共同献身于城邦的整体幸福,城邦就实现了高度的统一与和谐㊂我们建立这个国家的目标并不是为了某一阶级的单独突出的幸福,而是为了全体公民的最大幸福㊂我们的首要任务乃是铸造出一个幸福国家的模型来,但不是支离破碎地铸造一个为了少数人幸福的国家,而是铸造一个整体的幸福国家㊂”①城邦整体的幸福高于城邦中任何阶层㊁任何个人的幸福㊂无论是统治者㊁辅助者还是劳动者,都是城邦的公民,是共同体中的普通一员,都为国家的共同目的服务,不能谋一己私利,甚至要为国家牺牲个人幸福以促成城邦的整体幸福㊂正如波普尔指出: 柏拉图的正义’到底意味着什么?我断言在‘理想国“中,他用公正’这一术语作为为了最完美国家的利益的一切’之同义语㊂”②苏格拉底的审判就是最典型的例子,他为了维护城邦的正义而献上了自己的生命㊂可见,柏拉图关注的是城邦整体利益的最大化,其正义理论是为集体利益的整体幸福,即共同体的和谐运作服务的㊂再次, 城邦虽在发生程序上后于个人和家庭,在本性上则先于个人和家庭㊂就本性来说,全体必然先于部分;以身体为例,如全身毁伤,则手足也就不成其为手足,脱离了身体的手足同石制的手足无异,这些手足无从发挥其手足的实用,只在含糊的名义上大家仍旧称之为手足而已㊂我们确认自然生成的城邦先于个人,就因为个人只是城邦的组成部分,每一个隔离的个人都不足以自给其生活,必须共同集合于城邦这个整体才能让大家满足其需要㊂”③而且,正义是关于整体的德性,对于个人而言,国家是整体;对于个人灵魂的各部分而言,个人又是整体㊂没有什么比闹分裂化一为多更恶,比讲团结化多为一更善的㊂当一个国家最像一个人的时候,它是管理得最好的国家㊂”④可见,城邦正义在本性上先于个人和家庭,正义不是某一阶层,而是整个城邦展现的德性㊂总之,虽然柏拉图提出的正义是对国家和个人的共同要求,是对个人和共同体的双向规约,但在坚持二者和谐统一的大原则下,柏拉图本人是偏向于城邦正义的㊂他把个人的正义视为实现理想国家的工具,个体不但不能违背城邦正义,而且还要为城邦正义让道,更为注重城邦生活的整体幸福㊂亚里士多德也评价: 正义以公共利益为依归”⑤㊂因此,共同体的和谐运作才是柏拉图正义理论的根本重心,在柏拉图心中城邦正义始终是至高无上的㊂四、马克思对柏拉图正义理论的超越柏拉图基于奴隶主贵族立场及其唯心主义的历史观,描绘了一幅整体和谐的正义图景㊂马克思作为科学社会主义的创始人,虽然没有关于正义的专门著作,但却吸收㊁融合了人类思想史上正①②③④⑤[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第135页㊂[英]波普尔:‘开放社会及其敌人“第一卷,陆横等译,第182页㊂[古希腊]亚里士多德:‘政治学“,吴寿彭译,第9页㊂[古希腊]柏拉图:‘理想国“,郭斌和㊁张竹明译,第199页㊂[古希腊]亚里士多德:‘政治学“,吴寿彭译,第152页㊂。

Plato

Plato
The Republic
Outline
Introduction of Plato
Introduction of The Republic Philosophies and ideas in The Republic
Analysis of Content of BookⅩ
Conclusion
Introduction of Plato
Plato( 424/423 BC – 348/347 BC) was a philosopher in Classical Greece. He was also a mathematician 数学家 , student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science.
6. Philosophy of family
Plato advocates the equal education of
women in Book V, but it doesn‘t mean that he believed in the modern notion of equality between the sexes. He states in book Ⅴ that women are inferior to men in all ways. What‘s more, the ruling class and the warriors are forbidden to marry freely in the State.