A brief history of language teaching
《语言教学流派第二版》自己整理笔记
《语⾔教学流派第⼆版》⾃⼰整理笔记第⼀章A brief history of language teaching第⼆章The nature of approaches and methods前两章很简单，详见前⾯中⽂导读第三章The oral approach and situational language teachingThe oral approach (situational language teaching) is a grammar-based method in whichprinciples of grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teaching points arepresented and practiced through meaningful situation-based activities.⼀、Background1. Two of the leaders were Harold palmer and A.S.Hornby.2. Vocabulary control3. Grammar control⼆、The Oral Approach and Situational Language TeachingThe main characteristics of the approach were as follows:1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally.2. The target language is the language of the classroom.3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.5. Items of grammar are graded by their complexity.6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.三、Approach(2).An inductive approach is used to the teaching of grammar(3).The same processed are thought to occur both in child language learning and in second language learning.四、Design(1). Practical command of the four basic skills of language(2). Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial.(3). Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fundamental.—a list of the basic structures and sentence patternsa drill-based manner to practicing the new sentence patterns(2) Situation: the use of concrete objects, pictures and realia, which together with actions and gestures(3) Practice techniques: guided repetition, substitution activities, pair practiceThreefold: a model、a skillful manipulator、on the lookout for errors(2)Visual aids: consists of wall charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figuresThe teacher is expected to be the master of his textbook.五、ProcedureAim: to move from controlled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentenceRevision ( to prepare for new work if necessary)Presentation of new structure or vocabularyOral practice (drilling)Choral imitationIndividual imitationIsolationBuilding up to a new modelElicitationSubstitution drillingQuestion-answer drillingCorrection第四章The Audiolingual MethodIt is a method of foreign or second language teaching which (a) emphasizes the teaching ofspeaking and listening before reading and writing (b) uses dialogues and drills. (c)discourages use of the mother tongue in the classroom (d) often makes use of contrastiveanalysis. The audiolingual method was prominent in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in theUnited States, and has been widely used in many other parts of the world.⼀、BackgroundThe combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method.情境法与听说法的异同There are many similarities between situational language teaching and audiolingualism.1. The order in which language skills are introduced2. Focus on accuracy through drill and practice in the basic structures3. Sectence patterns of the target languageHowever, situational language teaching was a development of the earlier Direct Method and does not have the strong ties to linguistic and behavioral psychology that characterize audiolingualism. The similarities of the two methods reflect similar views about the nature of language and of language learning, through these views were in fact development from quite different traditions.⼆、Approach1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation.2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in sporken form before they are seen in written form.3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather than deductive.4.The meaning of word can be learned in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.三、Design、accurate pronunciation, reading comprehension and productionModels the target languageControls the direction and pace of learningTape recorders and audiovisual equipment四、Procedure1、The process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction2、The procedures the teacher should adopt ( Brook)3、In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures will be observed:a. Recognition;b. Imitation and repetitionc. Patterns drill:d. Follow-up activities五、The decline of Audiolingualism1、Criticism on two fronts: the theoretical foundations（both in language and language learning）and the practical results fell short of expectation.2、the theoretical attack: Noam Chomsky’s theory of transformational grammar第五章Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response is a language learning method based on the coordination of speechand action. This method of learning was developed by James Asher, a professor of psychologyat San Jose State University, California.⼀、Background1、the “trace theory” of memory in psychology2、developmental psychology：child first language acquisition3、humanistic psychology: the role of affective factors4、Comprehension Approach5、a tradition: the use of physical actions to teach a foreign language at an introductory level⼆、Approachstructuralist or grammar-based views of languagedetailed cognitive map (abstractions and nonabstractions)the central role of comprehension in language learningReminiscent of the views of behavioral psychology: a stimulus-response viewLearning hypotheses ( to facilitate or inhibit foreign language learning )According to Asher, the language learning theories are similar to those of other behavioral psychologists. The principals that help elaborate his idea are:1. Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect the samenaturalistic processes.2. Listening should develop before speaking.3. Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally and effortlesslyout of it.4. Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns.三、Designoral proficiency at a beginning levelA sentence-based syllabusA fixed number of items be introduced at a timeImperative drills are the major classroom activity.Role plays：center on everyday situationSlide presentationsA primary role : listener and performerHave little influence over the contentActive and direct roleWell prepared and well organizedTeachers follow the example of parents giving feedbackNo basic text, materials and realia play an increasing role in later learning stages.Student kits that focus on specific situations (supporting materials)四、ProcedureAsher’s account of a course:ReviewNew commandsRole reversalReading and writingConclusion:Total Physical Response has enjoyed some popularity because of its support by those who emphasize the role of comprehension in second language acquisition.第六章The Silent WayIt is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by Gattegno which makes use of gesture,mime, visual aids, wall charts, and in particular Cuisiniere rods (wooden sticks of differentlengths and colors) that the teacher uses to help the students to talk. The method takes itsname from the relative silence of the teacher using these techniques.⼀、BackgroundThe premise of the Silent WayThe learning hypothesesLearning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. (discovery learning)Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.Learning is facilitated by problem solving.⼆、ApproachBy the "spirit" of the language Gattegno is referring to the way each language isComposed of phonological and suprasegmentalA structural approachArtificial approachThe self of the learnerLearning to learn三、DesignAn immediate objectives: to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar of the languageLearners exert a strong influence over each other’s learning.To teach, to test, to get out of the wayCreate an environmentThe colored cuisenaire rodsThe vocabulary or word chartsOther materials四、ProcedureA standard formatPractice of the sounds (using the pronunciation charts)Practice of sentence patterns, structure, and vocabulary (using the rods and charts)A sample lessonFidel chartConclusion:The actual practices of the Silent Way are much less revolutionary than might be expected. The innovations derive from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed upon learners, and the materials used.第七章Community Language Learning社团语⾔学习法It is a method of second and foreign language teaching developed by Charles Curran. CLL is an application of counseling learning(咨询学习法)to second and foreign languageteaching and learning. It uses techniques developed in group counseling to help people withpsychological and emotional problems. The method makes use of group learning in small orlarge groups. Thes e groups are the “Community”. The method places emphasis on thelearners’ personal feelings and their reactions to language learning. Learners say thingswhich they want to talk about, in their native language. The teacher (known as “Counselor”)translat es the learners’ sentences into the foreign language, and the learner then repeats thisto other members of the group.⼀、Background1、Rogerian counseling——Charles A. Curren2、Humanistic techniques：the whole person3、Language alternation⼆、ApproachLanguage as social processThe interactional view of language: interaction between equals, interaction betweenunequalsThe whole-person learning (five stages)Consensual validationS(secure)A(attention and aggression)R(retention and reflection)D(discrimination)the personal commitments三、Designnot defined.Teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learner.Goal: attaining near-native like mastery of the target languageTopic-based courseTeacher’s responsibility：teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learnerGoal: attenting near-native like mastery of the target language.Translation, Group Work, Recording, Transcription, Analysis, Reflection andbecome counselors to other learnersSpecific teacher roles are keyed to the five development stages.providing a safe environmentMaterials may be developed by the teacher as the course develops.the use of teaching machines四、Procedure1、classical CLL and personal interpretations of it2、the description of some typical activities in CLL classed3、 a protocol of what a first day’s CLL class coveredConclusion:Community Language Learning is the most responsive of the methods we have reviewed in terms of its sensitivity to learner communication intent. It places unusual demands on language teachers. Critics of Community Language Learning question many aspects of CLL. Supporters of CLL emphasize the positive benefits of a method that centered on the learner and stresses the humanistic side of language learning.⾃⼰想法：学校英语⾓活动Question for discussion:社团学习法把语⾔学习过程⽐作是咨询过程，你们觉得这个⽐喻合适吗？为什么？第⼋章SuggostopediaSuggestopedia/Lozanov Method (暗⽰法/罗扎诺夫法)It is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by the Bulgarian Lozanov. It makes use of dialogues, situations and translation to present and practise language, and in particular,makes use of music, visual images, and relaxation exercises to make learning morecomfortable and effective.⼀、Background1、Suggestology2、the most conspicuous characteristics of Suggestopedia3、Soviet psychology4、mental states5、the centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning⼆、Approachwhole meaningful textsix principal theoretical components:authority, infantilization, double-planedness, intonation, rhythm, concertpseudo-passivenessthe type of musicthe rate of presentation of material to be learned within the rhythmic pattern三、Designdeliver advanced conversational proficiency quicklytime duration——30 dayseach uniteach unitexpected teacher behaviorsDirect support materials: text and tapeIndirect support materials: classroom fixtures and music四、ProcedureBancroft’s description: a four-hour language class has three distinct parts.The first part: an oral review sectionThe second part: new material is presented and discussedThe third part: the séance or concert sessionConclusion:Suggestopedia has probably received both the most enthusiastic and the most critical response of any of the so-called new methods. It is not productive to further belabor the science/nonscience, date/double-talk issues and instead try to identify and validate those techniques from Suggestopedia that appear effective and that harmonize with other successful techniques in the language teaching inventory.Question for discussion;暗⽰法强调⾳乐的作⽤，那么⾳乐在外语学习过程中究竟起了怎样的作⽤？谈谈你们的看法。
unit 3 The National English Curriculum
Time allocation: 656 hours Textbooks were published by PEP, the only recognised publisher then under the State Education Committee to publish textbooks for schools in China. Teaching method: audiolingualism
Achievements as a result of the application of the new syllabus
A large scale English language teaching and learning investigation led by Professor Zhang Zhengdong et al in 1999 to the first group of senior secondary school leavers that used Junior English for China and Senior English for China:
English teaching should not only focus on developing students’ knowledge about the language, but also developing students’ cognitive ability, positive attitudes as well as personality. As far as pedagogy is concerned, it was stated that teaching should focus more on the use of the language to improve the quality of learning.
英语教学法第二版 复习提纲
Unit 1 Language and Learning1. Language:” Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”5. The language learning theory underlying an approach or method usually answers two questions:1) What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning?2) What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning processes to be activated?6.1) Process-oriented theories are concerned with how the mind processes new information, such as habit formation, induction, making inference, hypothesis testing and generalization.2) Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, what kind of input learners receive, and the learning atmosphere.2. Three views of languageStructural view: language as a linguistic systemThe functional view: a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things.The interactional view:a communicative tool3. Four Language Learning Theories1Behaviorist theoryA stimulus-response theory of psychologyAudio-lingual methodCognitive theoryLanguage as an intricate rule-based systemLanguage competence (knowledge of language system)Constructivist theoryThe learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what is already known.Socio-constructivist theory“Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD); scaffoldingEmphasizing interaction and engagement with TL in a social context4. What makes a good language teacherprofessional competenceEthic devotion: warm-hearted, caring, enthusiastic, hardworking, well-prepared Professional qualities: resourceful, well-informed, professionally-trained, authoritative, disciplined, accurate, creativePersonal styles: patient, attentive, flexible, humorous, dynamic, intuitive5. How can one become a good language teacherW allace’s (1991) ‘reflective modelStage 1: language developmentStage 2: learning, practice, reflectionGoal: professional competenceUnit 2 Communicative Principles and Activities1. The ultimate goal of foreign language teaching is to enable the students to use theforeign language in work or life when necessary.1. The goal of CLT is to develop students‟ communicative competence.2.What is communicative compentence?3.Try to list some of its components and their implication to teaching.Communicative compentence refers to both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations. According to Hedge, it includes five components.Linguistic competence --- knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaning Pragmatic competence --- the appropriate use of language in social contextDiscourse competence--- one‟s ability to create cohere nt written text or conversation and the ability to understand them (ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse /ability to initiate, develop, enter, interrupt, check, or confirm in a conversation)Strategic competence--- strategies one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resourcesFluency---- one‟s ability to …link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or undue hesitation4.Implications for teaching and learning:Linguistic competenceTeachers need to help learners----achieve accuracy in the grammatical forms of the language;----pronounce the forms accurately;----use stress, rhythm, and intonation to express meaning;----build a range of vocabulary;----learn the script and spelling rules;----achieve accuracy in syntax and word formation.Pragmatic competenceTeachers need to help learners---learn the relationship between grammatical forms and functions;---use stress and intonation to express attitude and emotion;---learn the scale of formality;---understand and use emotive tone;---use the grammatical rules of language;---select language forms appropriate to topic, listener, or setting, etc.Discourse competenceTeachers need to help learners----take longer turns, use discourse markers and open and close conversations;----appreciate and be able to produce contextualised written texts in a variety of genres; ----be able to use cohesive devices in reading and writing texts;----be able to cope with authentic texts.Strategic competenceTeachers need to enable learners----to take risks in using the language;----to use a range of communicative strategies;----to learn the language needed to engage in some of these strategies, e.g. …What do you call a thing that/person who…‟Teachers need to help learners-----deal with the information gap of real discourse;-----process language and respond appropriately with a degree of ease;-----be able to respond with reasonable speed in …real time”.5. Richards and Rodgers(1986:72)three principles of Communicative language teaching1) Communication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning.2) Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful taskpromote learning.3) Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learner supports he learning process.16. Littlewood’s (1981)classification of communicative activities:1). Functional communicative activities:2). Social interaction activities:(1). Functional communicative activities:~ Identifying pictures~ Discovering identical pairs~ Discovering sequences or locations~ Discovering missing information~ Discovering missing features~ Discovering "secrets"~Communicating patterns and pictures~ Communicative models~ Discovering differences~ Following directions~ Reconstructing story-sequences~ Pooling information to solve a problem(2). Social interaction activities:~ Role-playing through cued dialogues~Role-playing through cues and information~Role-playing through situation and goals--Role-playing through debate or discussion~ Large-scale simulation activities~ Improvisation17.Ellis (1990) has listed six criteria for evaluating communicative classroom activities:1). Communicative purpose:2). Communicative desire:3). Content, not form:4). Variety of language:5). No teacher intervention:A task is believed to have four components:a purpose,a context,a product.任务情景化:有需要解决的问题;需要行动或语言+非语言类任务目标化学会行动;完成语言+非语言类任务复杂性;复杂成果;难以预料短期内不明显练习情景化:无需要解决的问题;纯语言练习（理想的是，一次解决一个语言难点）目标化学会行动;完成纯语言练习复杂性;单一成果;事先预设，明显但有限度（对/错）6.Differences between PPP and TBLT1.The way students use and experience language in TBLT is radically different from PPP. Free of language controlA genuine need to use language to communicateA free exchange of ideasAppropriateness & accuracy of language form in general, not production of a single form A genuine need for accuracy and fluency2TBL can provide a context for grammar teaching and form-focused activities.A task-established contextEncouraged to think, analyze, not simply to repeat, manipulate and apply A more varied exposure to natural languageLanguage forms not pre-selected for focusLearner-free selection of languageFluency accuracy (+fluency)Integrated skills practisedProblems with CLT1.Is it practical in the Chinese context?2.How to design the syllabus for classroom teaching?3.Is it suitable for all age level of learners or all competence level of learners? Constraints of TBLT1.It may not be effective for presenting new language items2.Time: teachers have to prepare task-based activities very carefully.3.Culture of learning4.Level of difficultyUnit 3National English Curriculum3.1 A brief history of foreign language teaching in China1A phase of restoration (1978-1985)2A phase of rapid development (1986-1992)3A phase of reform (1993-2000)4A phase of innovation from 20002,Designing principles for the National English Curriculum1) Aim for educating all students, and emphasize quality-oriented education.2) Promote learner-centeredness, and respect individual differences.3. Develop competence-based objectives, and allow flexibility and adaptability4) Pay close attention to the learning process, and advocate experiential learning and participation5. Attach particular importance to formative assessment, and give special attention to the development of competence.6. Optimize learning resources, and maximize opportunities for learning and using the language.3.3Goals and objectives of English language teachingThe new curriculum is designed to promote students‟ overall language ability3.4 Design of the National English CurriculumNine competence-based levelsLevel 2,For 6th gradersLevel 5,For 9th gradersLevel 7,For senior high school leaversUnit 4 Lesson Planning18. Lesson planningLesson planning means making decisions in advance about what techniques, activities and materials will be used in the class.19. Why is lesson planning necessary?1)Makes teachers aware of the aims and language contents of the lesson, so as to plan the activities and choose the techniques accordingly;2)Helps teachers distinguish the various stages of a lesson and see the relationship between them so that the activities of different difficulty levels can be arranged properly and the lesson can move smoothly from one stage to another;3)Gives teachers the opportunity to anticipate potential problems so that they can be prepared;4)Gives teachers, esp. novice ones, confidence in class;5)Raises teachers‟ awareness of the teaching aids needed;6)Planning is a good practice and a sign of professionalism21. There are four major principles behind good lesson planning:AimVariety means planning a number of different types of activities and where possible introducing students to a wide selection of materials so that learning is always interesting, motivating and never monotonous for the students.Flexibility means planning to use a number of different methods and techniques rather than being a slave to one methodology. This will make teaching and learning more effective and more efficient.Learnability means the contents and tasks planned for the lesson should be within the learning capability of the students. Of course, things should not be too easy either. Doing things that are beyond or below the students' coping ability will diminish their motivation (Schumann, 1999).Linkage means the stages and the steps within each stage are planned in such a way that they are somehow linked with one another. Language learning needs recycling and reinforcement.24. Lesson planning should be done at two levels:Macro planning is planning over time, for instance, the planning for a month, a term, or the whole course.micro planning: is planning for a specific lesson, which usually lasts 40 or 50 minutes. 25.Macro planning involves:1) Knowing about the course:2) Knowing about the institution:3) Knowing about the learners:4) Knowing about the curriculum/syllabus5)Knowing about the textbook6)Knowing about the objectives26. The advantage of a concrete teaching plan:Teachers can follow it in the class and check what they have done;The plan will be the basis of a record of what has been covered in class;It will make it easier to make achievement tests later;It will be good records for the entire course.4.4 Components of a Lesson Plan1.Background information2.Teaching aimsnguage contents and skills4.Stages and procedures5.Teaching aids6.end of lesson summary7.optional activities and Assignments8.after-lesson reflection28. The aims of a lesson include:language components to present,communicative skills to practice,activities to conductmaterials to be usedteaching aids to be used.Unit 5 Classroom Management1.What is classroom management?Classroom Management refers to the way teachers organize what goes on in the classroom.1. Teachers’ roles:Before the class---PlannerDuring the class—1 Controlle2 Assessor3 Organizer4 Prompter5 Participant6 Resource-providerAfter the class---Evaluatornew roles:facilitatorsguidesresearcher s2.Rules to follow for making instructions effectiveTo use simple instructions and make them suit the comprehension level of thestudents.To use the mother-tongue only when it is necessary. (to explain grammar rules or rules for a game or task which may be too complicated to explain in the targetlanguage)3. What are the most common types of Ss grouping?Whole class workPair work,Group work,Individual study:4.How to maintain discipline?P.79When students are engaged in learning, they will be disciplined.Q: How to engage students in learning?1)Ss are clear about learning purpose;2)Ss are able to do the work but find it challenging;3)Ss are emotionally, physically and intellectually involved by the tasks;4)The presentation, variety and structure of the work and activities generate curiosity and interest;5)Ss have opportunities to ask questions and try out ideas;6)Ss can see what they have achieved and how they had made progress;7)Ss get a feeling of satisfaction and enjoyment from the work.4. Harmer’s suggestions on measures for undisciplined acts and badly behaving Ss:1). Act immediately2). Stop the class3).Rearrange the seats4).Change the activity5).Talk to Ss after class6).creat a code of behavior5. In order not to hurt the Ss,Ur’s advice on problems in class:1).Deal with it quietly2).Don‟t take things personally 对事不对人3).Do not use threats6. What are the functions or purposes of questions?To focus students‟ attentionsTo invite thinking or imaginationsTo check understandingTo stimulate recall of informationTo challenge studentsTo assess learning7How to ask effective question1)Questions should be closely linked to the learning objectives in the lesson;2)Questions should be staged so that the level of challenge increases as the lesson proceeds;3)There should be a balance between closed and open, lower-order and higher-order questions;4)Wait time is important to allow students to think through their answers;5)Ss should be provided opportunities to ask their own questions and seek their own answers;6)A secure and relaxed atmosphere of trust is needed and ss‟ opinions and ideas are valued..6. correct dealing with errors and mistakeswe need to be clear whether the task or activity is focusing on accuracy or fluency.How to correct error：Direct teacher correctionIndirect teacher correctionSelf correctionPeer correctionWhole class correctionUnit 6Teaching Pronunciation1.The role of pronunciationOn the value of teaching pronunciation, there are different opinions:1.Students do not need to learn pronunciation because pronunciation will take care of itself as the students develop overall language ability.2.Failure in pronunciation is a great hindrance to language learn.2. The goals of teaching pronunciation:目的Consistency 连贯性: To be smooth naturalIntelligibility可理解性:To be understandable to the listenersCommunicative efficiency: To help convey the speakers‟ meaning3. Three aspects of pronunciation to teach? Stress, intonation, rhythm4. One common problem in learning English of Ss: (Neglect stress and intonation)5. Ways of practicing soundsPerception practice :Using minimal pairs,Which order,Same or different,Odd one out, CompletionProduction practice: Listen and repeat,Fill in the blanks,Make up sentences,Use meaningful context,Use pictures,Use tongue twisters6. Practicing stress:1).Two kinds of stress: word-level stress ; phrase-level stress2).Three ways to show stress pattern of words:Use gestures, use the voice, use theblackboard7. Practicing intonation:1). There are many subtle ways: surprise, complaint, …sarcasm讥讽，friendliness, threats etc.2). Two ways to make intonation:Use hand or arm movement to indicate change of intonaton: rising/falling arrows; draw linesUnit 7. Teaching Grammar1. What are grammar presentation methods? 演示法Deductive method演义法; Inductive method归纳法the guided discovery method (引导发现法2. Deductive method1). Definition: It relies on reasoning, analyzing and comparing.2). Steps: giving rules/definition------giving examples3). Advantages:To be successful with selected and motivated students;To save time;To help to increase students‟ confidence in some exam.4). Disadvantages:To teach grammar in the isolated way;To pay little attention to meaning;To be often mechanical practice.3. Inductive method1).Definition: the teacher induces the learners to realise grammar rules without any form of explicit explanation2). Steps: give examples-----induce rules4). Advantages: Inductive method is more effective in that students discover thegrammar rules themselves while engaged in language use,4. Ur’s definition of grammar practice:"Practice may be defined as any kind of engaging with结合/保证the language on the part of the learner, usually under the teacher supervision, whose primaryobjective(aim/task) is to consolidate learning "(Ur, 1988:11).5. Ur’s six factors contribute to successful grammar practice:1) Pre-learning.2) Volume and repetition(容量/重复).3) Success-orientation成功性联系.4) Heterogeneity多样性.5) Teacher assistance.6) Interest.6. Two categories of grammar practice:Mechanical practiceMeaningful practice.1).Mechanical practice involves activities that are aimed at form accuracy.Two drills in mechanical practice:(1) Substitution drills (2) Transformation drills2). Meaningful practice.In meaningful practice the focus is on the production, comprehension orexchange meaning though the students "keep an eye on" the way newly learnedstructures are used in the process. Meaningful practice usually comes aftermechanical practice.7. Using prompts for practice:1). Using picture prompts. Ss produce sentences based on the pictures provided2). Using mime or gestures as prompts.3).Using information sheet as prompts. E.g.:4). Using key phrases or key words as prompts.5). Using chained phrases for story telling.6). Using created situations.Unit 8 Teaching Vocabulary1. What does knowing a word involve?Knowing a word means knowing its pronunciation and stress;Knowing a word means knowing its spelling and grammatical properties;Knowing a word means knowing its meaning;Knowing a word means knowing how and when to use it to express the intended meaning.Vocabulary learning “involves at least two aspects of meaningThe first aspect involves the understanding of its denotative and connotative meaning.The second aspect involves understanding the sense relations among words.”Collocation , Synonyms,antonyms,hyponyms, Receptive and productive vocabulary2. List some ways of presenting new words1) Try to provide a visual or physical demonstration whenever possible,2) Provide a verbal context to demonstrate meaning.3) Use synonyms or antonyms to explain the meanings.4) Use lexical sets or hyponyms to show relations of words and their meanings.5) Translate and exemplify,6) Use word formation rules and common affixes7) Teach vocabulary in chunks.8) Think about the context in real life where the word might be used.9) Think about providing different context for introducing new words.10) Prepare possible misunderstanding or confusion that student may have.3. Some vocabulary consolidation activities that can be done in class. (12)1) Labeling2) Spotting the differences:3) Describing and drawing:4) Playing a game:5) Using word thermometers:6) Using word series7) Word bingo:9) word association10) Synonyms and antonyms:11) categories12) Using word net-work13)using the internet resources for more ideas4. Developing vocabulary building strategies.1). Review regularly:2). Guess meaning from context:3). Organize vocabulary effectively:4). Use a dictionary:5)keep a vocabulary notebook6).Discovery strategiesUnit 9Teaching Listening1.The reason why such difficulties arise can be quire complicated. however, one major reason for students‟ poor listening is often neglected in language due to1) Lack of teaching materials (audio and video tapes);2) Lack of equipment (tape players, VCRs, VCDs, computers);3) Lack of real-life situations where language learners need to understand spoken English;2 What do we listen to in everyday life? (Ur, 1996)Loudspeaker announcements1.Radio news2.Lesson, lecture3.Conversation, gossip4.Instructions5.Watching television6.Watching movies7.Telephone conversations8.Interview9.Shopping10.Story-telling11.Meetings12.Negotiations13.Theater show…3. One reason for students' unsatisfactory listening abilities:There is not enough variety in the materials that they listen to in class. In most cases, the listening materials are daily conversations or stories. But in reality we listen to far more things, regardless of which language is used.4. The characteristics of listening in real life (adapted from Ur, 1996:106-7):1) Spontaneity2) Context3) Visual clues4) Listener‟s response5) Speaker‟s adjustment5 Two major purposes in listening.*The first is for social reasons;*The second is for exchanging information.6 Principles of teaching listening:1). Focus on process:2). Combine listening with other skills:3). Focus on comprehending meaning:4). Grade difficulty level appropriately:7.dels for teaching listeningbottom-up model up- bottom modelthe teaching of listening generally follows three stages:pre-listening stagewhile-listening stage,post-listening stage.Unit 10Teaching Speaking1. What is speaking?Speaking is a skill that the students will be judged upon most in real-life situations.. 1.what are the differences between spoken and written language?SpokenspontaneousSentences are often incomplete, ungrammatical, and full of hesitations, false starts, and redundancies.If it is not recorded, spoken language can‟t be listened to again. It is expected to be understood immediately.WrittenWell-plannedSentences are often carefully constructed and well organized.Written language is comparatively speaking permanent. It can be read as often as necessary.3.There are four common features of spoken language:Using less complex syntax;Taking short cuts, e.g. incomplete sentences;Using fixed conventional phrases/chunks;Using devices such as fillers, hesitation devices to give time to think before speaking.4.Principles for teaching speaking1) balancing between accuracy-based practice and fluency-based practices :2) Contextualizing practice3) Personalizing practice4) Building up confidence5) Maximizing meaningful interactions6) Helping students develop speaking strategies7)making the best use of classroom learning environment to provide sufficient language input and practice for the students.5,factors should be considered in designing speaking tasksWhen we design speaking tasks, one important consideration is the language proficiency level of the students.6.how can we design speaking activities:1). Maximum foreign talk:2). Even participation3). High motivation4). Right language level4.Types of speaking activitiesLittlewood‟s (1981) framework for defining speaking activities:Pre-communicative activitiesStructural activitiesQuasi-communicative activitiesCommunicative activitiesFunctional communication activitiesSocial interaction activitiesSome speaking activities1)Controlled activities2)semi- Controlled activities3)communication activities1). Information-gap activities:2). Dialogues and role-plays3). Activities using pictures4). Problem-solving activities8,How to organise speaking activities.Using group work in speaking tasks☐Design small group work for three reasons:(1) it increases the time for each student to practise speaking in one lesson;(2) often ss are afraid of making mistakes or losing face or feel shy speaking in front of a whole class;(3) speaking in small groups is more natural in real life.☐Small group work helps ss learn to work cooperatively and helps them develop interpersonal skills—”foste ring development of tolerance, mutual respect andharmony” (Cooke & Nicholson, 1992:34)2). The advantages of using group in speaking tasksSmall group work helps students learn to work cooperatively and it helps them develop interpersonal skills. They learn how to work with a wider variety of people Development of tolerance, mutual respect and harmonyUnit 11 Teaching Reading1. Two types of reading practice in classrooms:Reading aloud and Silent reading2. Effective readers do the following:1) have a clear purpose in reading;2) read silently;3) read phrase by phrase, rather than word by word;4) concentrate on the important bits, skim the rest, and skip the insignificant parts;5) use different speeds and strategies for different reading tasks;6) perceive the information in the target language rather than mentally translate;7) guess the meaning of new words from the context, or ignore them;8) have and use background information to help understand the text.3. What is readingreading is the construction of meaning from a printed or Written message..4. Skills readers need:1.Specifying a purpose for reading2.Planning what to do/what steps to take3.Previewing the text4.Predicting the contents of the text5.Checking predictions6.Skimming the text for the main idea7.Scanning the text for specific information8.Distinguishing main ideas from supporting details9.Posing questions about the text10.Finding answers to posed questions5.The role of vocabulary in reading:Day & Bamford (1998): efficient reading begins with a lightening-like automatic recognition of words, which frees one‟s mind to use other resources to construct meaning. Helping ss to develop the ability of automatic word recognition is the basis for developing their reading skills.The way to develop si ght vocabulary is to read extensively (…Familiarity breeds automaticity‟).6. Some principles for teaching reading(6):1)The selected texts and attached tasks should be accessible to the students.2)Tasks should be clearly given in advance.3) Tasks should be designed to encourage selective and intelligent reading for the main meaning4) Tasks should help develop students' reading skills5) Teachers should help the students not merely to cope with one particular text in front of them but with their reading strategies and reading ability in general.6)Teachers should help the students to read on their own.7.three models of teaching reading1). Bottom-up modelletters---words---phrases---clauses---sentences---paragraphs---whole discours2). Top-down modelbackground knowledge--- guess meaning from the printed page3)Interactive model8. Three stages of reading:Pre-reading activities;While-reading activities;Post-reading ActivitiesPre-reading activities;Predictinga). Predicting based on the titleb). Predicting based on vocabularyc). Predicting based on the T/F questions2). Setting the scene* Besides discussing culture bound aspects of the text, we can also set the scene by relating what students already know to what they want to know.3). SkimmingSkimming means reading quickly to get the gist, i.e. the main idea of the text. Some suggestions may help teachers to set up skimming activities:。
英语教学理论与实践教学大纲
《英语教学理论与实践》教学大纲Theory and Practice for English language Teaching课程代码：RRX036316 学时：36 学分：2理论学时：36 实验或讨论学时：0适用专业：英语课程性质：选修执笔人：李银玲审定人：康光明一、说明1．课程的性质、地位和任务“英语教学理论与实践”是面向英语专业高年级学生开设的一门个性发展课程。
是一门多边缘的、发展中的、理论与实践相结合的理论学科，课程在回顾外语教学历史、研究语言和学习规律、介绍先进教学理论的同时，要求学生通过语音、语法、词汇、听力、口语、阅读、写作、等课堂教学的实践，掌握教学理论，灵活运用教学理论。
因此，本课程具有知识介绍和理论实践两大特点，既注重知识的传授，又注意教学能力的培养。
2．课程教学的基本要求该课程要求学生有很强的自主学习能力和参与意识。
根据人才培养模式的要求和本课程设置的特点，学生在学习时应做到以下几点：1）做好充分的预习工作该课程要求学生必须在上课前做好充分的预习工作。
在课前预习时应该做到以下几点：预习教材，完成所有的tasks；阅读相关的辅助材料，如上海外语教育出版社和外研社都出版了成套的英语教学和研究类图书，另外很多国内的刊物，如“外语教学与研究”“外语界””国外外语教学”“中小学外语教学”等，国外的如TESOL Quarterly, ELT Journal, Forum等上面都有很多理论与理论应用性的研究，阅读这些书籍和刊物不仅可以扩充自己的知识，也可以学习一些研究方法；自己应该能够根据教材中的教学理论，设计各种微型课堂活动。
2）注意互惠性学习所谓互惠性学习即在学习中与其他同学合作，互惠互利，进行信息共享，共同分析问题、解决问题。
如有可能可以结合成固定的学习小组。
3）加强反思性学习在学习过程中应注意将所学教学理论与自己的教学实践相联系，从理论的角度评估自己的教学。
如在学习“阅读教学”时，根据阅读教学的理论对照自己的阅读教学实践，寻找教学中的差距，这样不仅可以加深对教学理论的理解，也可通过对自己教学的反思，提高自己的业务素质。
a brief history of language teaching
A BRIEF HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHINGtin 500 years agoII.16th century Latin replaced with English, French and ItalianIII.England 16th to 19th century, Latin in ‘grammar schools’Importance of Latin: to develop intellectual abilitiesWhen once the Latin tongue had ceased to be a normal vehicle for communication, and was replaced as such by the vernacular languages, then it most speedily became a ‘mental gymnastic’, the supremely ‘dead’ language, a disciplined and systematic study of which was held to be indispensable as a basis for all forms of high education. (V.Mallison, cited in Titone 1968:26) IV.18th century: Beginning of modern language teaching (taught like Latin) Examples of sentences students translated in the foreign language classroom.•The philosopher pulled the lower jaw of the hen.•My sons have bought the mirrors of the Duke.•The cat of my aunt is more treacherous than the dog of your uncle.1968:28) (TitoneV.19th & 20th century (1840’s – 1940’s): The Grammar Translation Method Principal characteristics:1.The goal is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order tobenefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development.(A way of studying a language through detailed analysis of its grammar rules,followed by using this knowledge to translate sentences and texts into the targetlanguage.)2.Reading and writing are the major focus. (Speaking and listening are notconsidered to be important).3.Vocabulary lists are based on reading texts and words are taught throughbilingual word lists, dictionary study and memorisation. (In a typical Grammar-Translation text, grammar rules are presented and a list of vocabulary items arepresented with their translation equivalents and translation exercises are given).4.The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice.(Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the targetlanguage).5.Accuracy is emphasised. (Students are expected to attain high standards intranslation.)6.Grammar is taught deductively. (Rules are presented by the teacher andstudents practice the rules in translation exercises.)7.The student’s native language is the language of instruction. (New itemsand comparisons between the foreign language and the student’s native languageare used in the classroom.)Richards, Jack C. & Rodgers, Theodore S. 1989. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.VI. PRE-REFORM MOVEMENT•The Frenchman C. Marcel (1793-1896)Æ Connection between child learning his/her language and foreign languageteaching.Æ Importance of meaningÆ Reading taught before other skills•The Englishman T. Prendergast (1806-1886)Æ The 1st to record the observation that children use contextual and situational cues to interpret utterances and that they memorise phrases and routines inspeaking.Æ He proposed the first “structural syllabus”.•The Frenchman F. Gouin (1831-1896)Æ He developed an approach to teaching foreign language based on hisobservation of children’s use of language.Æ Gouin seriesÆ His emphasis was on teaching new items in a context that made meaningclear, and that used gestures and actions to convey the meaning.VII. THE REFORM MOVEMENT (an approach to language teaching)Æ During the 1880’s linguists like Henry Sweet (England) and Wilhelm Viëtor (Germany) began to bring credibility and acceptance to reformist ideas.•Henry Sweet (1845-1912) The Practical Study of Languages•Wilhelm Viëtor (1850-1918) Language Teaching Must Start AfreshÆ 1886 International Phonetic Association & its International Phonetic AlphabetÆ REFORMERS BELIEVED THAT:1. Spoken language is primary (oral-based methodology)2. Phonetics in teaching and teacher training3.Learner should listen before seeing language in written form4.Words presented in sentences and practised in meaningful contexts notisolated5.Grammar taught inductively (after practising in context)6.Avoid translation, although mother tongue could be used to explain newwords or check comprehension.VIII. THE DIRECT METHOD (NATURAL METHODS)•Principles and procedures of the Direct Method:1.Classroom instruction only in target language.2.Teachers only taught everyday vocab. and sentences.3.Oral communication skills organised around question – answer exchangesbetween teachers and students in small groups.4.Grammar was taught inductively.5.New teaching points introduced orally.6.Concrete vocab. taught through demonstration, objects and pictures;abstract vocab. by association of words.7.Speech and listening comprehension were taught.8.Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasised.•Coleman Report Æ Study in 1923 in USGROUP DISCUSSION:What should the goals of language teaching be? Should a language course try to teach conversational proficiency, reading, translation, or some other skill?What should the role of the native language be?What teaching techniques and activities work best and under what circumstances?。
语言教学的流派
语言教学的流派(共3页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--语言教学的流派(第2版)(当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库)(Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching)Preface xxxiiiPart I Major trends in twentieth-century languageteaching 11 A Brief History of Language Teaching 32 The Nature of Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching 183 The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching 364 The Audiolingual Method 50Part II Alternative approaches and methods 715 Total Physical Response 736 The Silent Way 817 Community Language Learning 908 Suggestopedia 1 009 Whole Language 1081 0 Multiple Intelligences 11511 Neurolinguistic Programming 12512 The Lexical Approach 13213 Competency—Based Language Teaching 141Part III Current communicative approaches 15114 Communicative Language Teaching 15315 The Natural Approach 17816 Cooperati ve Language Learning 19217 Content—Based Instruction 20418 Task—Based Langua ge Teaching 22319 The Post-methods Era 244Author index 257Subject index 261序言This is a revised and reorganized version of the first edition．originally published in 1986．More than half of the contents of this new edition has-been specially written for this edition．Since the first edition was pub．1ished．it has become one of the most widely referred to books on teaching methods．Since then，however, a great deal has happened in language teaching．In planning this new edition，we have therefore made a number of substantial changes． We have divided the book into three main parts： Part I deals with major trends in twentieth．century language teaching．The chapters in this section are substantially the same as those in the first edition but include an updated list of references．Part II deals with alternative approaches and methods．This section describes approaches and methods that have attracted support at different times and in different places throughout the last 30 or so years．but have generally not been widely accepted or, in some cases，have not maintained substantial followings．The chapters on Total Physical Response，the Silent Way, Community Language Learning，and Suggestopedia are shorter versions of chapters from the first edition．Additional and more recent references have been added tO these chapters．Because these methods are no longer widely used，a shorter treatment seemed appropriate．Readers requiring fuller discussion of these methods should consult the first edition．New chapters on Whole Language．Multiple Intelligences，Neurolinguistic Programming，the Lexical Approach，and Competency Based Language Teaching complete Part II．Although these latter appr6aches share some features with communicative approaches in Part III．we feel that they are Sufficiently distinct to be grouped with the other approaches discussed in Part II．4 The Audio-lingual Method BackgroundThe Coleman Report in 1 929 recommended a reading-based approach to foreign language teaching for use in American schools and colleges（Chapter 1）．This emphasized teaching the comprehension of texts．Teachers taught from bookscontaining short reading passages in the foreign language，preceded by lists of vocabulary．Rapid silent reading was the goal，but in practice teachers often resorted to discussing the content of the passage in English．Those involved in the teaching of English as a second language in the United States between the two world wars used either a modified Direct Method approach．a reading．based approach，or a reading ‘oral approach fDarian 1972）．Unlike the approach that was being developed by British applied linguists during the same period，there was little attempt to treat language content systematically．Sentence patterns and grammar were introduced at the whim of the textbook writer．There was no standardization of the vocabulary or grammar that was included．Neither was there a consensus on what grammar, sentence patterns，and vocabulary were most important for beginning，intermediate，or advanced learners．But the entry of the United States into World War II had a significant effect on language teaching in America．To supply the U．S．government with personnel who were fluent in German，French，Italian，Chinese，Japanese，Malay, and other languages，and who could work as interpreters．code-room assistants，and translators，it was necessary to set up a special language training program．The government commissioned American universities to develop foreign language programs for military personnel．Thus the Army Specialized Training Program（ASTP）was established in 1942．Fifty．five American universities were involved in the program by the beginning of 1943．。
Chapter 1 A brief history of language teaching
Emphasis good pronunciation Style inductive dialogues Medium target language no translation Notes the start of applied linguistics not a method
Started around the 1800s—based on the study of (dead) Latin Principal characteristics: 1. Goals read literature gain mental discipline intellectual development 2. Focus reading and writing
However… …
These specialists were all linguists, not teachers, so their ideas didn’t really get used in classrooms. Why? Their attempts were based on observations of children L1 learning. There lacked an established circles of education and means of testing and applying their ideas. No sufficient organizational structure to develop their ideas into an movement. In any case, their efforts laid the foundation for more widespread reforms in LT.
英语课程教学论Unit-Three
Develop competence-based objectives, and allow flexibility and adaptability.
Pay close attention to the learning process, and advocate experiential learning and participation.
a new series by PEP A synthesis of the new and the old approaches A more communication-oriented language teaching
Innovation (from 2000):
A call for quality-oriented education
of ELT in China since 1978? (Restoration, Rapid Development, Reform, and Innovation)
Restoration (1978-1985) :
a national syllabus in1978;
a new set of textbooks by the People’s Education Press (PEP);
The English curriculum for nine-year compulsory education
The related senior high school English curriculum
Nine competence-based objectives
英语自考之外语教学法
外语教学法复习提纲General Introduction总体简介The nature of FLTM: a science which studies the process and patterns of foreign language teaching.Traditional Linguistics传统语言学Practical in natural: in order to understand the classic words of ancient times and to teach students. 实用性：为了读懂古代的经典，或是为了教学生，使其能够理解并欣赏这些古代的经典著作。
Give the priority to the written form and took words as their starting point.注重书面，并且把单词作为研究的起点。
Take a prescriptive approach to discuss the rules of language.采用***式，以便正确运用语言指定法则和标准。
American Structuralism美式结构主义语言学1930s-1940s (Franz Boas and Wdward Sapor)先驱：鲍阿斯和萨丕尔The father of American Structuralism: Leonard Bloomfield.美国结构主义语言学之父：布鲁姆菲尔德a. Language acquisition in terms of behaviorist terminology.语言学家应当描述人们实际使用的语言而不应该自己规定，应通过归纳法对材料进行分析。
b. Language was a habit of verbal behaviorist which consisted of a series of stimuli and responses.语言只是一种习惯，它是由一系列的刺激与反应所组成。
A Brief History of English Language Teaching in China
A Brief History of English Language Teaching in ChinaJoseph BoyleAmong the many different aspects of China which have fascinated the West are the sheer size of its population, its remote and mysterious culture, and the intricate difficulty of its language. Equally, the West has always intrigued China, with its technological advancement despite its "barbarity", its cultural diversity within a small space, and the way in which one of its languages - English - has managed to become the lingua franca of the world.China originally felt no need of the West, in fact deliberately avoided all contact, for fear of cultural contamination. The bombing of the Chinese embassy during the Kosovo war was a terrible setback in relations which had been steadily improving. However, despite this, partly because of its desire to join the World Trade Organisation (WTO), China has welcomed and listened politely to leaders of Western countries as they gave their views on democracy and human rights. The language in which President Clinton spoke, during his visit to China, was of course English. President Jiang Zemin made his replies in Chinese. But each was backed up by a team of first-class interpreters, who made smooth communication possible.Formal training in interpretation is comparatively recent in China. It was only in 1978 that the first programme for Translators and Interpreters started at the Beijing Foreign Language Institute. The programme subsequently developed into the prestigious school of translation in the Beijing Foreign Studies University.The learning of English in China, however, has a longer history and now occupies the attention of millions of its people. How many million is hard to say, since much depends on the level of proficiency one takes as the norm (Crystal, 1985). But there are probably in the region of three hundred million actively engaged in the job of learning English.China's reasons for learning English were well summed up twenty years ago by a team from the U.S. International Communication Agency after visiting five cities and many educational institutions in China: "The Chinese view English primarily as a necessary tool which can facilitate access to modem scientific and technological advances, and secondarily as a vehicle to promote commerce and understanding between the People's Republic of China and countries where English is a major language" (Cowan et al., 1979).This basic motivation has not changed, as can be seen from the Report of the English 2000 Conference in Beijing, sponsored jointly by the British Council and the State Education Commis-sion of the People's Republic of China, in which reasons for the learning of English by Chinese were summarised: "They learn English because it is the language of science, specifically perhaps of the majority of research journals. They learn it because it is the neutral language of commerce, the standard currency of international travel and communication. They learn it because you find more software in English than in all other languages put together" (Bowers, 1996:3). The story of English language learning is not uniform throughout China. Maley (1995:7) warns anyone embarking on astudy of contemporary China about the difficulty of "making sensible generalisations about it, since China is not one place geographically, but many". The learning of English in the mountainous provinces near Tibet is very different from the way it is studied in the cities of Nanjing, Shanghai or Beijing. Nevertheless, there are sufficient general characteristics about the history of the learning of English in different parts of China to justify a brief review, if only to remind us of the pendulum swings of China's history this century. Those who wish to find the story more fully told may consult Dzau (1990) and Cortazzi and Jin (1996). Although there is mention of English language teaching (ELT) in China in the mid nineteenth century during the Ching Dynasty, it first figured in the syllabus of schools in 1902 in "His Majesty's Teaching Standards for Primary and Secondary Institutions". In those early days the model for education in China was that of Japan. The method of ELT was traditional, with emphasis on reading and translation. There was much grammar and vocabulary learning, with pronunciation learned by imitation and repetition. This was the norm for about the first twenty years of the century.In 1922 there was a change of direction, with a swing away from the Japanese system of education, and towards more Western models. Schools were obliged to follow the "Outlines for School Syllabuses of the New Teaching System". These put more emphasis on listening and speaking skills. There was more use of the target language and of the new teaching resources offered by the mass media. The best schools tended to be Christian missionary schools, which gave more class-hours to English than other schools.1949 was a crucial date in the history of China - the founding of the People's Republic of China. Education had now to serve the proletarian purpose. All textbooks became vehicles for government propaganda, loaded with messages of service to the people and the motherland. The Ministry of Education issued a new "Scheme for English Instruction in Secondary Schools" in which the goal of English language learning was clearly stated as being to serve the New Republic. All capitalist thinking, especially educational ideas from the United States and Britain, were condemned as unpatriotic. The place of English was taken in school syllabuses by Russian and by 1954 Russian had become the only foreign language taught in Chinese schools.This phase did not last long, however, since China was already trying to extend her markets throughout the world and immediately felt its lack of English. Accordingly, in 1955 the Ministry of Education announced that-English teaching should be restarted in secondary schools. In big cities, like Shanghai, it was also reintroduced at primary level. Initially the textbooks were based on the former Russian models, which, like their Japanese predecessors, were very traditional. Methodology too was backward:the teacher was seen as the provider of knowledge and the students dutifully assimilated the teacher's words of wisdom, working their way ploddingly through the textbook.However, in the late 1950s and early 1960s, a minor revolution in education took place in China, as the need to open up to the international scene became more urgent. The importance of English was accepted and a significant step was taken in 1962 when English became part of the entrance examination for colleges and universities. New teaching materials appeared, with listening and speaking again given prominence. The Ministry of Education issued guidelines for textbook writers,recommending that English textbooks should include material on the culture of the English speaking countries. It began to look as though better days had come for ELT in China (Price, 1971).But it was not to be. With distressing inevitability. The Chinese pendulum swung, and the progress made in the early 1960s was swept aside by the Cultural Revolution, which began in 1966 and lasted for ten dreadful years. English was .again banned from schools. Foreign language teachers were branded as spies. Some universities were closed, others were subjected to re-education visits. Dow (1975:254) describes the situation thus: "During the Cultural Revolution, when workers' propaganda teams for the spreading of Mao Tse-Tung's thoughts came to China's colleges, classes were stopped altogether, and the students travelled instead all over the country in order to take part in criticism and debate and to exchange revolutionary experiences".By 1977 the Cultural Revolution had exhausted itself and the country with it. There is an old Yorkshire saying: "There's nowt like religion when it's bent". Those who lived through the Cultural Revolution in China would challenge that saying, maintaining that distorted political ideology can be much worse than bent religion.However, happier times were ahead for China and for ELT in China.In 1978 the Ministry of Education held an important conference on foreign language teaching. English was given prominence again in schools, on a par with Chinese and Maths. By the early 1980s it had been restored as a compulsory subject in the college entrance exam. It has not looked back since then (Kang, 1999) and the fervour for learning English has been fanned by Teach Yourself English programmes on television, watched by hundreds of millions of people.As China opened up more and Chinese scholars were allowed abroad, the need for both social and academic English became apparent. As markets also opened up and more foreigners were allowed into the country to do business, the appetite for Business English among all levels of Chinese people has become insatiable. The Chinese are a diligent and intelligent race and are surely destined to make a significant mark on the history of the twenty-first century.On a personal note, one of my first ELT jobs, in 1979, was teaching a small group of excellent Chinese students on an intensive summer course in England. They were the pick of the Chinese crop - scholars who had suffered under the Cultural Revolution, but who were now being given the chance of graduate studies in British universities. I have never had keener, more hard-working students, and teaching them was one of the most memorable experiences of my life (Boyle, 1980). We have seen, then, in this brief review how English has twice come and gone in China in the course of the twentieth century. To us now it seems unlikely that such swings will happen again and on present evidence the continued popularity of English seems assured. However, history is full of examples of the unpredictable.For one thing, China's own language is liable to become of more global importance in the future. As Graddol (1997:3) advises:"We may find the hegemony of English replaced by an oligarchy of languages, including Spanish and Chinese". Machine translation will also undoubtedly increase in sophistication and perhaps make the learning of English' less essential. English may not be as inevitably the lingua franca of the world as some may like to think.Nevertheless, at this stage in the last few years of the millennium, it does looks as if China will continue to want English, and want it badly. As Maley (1995:47) says: "China is in a phase of industrial, scientific and commercial expansion which will make it the world's largest economy by the early years of the next century. In order to function efficiently in this role, it needs to bring large numbers of its people to high levels of proficiency in the use of English for a wide variety of functions". English looks set to flourish in China - at least for the next ten or twenty years. But anyone who knows anything about the history of China would be slow to predict much beyond that. ReferencesBowers, R. 1996. English in the world. In, English in China. The British Council.Boyle, J. 1980. Teaching English as communication to Mainland Chinese. English Language Teaching Journal 24, 4, 298-301.Cortazzi, M. and Jin, L. 1996. English teaching and learning in China. Language Teaching 29, 61-80.Cowan, J., Light, R., Mathews, B. and Tucker, G. 1979. English teaching in China: a recent survey. TESOL Quarterly 12,4,465-482.Crystal, D. 1985. How many millions? The statistics of English today. English Today 1, 7-9.Dow, M. 1975. The influence of the cultural revolution on the teaching of English in the People's Republic of China. English Language Teaching Journal 29, 3, 253-263.Dzau, Y. 1990. English in China. Hong Kong: API Press. Graddol, D. 1997. The Future of English. The British Council.Kang, Jianxiu. 1999. English everywhere in China. English Today 58, 2, 46-48.Maley, A. 1995. Landmark Review of English in China. The British Council.Price, R. 1971. English teaching in China: changes in teaching methods from 1960-66. English Language Teaching Journal 26, 1,71-83.Joe Boyle teaches at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. He can be reached at jpboyle@.hkIATEFL Issues 155, June - July 2000。
A brief history of Foreign language Teaching approaches in West
A brief history of Foreign language Teaching approaches in West1.FLT Approaches in West(1) Grammar Translation Method (From 15th and 16th century till mid-20th century)FLT in West can be dated back to over500 years ago. The earliest FLT was the teaching of Latin language in European countries. Most people learned Latin languagefor the purpose of reading literary works and philosophicalworks, so the major teaching methods used then was Grammar-Translation Method, which focused on the teaching of vocabulary and grammatical rules. The most popular exercise is translation from L1 to L2 and vice versa (Strevens, 1972: 705).The emphasis is on form and the arrangement of exercises often reflects the grammatical ordering of word classes.(2) The direct method in the 19th centuryThe direct method thereafter was therefore clearly reaction to the grammar –translation method. With respect to objectives, oral skills are generally much emphasized. With respect to classroom methodology, the reactions have as their important common characteristic that a learning process is advocated where L2 utterances are directly associated with the detonated objects and actions, since the use of L1 by teachers and/or learners is considered to be a detour which should be avoided. Listening is best learned through listening practice, speaking is best learned through speaking practice.Grammatical rules are not explicitly formulated, or at least not explicitly taught: the learner acquires ‘knowledge’of grammatical structures inductively ny practising with complete and meaningful utterances. (Rivers, 1968: 18)The direct method has been especially influential in its various forms in FLT around 1900. In a number of countries (e.g. France) it even at one time achieved the status of official language teaching method. After a sharp decline in the first few decades of this century it regained a lot of attention in the 1950s.(3) The audiolingual method (in the 1950s)can be seen as belonging to the group of direct methods, partly because of the didactic procedures advocated, and partly because of the emphasis on spoken language as the primary teaching objective. The didactics of this method are in part a reflection of the development and extensive availability of audio-technology during the 1950s.In the development of the audiolingual method proper, which took place after 1945, the American linguists Charles C. Fries, Nelson Brooks and Robert Lado, who were all foreign language teachers themselves, played an important role. Some important componentsTheir method include pattern drill, use of most modern auditory aid, the language lab, and contrastive analysis. It is very important to note that the audiolongual method bases itself on principles from a theory of linguistics(American structuralism) on the one hand, and on a learning theory (behaviorism ) on the other. Characteristic of the method is the emphasis on spoken language as objective, and on a direct approach as teaching strategy. The use of L1 was often avoided, although it was not made into an absolute principle (see e.g. Butzkamm, 1973:94)Rivers (1964) describes in considerable detail how the audiolingual method was based on the behaviorist learning theory which was current at the time. The basic assumption of the method is that L2 learning should be viewed as a mechanistic process of habit formation. From this assumtion thee conclusions are drawn:(a)…habits are strengthened by reinforcement‟;(b)…Foreign language habits are formed most effectively by giving the right response, not bymaking mistakes‟;(c)…language is behaviour and behaviour can be learned only by inducing the student toAlthough Firs (1945) had already established the basic principles of the new method, the name “audiolingual” did not come into us e until a later stage. Originally, the method was called …oral‟ approach‟, or “aural-oral method”. The term “audiolingual”did not become popular around 1960. The influence the audiolingual method had in the US has also been clearly felt in Europe.(4) Cognitive Approach (in the 1960s)It is an reaction to the audiolingual method, and it aims to replace stimulus-response learning theory (behaviorism) with cognition-code approach. While the audiolingual method ignores human brain’s cognitive ability, itemphasizes human brain’s cognitive activities including feeling, memory, analysis, summary, judgement, and reasoning. Grammar is neglected in audiolingual approach, while the cognitive approach emphasizes the importance of grammatical knowledge. Some scholars even claim that the cognitive method is the revised form of grammar-translation method. J. B. Carroll, an American psychologist, was the person who first mentioned the term of cognitive approach. In 1964, he wrote a book entitled ‘The Modern Form of Grammar-translation Method.’emphasizes human brain’s cognitive activities including feeling, memory, analysis, summary, judgement, and reasoning. Grammar is neglected in audiolingual approach, while the cognitive approach emphasizes the importance of grammatical knowledge. Some scholars even claim that the cognitive method is the revised form of grammar-translation method. J. B. Carroll, an American psychologist, was the person who first mentioned the term of cognitive approach. In 1964, he wrote a book entitled ‘The Modern Form of Grammar-translation Method.’The major characteristics of the cognitive method can be best summed up as the following:(a)Teaching should be student-centered;(b)Meaningful learning and practice are emphasized.(c)Listening, speaking , and writing skill should all be emphasized;(d)Using L1 is not absolutely avoided;(e)Errors are to be understood.(5) Communicative Approach (in the early 1970s)The Communicative Approach is “an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence”(Richards et al, 1992:65). That is, it not only teaches the grammatical forms and rules but also considers the use of language in the right place and at the right time. A typical lesson in this approach follows the four principles: 1) The class is student-centered; 2) The materials are authentic; 3) Emphasis is paid to the process of communication (fluency); 4) Language knowledge is taught in the process of struggling to communicate with others.As a method (approach) of foreign or second language teaching it is hard to say that the communicative approach is better than the grammar translation method, or vice versa. Their teaching goals are different. The former aims at communicative competence and the latter mainly at linguistic competence.(5) Other FLT methodsOther FLT methods also include Oral Method (口语法) and Situational Method (情景法) advocated and raised by British linguists during the 1950s and 1960s. These methods emphasize speaking and accuracy ofstructures. At the same time, the also emphasizes that language structures can be best learned in natural situations. The Silent Way (沉默法）was one of the most popular methods during 1970s and 1980s. It was first suggested by C. Gaitino. And it emphasizes teacher’s role of provoking students to speak by using gestures, visual teaching aids, pictures, and various sticks. The teacher seldom talk during the teaching process, so it is called ‘The Silent Way ’. Another method is Suggestopaedia (暗示法) which was first founded by Lozonov in Bulgaria(保加利亚) . Itdepends on the dialogue situations and translation to provide students with language materials for practice. Music, visual images, and relaxed atmosphere are used to make learners become interested and relaxed. Another method is Community Language Learning (集体语言学习法)。
英语课程教学论Unit-Three
grammar-based audio-lingual teaching method
Rapid development(1986-1992):
the 1986 English Syllabus ( a revised one);
the rewriting of the textbooks by PEP
English is not only instrumental but also communicative and educational.
Teaching should focus more on the use of the language.
Reform (1993-2000): The policy of nine-year compulsory education The communicative approach A new syllabus issued in 1993 A number of textbooks by regional agencies besides
Refer to the Chinese version
Challenges facing English language teachers
Faced with the new curriculum, English teachers are expected to change in many ways.
Cultural awareness: Knowledge; Understanding; Awareness of cross-culture communication
Design of the National English Curriculum
英语教学法 第二版 课前问题答案总汇
Unit 1 Language and Learning2. Three views of languageStructural view: language as a linguistic systemThe functional view: a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things.The interactional view:a communicative tool3. Four Language Learning Theories1)Behaviorist theory2)Cognitive theory3)Constructivist theory4)Socio-constructivist theory4. What makes a good language teacherprofessional competence1)Ethic devotion: warm-hearted, caring, enthusiastic, hardworking, well-prepared2)Professional qualities: resourceful, well-informed, professionally-trained, authoritative, disciplined, accurate, creative3)Personal styles: patient, attentive, flexible, humorous, dynamic, intuitive5. How can one become a good language teacherWallace’s (1991) ‘reflective modelStage 1: language developmentStage 2: learning, practice, reflectionGoal: professional competenceUnit 2 Communicative Principles and Activities1 Language use in real life vs. traditional pedagogyLanguage used in real lifeTo perform certain communicative functionsBoth receptive skills and productive skillsContext-relatedLanguage taught in the classroomTo focus on forms (structures or patternsTo focus on one or two language skills and ignore the otherTo isolate language from its context2. The goal of CLTThe goal of CLT is to develop students' communicative competence,2 What is communicative competenceboth the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations3.Five components of communicative competence1)Linguistic competence,2)Pragmatic competence,3)Discourse competence,4)Strategic competence5)Fluency3.Implications for teaching and learning:（同上）4.Principles in communicative language teaching1)Communication principle:Activities that involve real communication promotelearning.2)Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.3)Meaningfulness principle:Language that is meaningful to the learning supports the learning process.-_-||4.Main features of communicative activitiesA classification of communicative activities1)Functional communicative activitiesIdentifying picturesDiscovering identical pairsDiscovering sequences or locationsDiscovering missing informationFollowing directionsReconstructing story-sequences…2)Social interaction activitiesRole-playing through cued dialoguesRole-playing through debate or discussionLarge-scale simulation activities….Six criteria for evaluating communicative activities1)Communicative purpose2)Communicative desire3)Content, not form4)Variety of language5)No teacher intervention6)No materials controlTBLT:a further development of communicative language teaching. it share the same beliefs, as language should be learned as close as possible to how it is used in real life. however, it stressed the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teachingA task is believed to have four components:1)a purpose,2)a context,3)a process, 4)a product.6.Differences between PPP and TBLT1.The way students use and experience language2.TBL can provide a context for grammar teaching and form-focused activities7.Problems with CLT1.Is it practical in the Chinese context?2.How to design the syllabus for classroom teaching?3.Is it suitable for all age level of learners or all competence level of learners?7.Constraints of TBLT1.It may not be effective for presenting new language items2.Time: teachers have to prepare task-based activities very carefully.3.Culture of learning4.Level of difficultyUnit 3National English Curriculum3.1 A brief history of foreign language teaching in China1)A phase of restoration (1978-1985)2)A phase of rapid development (1986-1992)3)A phase of reform (1993-2000)4)A phase of innovation from 20002,Designing principles for the National English Curriculum1) Aim for educating all students, and emphasize quality-oriented education.2) Promote learner-centeredness, and respect individual differences.3)Develop competence-based objectives, and allow flexibility and adaptability4)Pay close attention to the learning process, and advocate experiential learning and participation5) Attach particular importance to formative assessment, and give special attention to the development of competence.6)Optimize learning resources, and maximize opportunities for learning and using the language.3.3Goals and objectives of English language teachingThe new curriculum is designed to promote students’ overall language ability3.4 Design of the National English CurriculumNine competence-based levelsLevel 2,For 6th graders-_-zLevel 5,For 9th gradersLevel 7,For senior high school leaversUnit 4 Lesson Planning1.what is a Lesson plana Lesson plan is a framework of a lesson in which teachers make advance decisions about what they hope to achieve and how they would like to achieve it1.Why is lesson planning important?1)Makes teachers aware of the aims and language contents of the lesson,2)Helps teachers distinguish the various stages of a lesson and see the relationship between them3)Gives teachers the opportunity to anticipate potential problems so that they can be prepared;4)Gives teachers, esp. novice ones, confidence in class;5)Raises teachers’ awar eness of the teaching aids needed;6)Planning is a good practice and a sign of professionalism2.Principles for good lesson planning1)Aim,2)Variety,3)F lexibility, 4)Learnability ,5)Linkage3.Macro planning vs. micro planningMacro planning; is planning over timemicro planning: is planning for a specific lesson3Macro planning involves:1) Knowing about the course:2) Knowing about the institution:3) Knowing about the learners:4) Knowing about the curriculum/syllabus5)Knowing about the textbook6)Knowing about the objectivesponents of a lesson plan1)Background information2)Teaching aims3)Language contents and skills4)Stages and procedures5)Teaching aids6)end of lesson summary7)optional activities and Assignments8)after-lesson reflection5.Sample lesson plansUnit 5 Classroom Management1.What roles does the teacher playBefore the class---PlannerDuring the class---1 Controller, 2 Assessor, 3 Organizer ,4 Prompter , 5 Participant, 6 Resource-providerAfter the class---Evaluatornew roles: facilitators, guides, researchers2.Rules to follow for making instructions effectiveTo use simple instructions and make them suit the comprehension level of the students. To use the mother-tongue only when it is necessary.3. What are the most common types of Ss grouping?Whole class workPair work,Group work,Individual study:4.How to maintain discipline?P.79When students are engaged in learning, they will be disciplined.Q: How to engage students in learning?1)Ss are clear about learning purpose;2)Ss are able to do the work but find it challenging;3)Ss are emotionally, physically and intellectually involved by the tasks;4)The presentation, variety and structure of the work and activities generate curiosity and interest;5)Ss have opportunities to ask questions and try out ideas;6)Ss can see what they have achieved and how they had made progress;7)Ss get a feeling of satisfaction and enjoyment from the work.4 Harmer’s suggestions on measures for undisciplined acts and badly behaving Ss1). Act immediately2). Stop the class3).Rearrange the seats4).Change the activity5).Talk to Ss after class6).creat a code of behavior4. In order not to hurt the Ss,Ur’s advice on problems in class:1).Deal with it quietly2).Don’t take thin gs personally3).Do not use threats5How to ask effective question1)Questions should be closely linked to the learning objectives in the lesson;2)Questions should be staged so that the level of challenge increases as the lesson proceeds;3)There should be a balance between closed and open, lower-order and higher-order questions;4)Wait time is important to allow students to think through their answers;5)Ss should be provided opportunities to ask their own questions and seek their own answers;6)A secure and relaxed atmosphere of trust is needed and ss’ opinions and ideas are valued.6. correct dealing with errors and mistakeswe need to be clear whether the task or activity is focusing on accuracy or fluency.How to correct error：1)Direct teacher correction2)Indirect teacher correction3)Self correction4)Peer correction5)Whole class correctionUnit 6Teaching Pronunciation1.The role of pronunciationOn the value of teaching pronunciation, there are different opinions:1.Students do not need to learn pronunciation because pronunciation will take care of itself as the students develop overall language ability.2.Failure in pronunciation is a great hindrance to language learn.2. The goals of teaching pronunciation:目的1)Consistency 连贯性: To be smooth natural2)Intelligibility可理解性:To be understandable to the listeners3)Communicative efficiency: To help convey the speakers’ meaning3. Three aspects of pronunciation to teach?Stress, intonation, rhythm5. Ways of practicing soundsPerception practice :Using minimal pairs,Which order,Same or different,Odd one out, CompletionProduction practice: Listen and repeat,Fill in the blanks,Make up sentences,Use meaningful context,Use pictures,Use tongue twisters6. Practicing stress:Use gestures, use the voice, use the blackboard7. Practicing intonation:Use hand or arm movement to indicate change of intonatonrising/falling arrows;draw linesUnit 7. Teaching Grammar1.The role of grammar in language learningGenerally speaking, Chinese EFL learners need a certain degree of mastery of English grammar (grammatical competence is essential for communication). However, it should be noted that learning grammar itself is not the ultimate goal of learning English.2.ways of presenting/ teaching grammar1the deductive method2the inductive method3the guided discovery method3. grammar practice activitiesMechanical practicemeaningful practiceTwo types of practice can be combined.Using prompts (pictures, mimesor gestures, information sheet, key phrases or key words, chaind phrases, created situations) has proved to be an effective way of grammar practice.Unit 8 Teaching Vocabulary1. What does knowing a word involve?its pronunciation and stress;its spelling and grammatical properties;its meaning;how and when to use it to express the intended meaning.Vocabulary learning “involves at least two aspects of meaningThe first aspect involves the understanding of its denotative and connotative meaning. The second aspect involves understanding the sense relations among words.”Collocation , Synonyms,antonyms,hyponyms, Receptive and productive vocabulary2. List some ways of presenting new words1) Try to provide a visual or physical demonstration whenever possible,2) Provide a verbal context to demonstrate meaning.3) Use synonyms or antonyms to explain the meanings.4) Use lexical sets or hyponyms to show relations of words and their meanings.5) Translate and exemplify,6) Use word formation rules and common affixes7) Teach vocabulary in chunks.8) Think about the context in real life where the word might be used.9) Think about providing different context for introducing new words.10) Prepare for possible misunderstanding or confusion that student may have.3. Some vocabulary consolidation activities that can be done in class. (12)1) Labeling2) Spot the differences:3) Describe and draw4) Play a game:6) Use word series7) Word bingo:9) word association10) Synonyms and antonyms:11) categories12) Use word net-work13)use the internet resources for more ideas4. Developing vocabulary building strategies.1). Review regularly:2). Guess meaning from context:3). Organize vocabulary effectively:4). Use a dictionary:5)keep a vocabulary notebook6).Discovery strategiesUnit 9Teaching Listening1.The reason why such difficulties arise can be quire complicated. however, one major reason for students’ poor listening is often neglected in language due to1) Lack of teaching materials (audio and video tapes);2) Lack of equipment (tape players, VCRs, VCDs, computers);3) Lack of real-life situations where language learners need to understand spoken English 2 What do we listen to in everyday life? (Ur, 1996)Loudspeaker announcements1.Radio news2.Lesson, lecture3.Conversation, gossip4.Instructions5.Watching television6.Watching movies7.Telephone conversations8.Interview9.Shopping10.Story-telling11.Meetings12.Negotiations13.Theater show3.The characteristics of listening in real life1) Spontaneity2) Context3) Visual clues4) Listener’s response5) Speaker’s adjustment4 Principles of teaching listening:1). Focus on process:2). Combine listening with other skills:3). Focus on comprehending meaning:4). Grade difficulty level appropriately:4. model of teaching listening:bottom-up model up- bottom model5.the teaching of listening generally follows three stages:pre-listening stagewhile-listening stage,post-listening stage.Unit 10Teaching Speaking1.what are the differences between spoken and written language?SpokenspontaneousSentences are often incomplete, ungrammatical, and full of hesitations, false starts, and redundancies.If it is not recorded, spoken language can’t be listened to again. It is expected to be understood immediately.WrittenWell-plannedSentences are often carefully constructed and well organized.Written language is comparatively speaking permanent. It can be read as often as necessary.2.Principles for teaching speaking1) balancing between accuracy-based practice and fluency-based practices :2) Contextualizing practice3) Personalizing practice4) Building up confidence5) Maximizing meaningful interactions6) Helping students develop speaking strategies7)making the best use of classroom learning environment to provide sufficient language input and practice for the students.3.how can we design speaking activities:1). Maximum foreign talk:2). Even participation3). High motivation4). Right language level4.Types of speaking activitiesLittlewood’s (1981) framework for defining s peaking activities:Pre-communicative activitiesStructural activitiesQuasi-communicative activitiesCommunicative activitiesFunctional communication activitiesSocial interaction activities5,How to organise speaking activities.Using group work in speaking tasksUnit 11 Teaching Reading1. Effective readers do the following:1) have a clear purpose in reading;2) read silently;3) read phrase by phrase, rather than word by word;4) concentrate on the important bits, skim the rest, and skip the insignificant parts;5) use different speeds and strategies for different reading tasks;6) perceive the information in the target language rather than mentally translate;7) guess the meaning of new words from the context, or ignore them;8) have and use background information to help understand the text.3. Skills readers need:1.Specifying a purpose for reading2.Planning what to do/what steps to take3.Previewing the text4.Predicting the contents of the text5.Checking predictions6.Skimming the text for the main idea7.Scanning the text for specific information8.Distinguishing main ideas from supporting details9.Posing questions about the text10.Finding answers to posed questio…4.The role of vocabulary in reading:Day & Bamford (1998): efficient reading begins with a lightening-like automatic recognition of words, which frees one’s mind to use other resources to construct meaning. Helping ss to develop the ability of automatic word recognition is the basis for developing their reading skills.The way to develop sight vocabulary is to read extensively (‘Familiarity breeds automaticity’)5. Some principles for teaching reading(:1)The selected texts and attached tasks should be accessible to the students.2)Tasks should be clearly given in advance.3) Tasks should be designed to encourage selective and intelligent reading for the main meaning4) Tasks should help develop students' reading skills5) Teachers should help the students not merely to cope with one particular text in front of them but with their reading strategies and reading ability in general.6)Teachers should help the students to read on their own.6.three models of teaching reading1). Bottom-up modelletters---words---phrases---clauses---sentences---paragraphs---whole discours2). Top-down modelbackground knowledge--- guess meaning from the printed page3)Interactive model7.Three stages of reading:Pre-reading activities; *Predicting* Setting the scene* Skimming* ScanningWhile-reading activities;1)Focusing on the results of readingMultiple-choice questions;T/F questions;open questions,paraphrasing, translation2)Focusing on the process of understandingInformation transfer activities, ( with a transition device)comprehension questionsUnderstanding referencesMaking inference s …Post-reading ActivitiesTraditional: questions; paraphrasing; translationSuggestion:*Discussion*Role -play* Gap-filling* Retelling* WritingReading comprehension questions1).Questions for literal comprehension.2).Questions involving reorganization or reinterpretation.3).Question for inferences.4).Questions for evaluation or appreciation..5）question for personal responseUnit12 Teaching Writing1.What do we write?Writing is a real-life reality. We write letters, journals, notes, instructions, posters, essays, reports, menus, etc.2.Why do we write?We write for various reasons1)to convey messages,2)to keep a record of what is in our mind,3)to communicate with their teacher4)to raise awareness of how language works,5) to become more familiar with the linguistic and social conventions of writing in English, etc.3.How do we write?Writing can be both collaborative and solitarywe all have our own ways of writing.4.A communicative approach to writingSs are motivated by authentic writing tasks that have some communicative elements. Writing for a specific recipient (e.g. a friend, parent)Writing for an intended audience: creative writing intended to be read by other people 5.Problems in writing tasks1)They are mainly accuracy-based.2)They are designed to practice a certain target structures.3)There is insufficient preparation before the writing stage.4)There is no sense of audience.5)There is no sense of authenticity.6)Ss are given ideas to express rather than being invited to invent their own.7)There is no opportunity for creative writing, for expressing unusual for original ideas.8)Many of them are test-oriented.6.How to make a writing task more creative and communicative?Questions that the writer considers:Why should I write about the sports I like? (for communication)For what purpose?Who is going to read my writing? (a sense of audience)7.A process approach to writingFeatures of process writing1)Focus on the process of writing that leads to the final written product;2)Help ss understand their own composing process;3)Help ss build repertoires of strategies for prewriting, drafting, and rewriting;4)Give ss time to write and rewrite;5)Place central importance on the process of revision;6)Let ss discover what they want to say as they write;7)Give ss feedback throughout the composing process to consider as they attempt to bring their expression closer and closer to intention;8)Encourage feedback both from the instructor and peers;9)Include individual conferences between T and S during the process of composition Procedures of process writing1)Creating a motivation to write;2)Brainstorming;3)Mapping;4)Free writing;5)Outlining;6)Drafting;7)Editing;8)Revising;9)Proofreading;10)Conferencing.8.Motivating students to write1)Make the topic of writing as close as possible to ss’ life.2)Leave ss enough room for creativity and imagination.3)Prepare ss well before writing.4)Encourage collaborative group writing as well as individual writing.5)Provide opportunities for ss to share their writings.6)Provide constructive and positive feedback.7)Treat ss’ errors strategically.8)Give ss a sense a achievement from time to time.9.Designing writing tasksWriting tasks should be motivating and communicative.Self-study sample tasks on pagesing the Internet to promote process writing。
History of Foreign Language Teaching 1
Recently in the 1970s and 80s
• Task-based Language Teaching Approach, • the Natural Approach, • The Silent Way, • Total Physical Response • Community Language Learning.
The People’s Republic of China Four stages: 1949-1957: People were encouraged to learn Russian 1958-1965: English Language Renaissance 1966-1976: cultural revolution –English was removed from the curriculum 1977—now : great development
A brief history of foreign language teaching
by Chen Min 2011.1O.5
outline
• In West • different periods • In China • different periods
In Westh centuries
In China
At the end of Qing Dynasty
• Westernization Movement • In 1862，Tongwenguan (同文馆) was set up, and became part of the Beijing Normal University in 1902
•
Thank you
• Grammar-Translation Method • Greek and Latin • Still widely employed in modern languages • Teaching aims: reading and writing ability
外语教学理论与方法
In the eighteenth century In eighteenth century, “modern” languages such as English, French and Italian began to enter European schools, and they were taught using the same way that were used for teaching Latin.Textbooks consisted of abstract grammar rules, lists of vocabulary, and sentences for translation. These sentences were constructed to show the grammar rules and had no relation to the language of real communication.
5. Accuracy is emphasized. Students are expected to attain high standards in translation. 6. Grammar is taught deductively—that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are then practiced through translation exercises. In most Grammar-Translation texts, a syllabus was followed for the sequencing of grammar points throughout a text, and there was an attempt to teach grammar in an organized and systematic way.
英语教学法chapter 3 A brief history of language teaching语言教学简史
response to the dissatisfaction with Audiolingualism recognizes that learners need to know the grammatical rules of the language, but at the dame time, stresses that the purpose of learning such rules is to be able to do things, to perform functions Spoken and written language
Total
Physical Response (全身反应法) ---
TPR The Silent Way (沉默法) Community Language Learning (社团学 习法) The Natural Approach (自然法) Suggestopedia (暗示法)
七八十年代，人们更加强调学习者的个性---他
up ． Go to the door ． Open the door ． Go out of the room ． Come into the room ． Close the door ． Go back to your place ． Sit down ．
Stand
The Audiolingual Method （听 说法）---ALM
USA ASTP---Army
Specialized Training
Program Structuralism and Behaviorism spoken language Sentence pattern drills accuracy
ABriefHistoryofEnglishLanguageTeachinginChina
A Brief History of English Language Teaching in ChinaJoseph BoyleAmong the many different aspects of China which have fascinated the West are the sheer size of its population, its remote and mysterious culture, and the intricate difficulty of its language. Equally, the West has always intrigued China, with its technological advancement despite its "barbarity", its cultural diversity within a small space, and the way in which one of its languages - English - has managed to become the lingua franca of the world.China originally felt no need of the West, in fact deliberately avoided all contact, for fear of cultural contamination. The bombing of the Chinese embassy during the Kosovo war was a terrible setback in relations which had been steadily improving. However, despite this, partly because of its desire to join the World Trade Organisation (WTO), China has welcomed and listened politely to leaders of Western countries as they gave their views on democracy and human rights. The language in which President Clinton spoke, during his visit to China, was of course English. President Jiang Zemin made his replies in Chinese. But each was backed up by a team of first-class interpreters, who made smooth communication possible.Formal training in interpretation is comparatively recent in China. It was only in 1978 that the first programme for Translators and Interpreters started at the Beijing Foreign Language Institute. The programme subsequently developed into the prestigious school of translation in the Beijing Foreign Studies University.The learning of English in China, however, has a longer history and now occupies the attention of millions of its people. How many million is hard to say, since much depends on the level of proficiency one takes as the norm (Crystal, 1985). But there are probably in the region of three hundred million actively engaged in the job of learning English.China's reasons for learning English were well summed up twenty years ago by a team from the U.S. International Communication Agency after visiting five cities and many educational institutions in China: "The Chinese view English primarily as a necessary tool which can facilitate access to modem scientific and technological advances, and secondarily as a vehicle to pro mote commerce and understanding between the People's Republic of China and countries where English is a major language" (Cowan et al., 1979).This basic motivation has not changed, as can be seen from the Report of the English 2000 Conference in Beijing, sponsored jointly by the British Council and the State Education Commis-sion of the People's Republic of China, in which reasons for the learning of English by Chinese were summarised: "They learn English because it is the language of science, specifically perhaps of the majority of research journals. They learn it because it is the neutral language of commerce, the standard currency of international travel and communication. They learn it because you find more software in English than in all other languages put together" (Bowers, 1996:3). The story of English language learning is not uniform throughout China. Maley (1995:7) warns anyone embarking on astudy of contemporary China about the difficulty of "making sensible generalisations about it, since China is not one place geographically, but many". The learning of English in the mountainous provinces near Tibet is very different from the way it is studied in the cities of Nanjing, Shanghai or Beijing. Nevertheless, there are sufficient general characteristics about the history of the learning of English in different parts of China to justify a brief review, if only to remind us of the pendulum swings of China's history this century. Those who wish to find the story more fully told may consult Dzau (1990) and Cortazzi and Jin (1996). Although there is mention of English language teaching (ELT) in China in the mid nineteenth century during the Ching Dynasty, it first figured in the syllabus of schools in 1902 in "His Majesty's Teaching Standards for Primary and Secondary Institutions". In those early days the model for education in China was that of Japan. The method of ELT was traditional, with emphasis on reading and translation. There was much grammar and vocabulary learning, with pronunciation learned by imitation and repetition. This was the norm for about the first twenty years of the century.In 1922 there was a change of direction, with a swing away from the Japanese system of education, and towards more Western models. Schools were obliged to follow the "Outlines for School Syllabuses of the New Teaching System". These put more emphasis on listening and speaking skills. There was more use of the target language and of the new teaching resources offered by the mass media. The best schools tended to be Christian missionary schools, which gave more class-hours to English than other schools.1949 was a crucial date in the history of China - the founding of the People's Republic of China. Education had now to serve the proletarian purpose. All textbooks became vehicles for government propaganda, loaded with messages of service to the people and the motherland. The Ministry of Education issued a new "Scheme for English Instruction in Secondary Schools" in which the goal of English language learning was clearly stated as being to serve the New Republic. All capitalist thinking, especially educational ideas from the United States and Britain, were condemned as unpatriotic. The place of English was taken in school syllabuses by Russian and by 1954 Russian had become the only foreign language taught in Chinese schools.This phase did not last long, however, since China was already trying to extend her markets throughout the world and immediately felt its lack of English. Accordingly, in 1955 the Ministry of Education announced that-English teaching should be restarted in secondary schools. In big cities, like Shanghai, it was also reintroduced at primary level. Initially the textbooks were based on the former Russian models, which, like their Japanese predecessors, were very traditional. Methodology too was backward:the teacher was seen as the provider of knowledge and the students dutifully assimilated the teacher's words of wisdom, working their way ploddingly through the textbook.However, in the late 1950s and early 1960s, a minor revolution in education took place in China, as the need to open up to the international scene became more urgent. The importance of English was accepted and a significant step was taken in 1962 when English became part of the entrance examination for colleges and universities. New teaching materials appeared, with listening and speaking again given prominence. The Ministry of Education issued guidelines for textbook writers,recommending that English textbooks should include material on the culture of the English speaking countries. It began to look as though better days had come for ELT in China (Price, 1971).But it was not to be. With distressing inevitability. The Chinese pendulum swung, and the progress made in the early 1960s was swept aside by the Cultural Revolution, which began in 1966 and lasted for ten dreadful years. English was .again banned from schools. Foreign language teachers were branded as spies. Some universities were closed, others were subjected to re-education visits. Dow (1975:254) describes the situation thus: "During the Cultural Revolution, when workers' propaganda teams for the spreading of Mao Tse-Tung's thoughts came to China's colleges, classes were stopped altogether, and the students travelled instead all over the country in order to take part in criticism and debate and to exchange revolutionary experiences".By 1977 the Cultural Revolution had exhausted itself and the country with it. There is an old Yorkshire saying: "There's nowt like religion when it's bent". Those who lived through the Cultural Revolution in China would challenge that saying, maintaining that distorted political ideology can be much worse than bent religion.However, happier times were ahead for China and for ELT in China.In 1978 the Ministry of Education held an important conference on foreign language teaching. English was given prominence again in schools, on a par with Chinese and Maths. By the early 1980s it had been restored as a compulsory subject in the college entrance exam. It has not looked back since then (Kang, 1999) and the fervour for learning English has been fanned by Teach Yourself English programmes on television, watched by hundreds of millions of people.As China opened up more and Chinese scholars were allowed abroad, the need for both social and academic English became apparent. As markets also opened up and more foreigners were allowed into the country to do business, the appetite for Business English among all levels of Chinese people has become insatiable. The Chinese are a diligent and intelligent race and are surely destined to make a significant mark on the history of the twenty-first century.On a personal note, one of my first ELT jobs, in 1979, was teaching a small group of excellent Chinese students on an intensive summer course in England. They were the pick of the Chinese crop - scholars who had suffered under the Cultural Revolution, but who were now being given the chance of graduate studies in British universities. I have never had keener, more hard-working students, and teaching them was one of the most memorable experiences of my life (Boyle, 1980). We have seen, then, in this brief review how English has twice come and gone in China in the course of the twentieth century. To us now it seems unlikely that such swings will happen again and on present evidence the continued popularity of English seems assured. However, history is full of examples of the unpredictable.For one thing, China's own language is liable to become of more global importance in the future. As Graddol (1997:3) advises:"We may find the hegemony of English replaced by an oligarchy of languages, including Spanish and Chinese". Machine translation will also undoubtedly increase in sophistication and perhaps make the learning of English' less essential. English may not be as inevitably the lingua franca of the world as some may like to think.Nevertheless, at this stage in the last few years of the millennium, it does looks as if China will continue to want English, and want it badly. As Maley (1995:47) says: "China is in a phase of industrial, scientific and commercial expansion which will make it the world's largest economy by the early years of the next century. In order to function efficiently in this role, it needs to bring large numbers of its people to high levels of proficiency in the use of English for a wide variety of functions". English looks set to flourish in China - at least for the next ten or twenty years. But anyone who knows anything about the history of China would be slow to predict much beyond that. ReferencesBowers, R. 1996. English in the world. In, English in China. The British Council.Boyle, J. 1980. Teaching English as communication to Mainland Chinese. English Language Teaching Journal 24, 4, 298-301.Cortazzi, M. and Jin, L. 1996. English teaching and learning in China. Language Teaching 29, 61-80.Cowan, J., Light, R., Mathews, B. and Tucker, G. 1979. English teaching in China: a recent survey. TESOL Quarterly 12,4,465-482.Crystal, D. 1985. How many millions? The statistics of English today. English Today 1, 7-9.Dow, M. 1975. The influence of the cultural revolution on the teaching of English in the People's Republic of China. English Language Teaching Journal 29, 3, 253-263.Dzau, Y. 1990. English in China. Hong Kong: API Press. Graddol, D. 1997. The Future of English. The British Council.Kang, Jianxiu. 1999. English everywhere in China. English Today 58, 2, 46-48.Maley, A. 1995. Landmark Review of English in China. The British Council.Price, R. 1971. English teaching in China: changes in teaching methods from 1960-66. English Language Teaching Journal 26, 1,71-83.Joe Boyle teaches at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. He can be reached at ****************.hkIATEFL Issues 155, June - July 2000。
英语教育史总结HistoryofEnglishteaching
英语教育史总结HistoryofEnglishteaching“英语教育史”*****************History of English TeachingAt this passage, I’ll briefly review the history of language teaching, especially the history of English teaching. Throughout history, language teaching has always been an important part. Changes in language teaching methods throughout history have reflected changes of social background, development of some theories, etc. Better understanding of the history of language teaching makes better understanding of language teaching methods.1 The History of English Teaching in Europe1.1 The Sixteenth Century to the Eighteenth CenturyBefore the sixteenth century, English is not the world’s most widely studie d foreign language. The world’s most widely studied foreign language is Lati n. But in the sixteenth century, French, Italian, and English gained in importance as a result of political changes in Europe, and Latin gradually became displaced as a language of spoken and written communication. Because Latin was diminished from a living language to an “occasional” subject. The study of Latin took on a different function. People just pay attention to the analysis of its grammar and rhetoric. This has made a great influence for the later centuries and it was the rudiment of Grammar-Translation Method.At that period, children studied Latin through rote learning of grammar rules, did more written translation practices without practiced they pronunciation. Later on, some people saw theshortage of this kind of teaching method, they wanted to change it. Such as, Roger Ascham and Montaigne in sixteenth century and Comenius and John Locke in the seventeenth century had made specific proposals for curriculum reform and for changes in the way Latin was taught. But, finally, they failed.During the eighteenth century, the same basic procedures were used for teaching Latin for higher education. The text books consisted of statements of abstract grammar rules, lists of vocabulary, and sentences for translation. It emphasized translation is more important than oral practice.1.2 The Nineteenth Century1.2.1 In the Early Nineteenth CenturyBy the early nineteenth century, this method became the standard way of studying foreign languages in schools. Textbooks at this period, again, each grammar point was listed, rules on its use were explained, and it was illustrated by sample sentences, oral work was reduced to an absolute minimum. Textbook compliers mainly determined to codify the foreign language into frozen rules of morphology and syntax to be explained and eventually memorized.Two famous textbook writers are Seidenstücker and Karl pl?tz. They divided the content of the books into two parts. One gave the rules and necessary paradigms, the other gave sentences for translation. This approach to foreign language teaching became known as the grammar –translation Method. It is a method for which there is no theory. This method dominated Europe and foreign language teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s, and in modified form it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today.1.2.2 In the Mid-and Late Nineteenth CenturyIn the mid-and late nineteenth century, increased opportunities for communication among Europeans created a demand for oral proficiency in foreign language. So the opposition to the Grammar-Translation Method gradually developed in several European countries. Modern languages were being taught in secondary schools caused increasing demand for new textbooks.Then, some innovators appeared. The language teaching innovators included: C. Marcel, T. Prendergast (who proposed the first structural syllabus), and F. Gouin, etc. They all emphasized the importance of context or the meaning. Teachers and linguists agreed more to those innovators’ opinion and finally stimulated the appearance of t he Reform Movement.The International Phonetic Association was founded in 1886, and its International Phonetic Alphabet was designed to enable the sounds of any language to be accurately transcribed. The IPA gave the earliest goal of modern languages teaching. The practical –minded linguists, such as, Henry Sweet in England, Wilhelm Vit?or in Germany, and Paul Passy in France began to show they own opinions.In general, they all believed that:a. the spoken language is primary and that this should be reflected in an oral-based methodologyb. the findings of phonetics should be applied to teaching and to teacher trainingc. learners should hear he language first, before seeing it in written formd. words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practiced in meaningful contexts and not be taught as isolated, disconnected elements.e. the rules of grammar should be taught only after thestudents have practicedthe grammar points in context-that is , grammar should be taught inductively.f. translation should be avoided, although the native language could be used in order to explain new words or to check comprehensionThese principles provided the theoretical foundation for a principled approach to language teaching, one based on scientific approach to the study of language and of language learning. Finally, it led to the development of what came to be known as the Direct Method.The Direct Method enjoyed popularity in Europe. Although not everyone embraced it enthusiastically, the Direct Method can be regarded as the first language teaching method to have caught the attention of teachers and language teaching specialists, and it offered a methodology that appeared to move language teaching into a new era. It marked the beginning of the “methods era”.1.3 The Twentieth Century—The Methods Er aThe twentieth century saw the rise and fall of a variety of language teaching approaches and methods. The most active period in the history of approaches an methods was from the 1950s to the 1980s. The 1950s and 1960s saw the emergence of the Audiolingual Method and the Situational Method, which were both superseded by the Communicative Approach. During the same period, other methods attracted smaller but equally enthusiastic followers, including the Silent Way, the Natural Approach, and Total Physical Response. In the 1990s, Content-Based Instruction and Task-Based Language Teaching emerged as new approach to language teaching as did movement such asCompetency-Based Instruction that focus on the outcomes of learning rather than methods of teaching. Other approaches, such as Cooperative Leaning, Whole Language Approach, and Multiple Intelligences, originally developed in general education, have been extended to second language settings.1.4 The Post-Method EraBy the 1990s, many applied linguistic and language teachers moved away from a belief that newer and better approached and methods are the solution to problems in language teaching. Alternative ways of understanding the nature of language teaching have emerged. People search more effective ways of teaching second or foreign language. The post-method era is a great challenge to the development of the foreign language teaching.Because approach and methods have played a central role in the teachers’ profession, so teachers need to be able to use approaches and methods flexibly andcreatively based on their own judgment and experience. In the process, teachers should be encouraged to transform and adapt the methods they use to make them their own. And experience with different approaches and methods can provide teachers with an initial practical knowledge base in teaching and can also be used to explore and develop teachers’ own beliefs, principles, and practices.1.5 Looking ForwardThese factors may have influenced language teaching trends in the past and that can be expected to continue to do so in the future. These factors include: government policy directives, trends in the profession, guru-led innovations, responses to technology, influences from academic disciplines, researchinfluences, learner- based innovations, crossover educational trends, crossovers from other disciplines. So we can expect the filed of second language teaching in the twenty-first century to be no less a ferment of theories, ideas, and practices than it has been in the past.2 The History of Language Teaching in China2.1 Before 1949English teaching began in China in the 19th century, when foreign missionaries came to China. However, it didn’t enter into the formal educational system unti l the early 20th century. Teachers of English then mainly British or American missionaries, who had trained the first generation of Chinese teachers of English by the last two decades of the 19th century.2.2 From 1950 to 1990After founding of the People’s Republic of China, a foreign language was considered one of the basic components of secondary education. At the beginning, we studied Russian. The Russian methodological prin ciples were “three-centered”: classroom-centered, teacher-centered, textbook-centered. In 1962, English became a formal requirement for the entrance examination and began to appear in the curriculum for the fourth and fifth year of primary schools. After t he “Cultural Revolution”, Secondary English teaching has gone through three major stages: before 1978, there was no syllabus for middle schools. The syllabus released in 1978. New textbook came up in 1982.Four points could be summarized from the methodological development from 1950 to 1990 in China:a Giving priority to listening and speakingb Laying equal emphasis on all five skills(listening, writing,speaking, reading,and translation)c Stressing reading skilld Involving a more active use of the student’s mental power.2.3 Recent DevelopmentEffects to adopt Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in China can be traced back to Li Xiaoju compiled the textbook Communicative English for Chinese Learner. In 1984, Li published in Defense of the Communicate Approach which profoundly affected CLT. In 1992, the State Education Development Commission replaced the structure-based syllabus with a new one that set communication as the teaching aim. By the mid-1990s, CLT had become a general approach in teaching and learning. Then, the People’s Education Press and the Longman Group Ltd publishe d textbooks for junior middle school and senior middle school.Here are more examples of alternative methods for Chinese learners. At a more theoretical level, the Three Dimensional Approach(3DA) proposed by Zhang Zhengdong, the Affective, Situation, Structure, Rule and Function Method(ASSRF) proposed by Zhang Jianzhong, and the Dual Activity Method(DAM)proposed by Wang Cairen. At a more practical level, includes the Global Method proposed by Liu Zhaoyi, the Leveled Method proposed by Hao Youming, the Zhang Sizhong Method and other methods.2.4 Looking AheadIn the present situation our country still need more English teacher. All foreign language majors are expected to developknowledge of other areas in addition to competence in a foreign language.The dominant trends and accompanying challenges can be seen in the following aspect. English language planning: English has been introduced into the primary school curriculum in an increasing number in resent years, we need a more suitable language teaching plan. Teacher education: teachers are not professionally qualified. This is a big problem. Teachers need furthermore education and our country made more plans for teacher education. Material: challenges to material writing include several reasons, such as shortage of source materials. To resolve this problem, there are more writers and scholars worked hard for this. Assessment: as for the assessment, both the teachers and students ask for a new form. The new form gives due to speaking and writing. Research: all the trends outlined above must depend upon systematic research and informed practice to sustain and bloom. Researchers havebegun to shift their attention on it.This is the briefly reviewing of the history of language teaching.。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
A brief history of language teachingThis chapter reviews the history of language teaching methods briefly and provides a background for discussion of contemporary methods.A brief history of language teachingI. 500 years agoLatin was the world's most widely studied foreign language. It was the dominant language of education, commerce, religion, and government in the Western world.II. In the sixteenth centuryFrench, Italian and English gained in importance.III. From the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuriesa. grammar and rhetoric became the model for foreign language study.b. "grammar school"IV. In the eighteenth centuryModern languages were taught like Latin.V. By the nineteenth centuryLatin had become the standard way of studying foreign languages in schools. The Grammar-Translation MethodLeading exponents: Johann Seidenstiicker, Karl Plotz, H.S. Ollendorf, Johann MeidingerPrincipal characteristics of the Grammar-Translation Method:a. The goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development.b. Reading and writing are the major focus.c. V ocabulary lists are based on reading texts and words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study and memorisation.d. sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. e. Accuracy is emphasised.f. Grammar is taught deductively.g. native language is the language of instruction.Grammar Translation dominated European and foreign language teaching fromthe 1840s to the 1940s, and in modified form it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today.Language teaching innovations in the nineteenth centuryIncreased opportunities for communication among Europeans created a demand for oral proficiency in foreign languages.I. Frenchman C. Marcela. child language learning as a model for language teachingb. emphasized the importance of meaning in learningc. proposed that reading be taught before other skillsd. tried to locate language teaching within a broader educational framework.II. Englishman T. Prendergasta. recorded the observation that children use contextual and situational cues to interpret utterances.b. proposed the first "structural syllabus,".III. Frenchman F. Gousina. developed an approach based on his observations of children's use of language.b. language learning was facilitated through using language to accomplish events consisting of a sequence of related actions.c. used situations and themes as ways of organizing and presenting oral language - the famous Gouin "series,".d. established schools to teach according to his methods.The Reform MovementIt is the efforts of teachers and linguists who began to write about the need for new approaches to language teaching, and through their pamphlets, books, speeches, and articles, the foundation for more widespread pedagogical reforms was laid.IPA advocated:a. the study of the spoken languageb. phonetic training in order to establish good pronunciation habits;c. the use of conversation texts and dialoguesd. an inductive approach to the teaching of grammar,e. teaching new meaningsHenry Sweet:a. careful selection of what is to be taught;b. imposing limits on what is to be taught;c. arranging what is to be taughtd. grading materials from simple to complex The major contributions of Vietora. Spoken language is primaryb. Phonetics in teaching and teacher trainingc. Learner should listen before seeing language in written formd.Words presented in sentences and practised in meaningful contexts not isolatede. Grammar taught inductivelyf. Avoid translationThe Direct MethodSauveura.apply natural principles to language classesb. intensive oral interaction in the target languagec. questions as a way of presenting and eliciting language.F. Franke:a. wrote on the psychological principles of direct association between forms and meanings in the target languageb. a theoretical justification for a monolingual approach to teaching.c. a language could best be taught by using it actively in the classroom.d. direct and spontaneous use of the foreign language in the classroom.The Direct Method can be regarded as the first language teaching method to have caught the attention of teachers and language teaching specialists.The methods eraSix language teaching methods that emerged in the 1950s and 1960s.a. Audio-lingual Method,b. the Situational Method,c. the Communicative Approach,d. Silent Way,e. the natural Approach,f. and Total Physical ResponseSix language teaching methods that emerged in 1990s.a. Content-based Instructionb.Task-based Language Teachingc. Competency-based Instruction,d. Cooperative Learninge. Whole Language Approachf. and Multiple Intelligence.Approaches and methods in teacher preparation programsThe study of past and present teaching methods continues to form a significant component of teacher preparation programs. The reasons are the following:a. a view of how the field of language teaching has evolvedb. can be studied not as prescriptions for how to teach but as a source of well-used practicesc. provide teachers with basic teaching skills。