比较教育学重点

Chapter 2 Major Theories in Comparative Education
1.Introduction
A.Modernist Perspectives
Structural-functionalism vs. Marxism
Similarities:
a)Stem from common antecedents in the Western Enlightenment Era
Differences:
Structural-functionalism: e nvisions展望consensus一致and equilibrium均衡to be hallmarks印记of social intercourse交流and human progress, and seesstability稳定性as natural and desirabl令人满意的e.
Marxism: questions the possibility of consensus, critique the authenticity真实性of apparent consensus, and assert that conflict rather than stability is the overriding高于一切的catalyst for social change.
B.Postmodernist and Poststructuralist Perspectives
Deny rationalist explanations, challenge and question modernization
Question the possibility of “master narratives”大叙事or encompassing theoretical arguments
Focus on otherwise marginalized边缘化alternative perspectives
Reject predictability as goal for theory
2.Structural-functionalism
Stability and equilibrium, being central within the structural-functionalist analysis, reflect the theory’s identity as a consensus perspective.
A.What is Structural-functionalism
Three Major Characteristics of Structural-functionalism
a)Unitary统一的: Structural-functionalism’s identity as a consensus theory is
built on the conviction that society is unitary and that the building and
preservation of agreement is the preferred and most powerful social force.
b)Coherence连贯性: not only as a unit unto itself but also in terms of the
relationships that exist among its various elements. Social institutions are not
just a collective of people, but, rather, an entity实体having clear purpose and
potential to fulfill social needs, especially social solidarity.
c)Stability: working towards harmony and its own self-preservation, and its
own reliance on the motion of equilibrium as a fundamental trait of society,
and social progress is predictably linear.
Structural-functionalism is a framework for building theory that s ees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.
This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whol e, a nd believes that society has evolved like organisms.
B.Criticism
Structural-functionalist thought does not itself articulate使相互连贯a model of change because its proponents view change as a consequence of societal response to imbalances or imperfections, or adjustments or refinements改良品of existing social conditions, rather than as changes in the social order.
C.Apply on Educational Practice
a)Schools are important contributors to the maintenance of equilibrium
b)Classrooms are spaces where responsible and productive citizens are formed
c)Teachers convey and reinforce values that nurture students’societal
participation in line with mainstream social values rather than in opposition
to those values.
d)Literacy is one among many skills that contributes to economic and social
productivity, and this keeps with the maintenance of status quo with an eye
on the nurturance of a stable social order.
第一个理论记住几个关键词：stability, coherence, equilibrium, unity，并理解好这几个词，然后看看教育方面的应用就差不多了。

3.Modernization
A.What is Modernization Theory?
Human nature is a variable可变的rather than a constant in terms of the prospect for change; this view of h uman nature as variable, malleable,可塑的and therefore subject to refinement is key.
Modernization theory ties societal development to the level of individual person, and, so, provides a rationale for the role of education within societies seeking to modernize. Development becomes a function of the attainment of modern attitudes at the individual level; society’s modernization becomes a product of the percolation of these attitudes throughout an expanding circle of its individual members.
Progress is sequential连续的a nd possessing momentum.势头Human progress is governed in part by a natural motive towards achievement.
Modern states are wealthier and more powerful, and that their citizens are freer to enjoy a higher standard of living.(urbanization, industrialization, New technology is a major source of social change, but they don’t change societies by itself. )
Human agency controls the speed and severity of modernization.
Summary: adaptation of structural-functionalism, generally predictable and manageable, a prescription of change, education of individuals
B.Criticism
The ideological意识形态的and cultural biases inherent in the theory
a)Western biases: modernization≠westernization
b)Traditional values:Modernization values might not be incompatible不相容的
with traditional ones.
Question the assumption that the attainment of modern values at the individual level will in fact translate into a society-wide phenomenon at levels that are capable of generating and sustaining national development.
C.Modernization Theory upon Teachers
Connects individual students’ progress with the society’s general readines s for the future
Schools—well-prepared citizens for modernization
Modern institutions instilled逐渐灌输in individuals, encouraging the adoption of modern behaviors among citizens
基本理论都要知道，批判的观点要知道，教育的观点要知道，基本上这里的都挺重要的。

4.Human Capital Formation Theory人力资本构造理论
A.Sociology社会学Concept
The term capital pertains从属to both material and other resources that contribute to the accumulation of wealth by individuals or by societies.
Investments in the acquisition获得of goods will reap收获returns.
Education’s potential as a spur鼓舞for investments
B.Human Capital Formation Theory and Education
Adopts structural-functionalism’s overarching首要的commitments, reflecting a direct and functional relationship between education and development
Nation-state as a discrete离散的and vital focus of analysis, generally attributing economic under-development to factors within the society in question.
Pursue measurability可测量性by seeking to account for all factors that might contribute to economic growth—here again pointing to structural-functionalism towards prediction, causality因果关系, and the manageability of society and its activities.
Investment and education that they envision, in their modernist and westernized view of progress and development, and in their focus on the society as the functional and harmonious context for theoretical analysis and policy action.
A的内容可以不看，只是基础，B的内容才是重点。

5.Marxism
A.Basic Sociological Perspectives of Marxism
Scientific communism 科学社会主义/ Historical materialism历史唯物主义
Change as a dialogue or interaction between two entities实体
Substructure of different social classes or social levels —strata
Bourgeoisie 资产阶级—Exploiting Classes 剥削阶级—
Occupy workers
Proletariat 无产阶级—Exploited positions —Being controlled by Bourgeoisie Differences between Marxism and Structural-functionalism:
While both acknowledge that social institutions and mechanisms do work toward the end of preserving society, the structural-functionalism sees this tendency as fundamentally desirable 令人满意的and just. Marxist, in contrast, critique the same argument in favor of societal stability as unfair if inequities are maintained among society ’s substrata.下层
Estrangement and Alienation Perspectives 疏远和异化的角度
Therefore, raising consciousness about unfair conditions are necessary in order to replace feelings of powerlessness with a sense of capacity and agency regarding one’s own circumstances.
Summary: Marx contended满足that the latent conflict between advantaged and disadvantaged classes would inevitably become overt明显的. The history of human experience has exhibited unending conflict between oppressors and the oppressed.These conflicts are resolved through dominant class replacing its predecessor前任to renew opposition at a higher level, with oppression taking new forms.
B.Marxism and Education
Context-centered analysis: problems related to fair distributions of human outputs are addressed by knowledge g ained through a science rooted in understanding the nature of human communication and agreement rather than on the prediction and control of natural environments.
Schooling i n Marxist countries is the vehicles for dialectical辩证的progress from a capitalist society to the communist society.
Support specialized industrial and technical education as catalysts催化剂for
human progress while eschewing避免forms of education that were too narrow to enable thoughtful appraisals of social circumstances.
A curriculum based on the three aims of mental education, physical education,
and technological learning.
Correspondence相当性Theory: the system of counterparts between schools and workplaces. This theory is pessimistic about aspects that Merton had characterized as benign, stabilizing forces—the “latent” functions of school, such as passive compliance with the vertical power structures of authority, strict schedules, etc.
C.Criticism
Western bias—focus on the history of materialism in the European context and did not grapple with the issue of underdevelopment
Not all societies reflect the presence of sorts of class structures Marxist theories describe
D.Summary of Marxist Perspectives
Adherents追随者of Marxist theory acknowledge the existence of consensus and the appearance of stability but are pessimistic about the degree to which consensus is genuine真实的. For Marx, class structures within society are harmonious in appearance, and social change occurs when latent潜在的conflict between exploited working or proletariat classes and capital bourgeois classes become overt. Marxist theory is more than an ideological impetus动力for political enterprises and remains a potent有效的conflict-oriented counterbalanc e平衡力to the prevailing盛行consensus perspectives. In response to contemporary calls for more schools to produce a better-prepared workforce, neo-Marxist thinkers continue to press the question, “Whose economy is it that the school must be functional for?”
E.Marxist Perspectives upon Practice
Educators often try to limit the degree to which they differentiate their instructional practices in keeping with their views that such practices might foreclose排除equal educational opportunities and thereby interfere with their students' potential to pursue their own aspirations.
Organize provision of equal educational experiences by incorporating合并的similar mental, physical and technological experiences for their students
Favor localized,participatory供人分享的control of educational governance because he felt this would defuse平息the potential for schools to become instruments工具within which students are programmed to accept roles and social structures that might be unfair or exploitative and within which instruction is organized to advantage some at the expense of others.
Teachers invite broad input in the creation of school and classroom-specific rules and policies in order to ensure fairness and an inclusive stance立场toward the conduct of instruction and the organization of education.
前面的是理解，不用记，summary可能可以用来答题，关键看你们个人观点是什么，最后的educational practice挺重要的。

6.Dependency Theory从属理论
A.Dependency Theory VS Marxism
Marxism focuses on class relations within countries, but dependency theory’s attention is on relations between and among countries in a world system.
B.Sociology Perspectives of Dependency Theory
Dependency theorists describe patterns of global inequity and uneven development as a North-South phenomenon. Dependency theorists contendthat primarily North American and European countries enjoy a privileged or upper-class position at the expense of underprivileged countries chiefly in Latin America and Africa.Dependency theory is characterized by a parallel平行的, globalized pattern of exploitation 剥削和oppression压抑.Privileged nations, constitute a so-called core or center, whereas the underdeveloped nations form the marginalized peripherywithin a global society of nations sometimes called the “capitalist world system".
Dependency theorists have generally described the growth of dependent relationships within the global system in terms of progress through historical stages: mercantilist colonialism; outward growth (the roles of private elites within
the colonies generally declined, and the role of an authoritarian colonial bureaucracy generally expanded); Foreign investment; contemporary transnational capitalist period
Dependency theory holds that core members of the world system are in a sense dependent as well. They rely on a mode of international economic relations that justifies the global inequities that exist.
Dependency theory describes specific means by which the core nations seek to maintain and nurture the periphery’s外围dependent status in the global society of nations. These strategies include plunder, neocolonial relations, and transnational corporate activity. “nation-to-nation” domination
Dependency theoreticians have also noted that overt domination is not essential in maintaining exploitative relations between the core and the peripheral countries.
Instead, according to some dependency theorists, as long as elite sectors within the peripheral countries are themselves advantaged by the generally exploitative core/peripheral relationship, these elite elements help sustain inequity in the global system. The core elements of the peripheral nations, working on their own behalf but also to the benefit of the core nations, assert their power and status in ways that preserve inequitable social conditions.
C.Criticism
First, although the theory offers valuable insights regarding the extent to which external factors can shape the nature of development, it couldfocus too completely on these external factors. Dependency theory is limited by its pessimistic view of the impetus of a society to maintain itself.
Dependency theory has been criticized on the grounds that its natural bias against capitalism 反对资本主义的自然倾向
The most persistent criticism of dependency theory, however, emerges from its methodological方法论的identity as historical历史的. Dependency theory insists on concrete historical circumstance, accepting differences from one nation’s experience to another’s as a natural result of this historical predisposition.
Dependency theory has not provided credible strategies for development. These
views lack the pragmatism necessary to help members of developing societies to meet their needs and wants.
D.Summary of Dependency Theory
Dependency theory builds on Marxism’s description of class struggle between privileged and exploited proletariat working classes in order to describe a parallel but globalized pattern of exploitation and oppression. In this so-called world system, economically less advantaged nations in the periphery are exploited by the advantaged nations of the core or center. Dependency, therefore, is the circumstance in which the economy of certain countries is conditioned by the development and expansion of another country, placing control of the economic capacity and future of the peripheral country in the hands of one or more countries of the economic core.
E.Dependency Theory and Education
Serve as a reminder of ways in which a society's pursuit of its own goals can bring negative consequences in ways that often remain unseen. In a world in which continuing economic globalization seems inevitable, the dependency perspective challenges teachers and their students to appraise ways in which prosperity might be a zero-sum rather than a plus-sum condition. （一方得益，一方利益受损）
Dependency theory offers a potent explanation of how circumstance s that give some people an advantage may disadvantage others within and across national boundaries.
这个主要知道它的主要内容就好了，在unassisted development那道问题可以用到，可以从这里找答案。

7.Liberation Theory解放理论
A.Liberation Theory and Education
Liberation theory believes that radical change in the economic, political, and cultural structures of the underdeveloped society are necessary to secure progress in the underdeveloped world.
According to the theory, the focus of educational efforts toward change begins
and ends with t he underdeveloped country's oppressed groups.The emphasis is on the goals of the awakening, mobilization, and self-actualization of exploited minorities.少数
“Liberation is development”.Liberation theory aims to establish a dialogical relationship in which “the teacher becomes a facilitator, the traditional class becomes a cultural circle, and the emphasis shifts from lecture to problem-posing strategies”. Liberation theory envisions liberation as both a means and an end of education.
Literacy is a key tool in liberation theory’s aim of enabling students’progress toward their own goals. This is because of the theory’s emphasis on conscientizaocao—concientization or conscious raising to arouse students’understanding of their exploited circumstances with an eye on empowerment and action in addressing them.
B.Criticism
A chief criticism of liberation theory is that it is utopian乌托邦的in its visions
both at the level of instruction and in terms of longer-range change.
Others have noted that liberation theory might exalt提升reflection over action toward change and progress, thus undoing the impetus toward change it strives to fulfill in other ways.
C.Summary of Liberation Theory
In sum, liberation theory involves seeking to enable the self-actualization of participants in a process of joint learning between teacher and student. Its original and primary focus was on the oppressed and underprivileged sectors within the countries of the developing world. Liberation theory has contributed to the expansion of international dialogue on education and its role in social transformation, to improve human existence by viewing knowledge for its emancipatory解放的or repressive压抑的potential. The need for such a reassessment is urgent in that more mainstream scientific and social scientific paradigms undermine the Enlightenment ideals--the freedom and enlightenment of individuals and societies--from which they had derived their impetus. Liberation theory accommodates dependency theory's observation that,
without literacy and awareness of oppressive circumstances, self-determination is a goal that will remain unreachable by a majority of people in the developing world.
除了criticism，其他都挺重要的。

8.Marxist Conflict Perspectives VS Structural-functionalist consensus outlook
A.Differences
The consensus viewpoint(structural-functionalism and allied与…同属一系perspectives incomparative education, namely, modernization and human capital formation theories) interprets society's components as working more harmoniously together for the preservation of the system as a whole. Moreover, adherents of consensus theory see societal agreement as a natural and desirable condition stemming from the system's tendency to preserve its equilibrium.
Social change occurs through adjustments or refinement.
Conflict perspectives (Marxism and comparative education's adaptations, namely, dependency and liberation theories) conclude that the Society as a system is maintained through an asymmetric distribution of power across segments of the system and through exploitative relations among them.Conflict theories critique the nature of social consensus and consider the ways in which circumstances of apparent accord within a social system are better understood as products of forced agreement (i.e. oppression) rather than of genuine consensus. Conflict theorists tend to argue that change and growth within social systems are often the products of struggles or conflicts aimed at the overthrow of unjust privilege; thus, change comes with the replacement of existing conditions rather than through mere revisions or adjustments.
B.Convergence集合
Progress is inevitable
Such advancement can be analyzed and can generally be described in terms of discrete不连续的stages or steps
The outcomes of development are therefore predictable and subject to human
control
The spread of the economic capacities能力of the day is desirable
Undertake the question of whether there is or is not agreement across a society C.See the convergent points, and remain differences
这是区别，是一个总结性的东西，还是看看吧，不过对答题不一定有用。

9.Postmodernism and Poststructuralism Theoretical Challenges to the Modern
A.The Meaning of Post- and the Roots of Postmodernism and
Poststructuralism
Learning about poststructuralism and postmodernism requires defining post-as “following” in the sense of “trailing behind and coming in the wake of”.
Accordingly, understanding postmodernism and poststructuralism necessitates a particular mindfulness regarding antecedentintellectual discoveries.
B.Postmodernism and the Problem of Modernity
Different Perspectives of the definition of modernization
a)Modernization is a natural condition to which societies evolve on account of
their own tendencies towards growth and self-perfection自我完善. From the
standpoint of modernization theory, this process can be further spurred by
rational and well-conceived plans and policies.
b)An alternative interpretation of the modern condition--and one that receives
our attention in this discussion of postmodernism--is more circumspect周到
的about the fundamental nature of modernity, describing it as a crisis of
certainty. This crisis is sometimes called the “modern condition”or the
“modern problem”and found its most important prophecy预言in the
thinking of Friedrich Nietzsche.
C.Poststructuralism and Postmodernism’s Allied Argument
Though poststructuralism's roots are distinct from those of postmodernism, the claims of both these post-s lend credence to an overall argument that the focus of any study is subjective主观的in nature.
Postmodernism's and poststructuralism's joint impetus动力of questioning static 静态的and orthodox正统的notions of truth has increased critical evaluation of the knowledge previously accepted without question.
A基本上是废话，BCD是重点哦，语言学那个如果看不懂可以看中文。

10.Postmodernism’s Influence in Comparative Education
A.General Influence of Postmodernism and Poststructuralism
Neither postmodernism nor poststructuralism purports声称to constitute a discreet body of theory in the way that either structural-functionalism or Marxism consists of a system or pattern of assumptions and thought. This is because poststructuralists and postmodernists are skeptical toward an “all encompassin g 包含的explanation of the world”.
In general, the major influence of postmodernism and poststructuralism is to provide a rationalfor drawing to the center human perspectives that have heretofore occupied the landscape at the margins of human and social experience--as forgotten, neglected, unexplored, or somehow subverted.
Postmodernism: embraces the diverse and ambiguous nature of human contexts;
acknowledges and seeks to make explicit the value-laden价值负载nature of education but also to explicate the power structures associated with schools’formalization of values and interests; stresses local context of theory—the adaptation of theory to context rather than context to theory.
B.Criticism of Postmodernism and Poststructuralism
There is, then, no single postmodernist/poststructural philosophy precisely because of the circumspection（慎重）--the “incredulity”--with which the perspective's adherents view the possibility of a single all-encompassing theory.
Thus, there is no single postmodernist or poststructuralist list of interpretations about the prevailing mechanisms in schools, nor is there a single set of prescriptions(指示）about how they should be.
It is so noncommittal（不许诺、不表态、不确定、含糊的）in its assumptions and claims tha t it is considered of little use for any predictive purpose.
A further criticism is that the emergence of so many particularistic threads of
special interest on account of the influences of poststructuralist and postmodernist thought may have contributed to the dilution（稀释）of disciplinary direction and the undermining of any sense of o rganizational memory among the body of scholars working within the field.
C.Postmodernism and Poststructuralism upon Education
In general, “post-modernists do hold that the curriculum should not be viewed as discrete subjects and disciplines, but instead should include issues of power, history, personal and group identities, and social criticism leading to collective action”. Because postmodernism generally suggests that an interplay of many factors shape students' identities, students' own experiences have an enhanced prominence in postmodernist views of instruction. (echoes with John Dewey, educational progressivism)
And regarding the role of teachers, postmodernism's lessons about the way language can shape and reinforce patterns of human relation call on teachers to be careful “of their influence over the language process and how it shapes the way students think and conceptualize”.
To create“thinking space” and to make room for understandings of the essence of an experience in its own terms rather than in terms of a dominant other.
Teachers are increasingly confronted with issues related to inclusiveness（平等）and with questions as to how to deal fairly in classrooms whose students bring in
a wide range of cultural perspectives, biases, norms, and beliefs. These beliefs are
often contradictory or difficult to reconcile.
The allied argument of poststructuralism and postmodernism is that notions of truth tend to be based on observer viewpoints--an assertion that validates and lends weight to predicaments teachers often face as they attempt to reconcile students' beliefs.
Tips for Chapter 2:
其实这里很多都是供大家理解的，主要的重点是主要观点（其实ppt上基本都有）和这些观点涉及到教育问题的那些观点。

其实书本很多理论都可以套用到第二章的题目的，主要是看大家的个人观点是什么，再用大家的个人观点联系到书本内容。

比如说，第一题，你可以说similarity基本上是老师讲学生接收，这个就可以联系到Paolo Freire的banking education了，另外，modernization真是经久不衰的话题，大家多往上面扯。