LearningBilingualLinguisticReorderingModelfor
general linguistics 普通语言学简介
Linguistics语言学，the study of human language。
包括Theoretical linguistics，Applied linguistics，Sociolinguistics，Cognitive linguistics和Historical linguistics。
这里主要考Theoretical linguistics，包括:1.Lexis词汇学, the study of what is a word and where words come from2.Semantics语义学，the study of meaning in a language3.Phonetics语音学，the study of speech sounds (voice).4.Phonology音位学/音系学,the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication5.Morphology形态学，the study of the structure and form of words and phrases6.Syntax句法学，the study of the rules, or "patterned relations" that govern the way the words in a sentence come together，与morphology形态学并称grammer语法学7.Stylistics文体学，the study of style used in literary, and verbal language and the effect the writer/speaker wishes to communicate to the reader/hearer.8.Pragmatics语用学，generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.补充：general linguistics, the study of the structure and development of language in generalChapter 1 IntroductionⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. T2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. F4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. T8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. F9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. T10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. T17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. T19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. FⅡ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of language.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic…linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49. Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality56. Design Features57. Competence58. Performance59. Langue60. ParoleⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commu- nication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Chapter 2 PhonologyⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speakerissues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. V owel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. A_______ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A_______ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t_______ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s_______ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 35 Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called _______.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesⅣ. Define the terms below:45. phonology46. phoneme47. allophone48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics53. phone54. phonemic contrast55. tone56. minimal pairⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?。
昂立英语教学方法汇总-COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING (CLL_ or COUNSELING LEARNING)团体语言学习法(1)
MUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING (CLL; orCOUNSELING LEARNING)团体语言学习法CLL 是由一位谘商专家兼大学心理学教授Charles A. Curran 所创立。
它有三大基础：（1）CLL将谘商中当事者（client）与谘商人员（counselor）的关系运用在教学过程中学生（learner）与教师（knower）的身上；（2）CLL是所谓较〝全人〞式的教学方法（humanistic techniques），因为他不只将L2传授给学生，还会顾及到学生在学习过程中的感觉与情绪；（3）CLL采用〝语码转换〞（code alternation）进行教学---学生先用L1说出所欲学习的标的物，教师将其翻译为L2后，学生再一边将所听到的L2念出来给同学听，一边将它录在录音机中。
在CLL的理论中，语言不只是一套传递讯息的输送系统（Information-transmitting model），而是一套社会过程模式（social-process mode）---说话者〝本身〞和所欲传达的〝讯息〞两者皆会影响和听者间的关系。
Curran 表示，语言就是人和人之间响应与互动的关系。
这种关系又可分为学生与学生之间、学生与老师之间等两层子关系：学生在学习中彼此会发展出熟悉亲近的关系，而学生和老师之间则从依赖一直进展到相互独立的阶段。
这两层人际/ 社会关系皆会影响学习的效果。
至于心理语言学方面，Curran 也提出四点会影响语言学习的因素：能使学习能力提升的安全感（security）、能使学生投入在学习过程中的注意力（attention）、会把握机会练习L2的企图心（aggression）以及促成整合分析的鉴别力（determination）。
综而言之，CLL的教学观不只包含了认知过程与心理语言学发展的观点，更顾及了学习过程开始前就已经深深影响着学习者的个人情绪层面。
一、教学目标以培养学生听说读写一般能力为主。
英语自考本科语言学概论
Chapter 1: Introduction1.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.The word “language” implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The word “study” does not mean “learn” but “investigation” or “examine”.“Scientific” refers to the way in which the language is studied.Based on systematic investigation of language data, the study is conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In studying language, the linguist first has to study language facts, then he formulates some hypotheses about language structure which have to be re-checked against the observed facts so as to prove their validity.The process of linguistic study:1)Certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them;2)Based on these generalization, hypotheses are formed to account for these facts;3)Hypotheses are tested by further observations;4) A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.1.1The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics –the study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models, methods applicable in any linguistic study.Phonetics – the study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication,Phonology – the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.Morphology – the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.Syntax – the study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.Semantics – the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context of use.Socio-linguistics – the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics – the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics – Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such problems as the recovery of speech ability. This study is called applied linguistics. In a narrow sense, it refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Anthropological / neurological / mathematical / computational linguistics1.2Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2.1Prescriptive vs. DescriptiveIf a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern); if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive (traditional). (Question: how is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?)1.2.2Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.2.3Speech and writingAs two major media of communication, modern linguistics regards spoken form as primary, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form. In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.(Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of a language as primary?)1.2.4Langue and parole (语言和言语)The distinction was made by famous Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Both are French words.1)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity, and parole refers to realization of langue in actual use.2)Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow whileparole is their concrete use.3)Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers tothe naturally occurring language events.4)Langue is relatively stable and does not change frequently; while parole varies from personto person, and from situation to situation.Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and linguists are supposed to abstract langue from parole.1.2.5Competence and performance (语言能力和语言运用)Similar to 1.3.4, American Noam Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky thinks that linguists should study competence but not performance.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker‟s competence, but not his performance. As one difference, Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social inventions, whereas Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2.What is language2.1DefinitionsNowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1)Language is a system, as elements of language are combined according to rules;2)Arbitrary, as no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between sign and what itstands for.3)V ocal, as primary medium is sound for all languages.“Human”indicates the difference from the communication systems of other living creatures. “Communication”means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.2.2Design featuresRefer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.1)ArbitrarinessNo logical connection between meanings and sounds, symbols, words. Not entirely arbitrary, there are some words in every language that imitate natural sounds. Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary. But this makes up only a small percentage.This nature is a sign of sophistication, which only human beings are capable of and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2)Productivity3)DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds ad the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number ofunits of meaning such as morphemes and words. Then at the higher level, the units can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4)DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are present or not present, real or imagined matter in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5)Cultural transmissionWe are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectal complementation.Chapter 2: Phonology1.The phonic medium of languageOf two media of language, speech is more basic than writing, for the reasons:1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing;2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role in terms of the amount of informationconveyed;3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, andwriting is learned and taught later in school.This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds (语音).2.Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages. Three branches: (the most important conclusion is that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.)1)Articulatory phoneticsHow a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Longest established, highly developed.2)Auditory phoneticsHow the sounds are perceived by the hearer.3)Acoustic phoneticsStudies speech sounds by looking at the sound waves (recorder named spectrographs). It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through air from one person to another.2.2 Organs of speechThe articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities, where the air stream coming from the lungs may be modified by complete or partial interference. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉)before it reaches any of the cavities. They are:Pharyngeal cavity – the throatAir stream: lung →windpipe →glottis (vocal cord)Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants. Otherwise “voiceless”Oral cavity – the mouthThe greatest source of modification of the air stream. Tongue is the most flexible organ.Nasal cavity – the noseThe velum can be drawn back to close the passage of the air stream so that all air exiting from the lungs can only pass through the oral cavity. Produced are oral sounds. Otherwise, nasalized sounds such as three nasal consonants. Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed.2.3Orthographic representation of speech sounds – broad and narrow transcriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being at the end of 19th century. Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound.The IPA provides a set of symbols called diacritics, which can be added to letter-symbols to make finer distinction than the letter-symbols alone. The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription, normally in dictionaries and textbooks. The other with diacritics is narrow transcription, used by phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.2.4Classification of English speech soundsTwo broad categories –vowels and consonants, the basic difference is that in pronunciation of vowels, no air stream meets obstruction, while consonant, the air stream is obstructed somehow. (the basic difference between a vowel and consonant)2.4.1Classification of English consonantsTwo ways: manner of articulation(how obstruction is created): stops, fricatives (when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point), affricates, liquids, nasals, glides; and place of articulation (where): bilabial (the upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruction), labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal sounds. Each classification brought about certain phonetic features of consonants.2.4.2Classification of English vowelsV owels are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth (front / central / back vowels), the openness of the mouth (close / semi-close / semi-open / open), the shape of the lips (rounded / unrounded), and the length of the vowels (with or without colon, the long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels). Monophthongs (individual vowels) and diphthongs. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.3.Phonology3.1 Phonology and phonetics (音系学和语音学)Phonetics is concerned with the description of all the speech sounds in language (the study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication), while phonology (the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication) is concerned with the study of the sound system of a particular language. Therefore, the conclusion about the phonology of one language should not be generalized into the study of another language. What is true in one language may not be true in another language.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning: some do, some don‟t. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones, which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. A different definition would be that a phoneme is a class of phonetically similar sounds, which in particular language do not stand in contrast with one another. Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimalelements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Distinctive features are language-specific, that what distinguishes meaning in one language does not necessarily do so in another language, e.g. aspiration. (鼻音, refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds)Which allophone is to be used is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard in most cases; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonology is to find out these rules.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. Those two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution, which means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occur in different phonetic environments.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. The sound combinations (pill, bill, etc.) constitute a minimal set, in which they are identical in form except for initial consonant.3.4 Some rules in phonology3.4.1 Sequential rulesThe rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules, which is language-specific.3.4.2 Assimilation rulesIt assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, caused by articulatory or physiological processes.3.4.3. Deletion rulesIt tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.3.5 Suprasegmental features – stress, tone, intonationRefers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. These are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.3.5.1 StressWord stress and sentence stress. In English, word stress is free. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress may also be employed to distinguish meaning in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns; Sentence stress refers to the relative force, which is given to the words in a sentence.3.5.2 ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. English is not a tone but intonation language. Chinese is a typical tone language.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four: the falling tone (indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement), the rising tone (question of what is said), the fall-rise tone (indicates an implied message), and the rise-fall tone, in which the first three are most frequently used.Intonation can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing the nucleus on it. Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.Chapter 3: Morphology1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation.2.Morpheme2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of languageThe meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.2.2 Types of morphemes2.2.1 Free morphemesMorphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.2.2.2 Bound morphemesMorphemes, which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.RootsWith clear definite meaning, it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.AffixesInflectional affixesManifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.Derivational affixesDerivation, derivative (the word formed). The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. Prefixes: usually modify the meaning of stem but do not change the part of speech(词类)of original word, except “be-” and “en(m)-”Suffixes: modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech: noun-forming, adjective-forming, adverb-forming, verb-forming.2.2.3 Morphological rulesWe must guard against overgeneralization. Different words may require different affixes to create the same meaning change.poundingRefers to combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.3.1 Types of compound words3.2 Features of compounds1)Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen inbetween, or as two separate words.2)Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part ofspeech of the second element.3)Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.4)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the secondelement receives secondary stress.Chapter 4: Syntax1.Syntax as a system rulesAs a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances 言语that speaker implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences.2.Sentence structure2.1 The basic components of a sentenceA sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject (referring expression被指对象) and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.2.2 Types of sentences2.2.1 The simple sentenceConsists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause.2.2.2 The coordinate sentenceContains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. Two clauses are equal parts rather than being subordinate to the other.2.2.3 The complex sentenceContains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause (子句), and the clause in which it is embedded is called a matrix clause (主句). 1) Embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause; 2) most embedded clauses require an introductory word that is called asubordinator(引导词), such as that, if, before; 3) an embedded clause may not function as a grammatical well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence (words in sentence one after another in a sequence)2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentenceSentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP).2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure3.Syntactic categoriesApart from sentences (S) and clauses (C), a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.3.1 Lexical categoriesCommonly known as parts of speech (词类). Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added, including 4 –noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Minor lexical categories are closed ones as the number of lexical items are fixed and no new members are allowed for, including 6.3.2 Phrasal categoriesFour: NP, VP, PP (prepositional), AP (adjective). NP and VP, which are essential components of a sentence, form the two major syntactic categories, that is, the subject and the predicate of a sentence.4.Grammatical relationsThe structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)binational rules5.1 Phrase structural rulesThe combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.S →NP VP “()”means optionalNP →(Det) (Adj) N (PP) (S)VP →V (NP) (PP) (S)AP →A (PP) (S)PP →P NP5.2 The recursiveness (循环性) of phrase structure rulesCan generate an indefinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length. “creative”5.3 X-bar theorya. X”b. X‟‟→ Spec X’X‟→ X complSpec X‟(specifier)X Complement(head)Commonly known as the X-bar theory, this widely recognized and highly abstract X-bar schema is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world.6.Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).6.1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.6.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)6.3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)generateD-structure (deep structure)Movement RulestransformS-structure (Surface structure)A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.6.4 More α-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate that only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7.Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary.7.1 General principles of Universal GrammarOne general principle, or condition, is the Case Condition, which requires that a noun phrase has a Case and Case is assigned by V (verb) or P (preposition) to the object position, or by AUX (auxiliary) to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. When a noun phrase moves, it can move only to the position where it can be assigned Case, in order to satisfy condition of Case requirement.Another condition is the Adjacent Condition on Case assignment. This condition states that a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. It explains why no otherphrases category can intervene between a verb and its direct object. While strictly served in English well-formed sentences, it is not the case in some other languages.7.2 The parameters of Universal GrammarParameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, e.g. a plus [+] or [-], which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, i.e. the Directionality parameter, which can account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese.Chapter 5: Semantics1.What is semantics?A study of meaning in language. Linguists cannot agree among themselves as to what meaning is. Philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the real word they refer to and in evaluating the conditions of truth and falsehood of such expressions. Psychologists focus their interest on understanding the human mind through language.2.Some views concerning the study of meaning2.1 The naming theoryIt is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, proposed by Greek scholar Plato. According to his theory, the linguistic form of symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. The limitation: 1) applicable to nouns only; 2) within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist or abstract notions.2.2 The conceptualist viewIn the interpretation of meaning, a linguistic form and what it refers to are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind (no direct links). This theory avoids many of the problems the naming theory has met, but it also raises a completely new problem of its own: what is precisely the link between the symbol and the concept?Thought/Reference (refers to concept) :by Ogden and Richards。
[整理]新编简明英语语言学教程笔记
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新编简明英语语言学教程笔记Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
语言学知识要点
语言学知识要点第一章1 Linguistics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific or systematic study of language2the four principles that make linguistics a science are:exhaustiveness/consistency/economy/objectivity3purposes: one is that it studies the nature of language and tries to establish a theory of language, and describes languages in the light of the theoryestablished. The other is that it examines all the forms of language ingeneral and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it isorganized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs inhuman life.4 the three basic ways linguistics differ from traditional grammar: firstly,descriptive not prescriptive ; secondly, linguists regards the spokenlanguage as primary, not the written; thirdly, linguistics describes eachlanguage on its own merits (traditional grammar is based on Latin)5scope of linguistics:·Phonetics(语音学) : The scientific study of speech sounds .It studies how speech sounds are articulated, transmitted, and received. For example, vowels and consonants·Phonology(音位学) : The study of how speech soundsfunction in a language .It studies the ways speech sounds are organized. . For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone.·Morphology（形态学）:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and“ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.·Syntax（句法）: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. For example, ”John like linguistics.”·Semantics: （语义学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example, the seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be fo und,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.·Pragmatics（语用学）: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different contex t. ·Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example, regional dialects ,social variation in language. ·Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.1. What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2. Design features of language①Arbitrariness(任意性) means that there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and sounds.②Duality(二重性): The property of having two levels of structures, such that unitsof the primary level are composed of elements of thesecondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Productivity(创造性): it means Language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness , in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.④Displacement(移位性): Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.5) interchangeability: refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.6) specialization: refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication7) cultural transmission: language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation,but the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.3. Functions of language①Informative(信息功能): To give information about facts. ( ideational)eg. road cross②Interrogative(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)eg.how old are you?③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)eg. I declare the meeting open.④Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factualcontent. (health, weather)eg. ah here you are!⑥Directive: language is used to get the hearer to do something.(祈使句)⑦Evocative: language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers.（jokes advertising）4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & paroleCompetence & performance6.Descriptive ( 描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic) Prescriptive ( 规定性)—lay down rules for “correct and standard”linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar: “never use a double negative”)7.Synchr onic study ( 共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)Diachronic study (历时)—description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)第二章(一)1.The study of phonetics can be divided into three mainbranches:(1)articulatory phonetics(2)acoustic phonetics （3）auditory phonetics2.speech organs are the human body involved in the production of speech, including the lungs, the trachea, the throat, the nose and the mouth3sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels 元音V owel(1)The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.(2)元音的和划分标准：the part of the tongue that is raised—front center back;the height of the tongue—high middle low;the opening of the mouth—close open semi-open semi-close;the shape of the lips—rounded unrounded;the length of the sound—long short辅音Consonants(1)The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air streamat some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.(2)according to the place of articulation English consonants can be classifiedinto :bilabials(双唇音pbmw),labiodentals(唇齿音fv)，dentils or interdentals(齿音th 的两种发音)，alveolars(齿龈音tdsznlr),palatals(腭音)velars(软腭音)glottal(声门音h)：according to the manner of articulation English consonants can be classified into :stops爆破音nasals 鼻音fricatives擦音approximants通音laterals 边通音affricates破擦音liquids流音glides 滑音（二）Phonology1.音位PhonemeThe basic unit in phonology, it?s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.2.音素phoneA phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it?s a speech sound we use when speakinga language.3.最小对立对Minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.4.超切分特征Suprasegmental features(1)The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation 5.自由变体free variationIf two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely,if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in free variation6.syllables and consonant clusters：in every language we find that there are constraints on the sequences of phonemes that are used.A word which begins with three -consonant clusters always observes three strict rules:(1)the first consonant must be [s](2)the second phoneme must be [p][t][k](3)the third consonant must be [i][r][w][j]补充知识点1.宽式音标Broad transcriptionThe transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.2.窄式音标Narrow transcriptionThe transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.3.清音V oicelessWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in sucha condition are called voiceless sounds.4.浊音V oicingSounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.5.Phonetic 组成⑴Art iculatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostly developed⑵Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学⑶Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学6．articulatoryApparatus /Organs of SpeechPharyngeal cavity–咽腔Oral ...–口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal …–鼻腔7．The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French. 8．Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j];the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].9．nasal consonants: [m] / [n] / [η]例子11.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone第三章Morphology1.词素MorphemeThe basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. We can make a distinction between two types of morphemes: FreeMorpheme and Bound morphemes.2.自由词素Free Morphemes(1)Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.(2)All monomorphemic words (单语素词)are Free Morphemes.(3)Free morphemes can be divided into two categories；[A]the set of the ordinary nouns, verbs, and adjectives which carry the content of the messages we convey .examples are book, look, happy[B] functional morphemes .examples are but, and, if, when3.黏着词素Bound morphemes(1) Bound morphemes are these morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.(2) Bound morphemes can be divided into two categories[A]derivational morphemes 派生语素The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.[B]inflectional morphemes曲折语素. The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.4.词根RootRoot is the base form of a word which cannot be furtheranalyzed without total loss of identity. All words contain a root morpheme, which may be a free morpheme or a bound morpheme.5.词缀AffixThe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. It has three subtypes , prefix, suffix, and infix. All the affixes are bound morphemes.. Prefixes前缀modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes …be-… and …en(m)-…. Suffixes后缀are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization.6.词干StemA stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. It can be equivalent to a root, or a root and a derivational7. 词素变体MorphsMorphs are the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.8.语素变体AllomorphSome morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as dog, cat, some others may have considerable variation. some morphemic shapes represent different morphemes sand thus have different meanings, examples,-s 表示复数，人称，和所有格9构词法Types of word formation(1)Compounding合成法（compound合成词）(2)Derivation派生法(derivative派生词)(3)Conversion转类法(4)Backformation逆构法(5)Clipping拆分法(6)Blending混成法(7)Acronym首字母缩略法第四章1. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 9 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, determiner, Particle2.Word class(1)Nouns are words used to refer to people, objects, creatures, places, events, qualities, phenomena,(2)Adjectives are words that describe the things, quality, state or action which a noun refers to(3)Verbs are words used to refer to various actions.(4)Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning ofa verb, anadjective , another adverb, or a sentence.(5)Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place, and other connections involving actions and things.(6)Pronouns are words which may replace nouns or nouns phrases(7)Conjunctions are words used to connect, and indicate relationship betweenevents and things.(8)Determiner限定词(9)Particle 颗粒词3. Preposition is not a word you can end with a sentence with.4.（1） One type of descriptive approach is called structuralanalysis.（2） Immediate constituent analysis成分分析法(IC分析法)[A]Immediate constituent analysis is the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –Word groups, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached[B]The Immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram, the criterion for the immediate constituent analysis is Substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same. IC analysis , the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated,（3）bracketing analysis6三种分析法的优缺点：优点:反映了语言层级性本质（essence）;解析语言生成；反应语言递归性。
语言学的英语作文
语言学的英语作文Linguistics is an exciting field that explores the intricate nature of language. It's fascinating to delveinto the depths of how we communicate with each other, from the smallest nuances of pronunciation to the vast complexities of grammar.For me, the beauty of linguistics lies in its universality. Whether you're in China speaking Mandarin orin France chatting in French, the principles of languageare everywhere. It's amazing to see how different cultures express similar ideas in unique ways, shaping theiridentities and passing down knowledge through generations.But linguistics isn't just about understanding language; it's also about evolving it. As society changes, language adapts, and new words and phrases are constantly being coined. It's fascinating to watch this evolution andpredict where language might go next.Plus, learning about linguistics can help improve your communication skills. Understanding the structure of language and how it works can make you a more effective speaker and writer. You'll be able to express your thoughts more clearly and understand others better.In conclusion, linguistics is a fascinating subjectthat offers insights into the human mind and the way we connect with each other. Whether you're a linguist by trade or just。
语言价值的学习英语作文
语言价值的学习英语作文英文回答：The value of languages is multifaceted, encompassing both practical and intrinsic benefits. On a practical level, language proficiency enhances communication, expanding access to information, fostering cross-cultural understanding, and facilitating global collaboration. In today's interconnected world, fluency in multiple languages is increasingly advantageous, providing a competitive edgein various fields and opening doors to wider opportunities.The intrinsic value of languages lies in their transformative power. Language shapes our perception of the world, enabling us to articulate our thoughts, express our emotions, and connect with others. It is a vehicle for storytelling, preserving heritage, and conveying cultural identity. Through literature, poetry, and film, languages enrich our understanding of different perspectives,fostering empathy and appreciation for cultural diversity.Moreover, learning languages enhances cognitiveabilities such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and memory. It requires the acquisition of new vocabulary, grammar rules, and cultural norms, which stimulates neural pathways and strengthens mental flexibility. By exposing us to different linguistic systems, languages broaden our cognitive horizons and improve overall brain function.The educational value of languages cannot be overstated. As early as childhood, language learning promotes literacy, numeracy, and social development. It prepares children for academic success by enhancing their communication and comprehension skills. Throughout the education system, language proficiency is essential for accessing knowledge, participating in classroom discussions, and engaging in critical analysis.In conclusion, the value of languages extends far beyond mere communication. They provide access to information, foster cross-cultural understanding, enhance cognitive abilities, and enrich our lives in countless ways.By embracing the power of languages, we unlock a world of possibilities and become more capable and globally-minded individuals.中文回答：语言的价值是多方面的，既包括实际的好处，也包括内在的好处。
如何成为一个好的语言学者英文作文
如何成为一个好的语言学者英文作文How to Become a Good LinguistLanguage is a fascinating subject that is central to human communication and culture. Linguists study the structure, usage, and evolution of languages, and play a crucial role in preserving linguistic diversity and understanding the complexities of human communication. If you have a passion for languages and want to become a good linguist, here are some steps you can take to achieve your goal.1. Develop a love for languagesTo become a good linguist, you need to have a genuine love for languages. This can involve learning multiple languages, exploring different language families, and immersing yourself in the linguistics of various cultures. By appreciating the beauty and diversity of languages, you will be motivated to delve deeper into the field of linguistics.2. Study linguisticsFormal education in linguistics is essential for becoming a good linguist. You can pursue a degree in linguistics or a related field such as cognitive science, anthropology, or psychology. During your studies, you will learn about phonetics, syntax,semantics, morphology, and other branches of linguistics. You will also gain expertise in analyzing language data and conducting research in the field.3. Learn multiple languagesTo excel in linguistics, it is beneficial to have proficiency in multiple languages. This will give you a broader perspective on language structures and enable you to conduct comparative analyses across different languages. By learning different languages, you will also enhance your communication skills and cultural understanding.4. Read widelyAs a linguist, it is important to stay informed about the latest developments in the field. Reading academic journals, books, and articles related to linguistics will help you stay updated on current research and theories. You can also explore topics such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, historical linguistics, and computational linguistics to broaden your knowledge base.5. Conduct researchResearch is a fundamental aspect of linguistics, and conducting your own research projects will help you develop critical thinking and analytical skills. You can explore topics suchas language acquisition, language change, dialect variation, and language documentation. By designing and carrying out research studies, you will make valuable contributions to the field of linguistics.6. Attend conferences and workshopsNetworking with other linguists and scholars is essential for professional growth in the field of linguistics. Attending conferences, workshops, and seminars will provide you with opportunities to present your research, collaborate with colleagues, and learn from experts in the field. By engaging with the broader linguistics community, you will expand your knowledge and skills.7. Collaborate with othersCollaboration is key to success in linguistics, as language is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that requires interdisciplinary approaches. By working with experts in other fields such as psychology, computer science, or anthropology, you can gain new perspectives and insights that will enhance your research and broaden your expertise.8. Stay curious and open-mindedTo become a good linguist, it is essential to maintain a sense of curiosity and open-mindedness about language and its complexity. By staying curious, you will continue to explore new ideas and theories in linguistics, while remaining open-minded will enable you to consider diverse perspectives and approaches to language study.In conclusion, becoming a good linguist requires a combination of passion, education, research, and collaboration. By following these steps and staying dedicated to your linguistic pursuits, you can make valuable contributions to the field of linguistics and deepen your understanding of language and human communication.。
《第二语言习得概论》课程教学大纲
《第二语言习得概论》课程教学大纲课程编码：30615001 学分： 2学分总学时：36学时说明【课程性质】《第二语言习得概论》是英语专业任意选修课。
【教学目的】帮助学习者在语言基础知识学习的基础上，掌握一些基本的教学理论，并使他们在学习的过程中形成自己的教学思路，为今后的教学实践或对其进一步的研究做准备。
【教学任务】通过对语言学习者学习语言过程的讨论，帮助学生将模糊的、无意识的实践性内容变成明确的、有意识的理论方法。
使他们在以后的教学中，能够批判性地接受现行的一些教学方法，并在实践过程中根据不同的受教育对象将其不断完善。
【教学内容】绪论；学习者语言的本质、中介语、中介语的社会层面；中介语的话语层面；中介语的心理语言学层面；中介语的语言学层面；二语习得中的个体差异；课堂教学和二语习得；结论【教学原则和方法】教学原则：理论和实践相结合，突出指导性和应用性。
教学方法：教师提出问题，并组织学生讨论，围绕具体问题进行讲解。
教师讲解与学生练习结合，学生每次课后书面回答具体问题。
【先修课程要求】“语言学概论”、“英语学习理论”课程的学习，有一定语言实践经验。
【教材与主要参考书】教材：Rod Ellis 《第二语言习得》上海外语教育出版社,2000年。
参考书：P. M. Lightbown and N. Spada 《语言学习机制》上海外语教育出版社, 20XX年。
Rod Ellis《第二语言习的研究》上海外语教育出版社, 1994年。
大纲内容第一部分Introduction: Describing and Explaining L2 Acquisition【教学目的和要求】教学目的：本章是全书的绪论，学习的目的是弄清第二语言习得的概念和目标。
教学要求：明确什么是学习者语言等相关概念，从而在整体上使学生对第二语言习得的基本理论有个概括性的了解。
【内容提要】Ⅰ.The definition of second language acquisitionⅡ.The goals of second language acquisitionⅢ.Two case studiesⅣ.Methodological issuesⅤ.Issues in the description of learner languageⅥ.Issues in the explanation of L2 acquisition【教学重点与难点问题】教学重点：the definition of second language acquisition教学难点：the goals of second language acquisition【复习参考题】1. In what respects is Wes a ‘good language learner’ and on what respects is he not one?2. What is your own definition of a ‘good language learner’?第二部分The Nature of Learner Language【教学目的和要求】教学目的：学生了解学习者语言的本质。
我们学外语可以学到什么？
我们学外语可以学到什么？作者：George来源：《新高考·英语基础（高一）》2015年第08期Learning a foreign language is more than just a boost to your CV or handy for travelling. Itwill make you smarter， more decisive and even better at your mother tongue， says Anne Merritt.Physiological studies have found that speaking two or more languages is a great asset tothe cognitive process. The brains of bilingual people operate differently than single languagespeakers，and these differences offer several mental benefits.Below are seven cognitive advantages to learning a foreign language. Many of theseattributes are only apparent in people who speak multiple languages regularly-if you haven'tspoken a foreign tongue since your A levels， your brain might not be reaping these bilingualbenefits. However， people who begin language study in their adult lives can still achieve the samelevels of fluency as a young learner， and still reap the same mental benefits.1. You become smarterSpeaking a foreign language improves the functionality of your brain by challenging it torecognize， negotiate meaning， and communicate in different language systems. This skill boostsyour ability to negotiate meaning in other problem-solving tasks as well.Students who study foreign languages tend to score better on standardized tests than theirmonolingual peers， particularly in the categories of maths， reading， and vocabulary.2. You build multitasking skillsMultilingual people， especially children， are skilled at switching between two systems ofspeech， writing， and structure. According to a study from the Pennsylvania State University，this"juggling" skill makes them good multitaskers， because they can easily switch between di仟erentstructures. In one study， participants used a driving simulator while doing separate，distractingtasks at the same time. The research found that people who spoke more than one languagemade fewer errors in their driving.3. You stave off Alzheimers and dementiaSeveral studies have been conducted on this topic， and the results are consistent. Formonolingual adults， the mean age for the first signs of dementia is 71.4. For adults who speak twoor more languages， the mean age for those first signs is 75.5. Studies considered factors such aseducation level， income level， gender， and physical health， but the results were consistent.4. Your memory ，mprovesEducators often liken the brain to a muscle， because it functions better with exercise.Learning a language involves memorizing rules and vocabulary， which helps strengthen thatmental "muscle". This exercise improves overall memory， which means that multiple languagespeakers are better at remembering lists or sequences. Studies show that bilinguals are better atretaining shopping lists，names， and directions.5. You become more perceptiveA study from Spain's University of Pompeu Fabra revealed that multilingual people are betterat observing their surroundings. They are more adept at focusing on relevant information andediting out the irrelevant. They're also better at spotting misleading information. Is it any surprisethat Sherlock Holmes and Hercule Poirot are skilled polyglots？6. Your decision-making skills improveAccording to a study from the University of Chicago， bilinguals tend to make more rationaldecisions. Any language contains nuance and subtle implications in its vocabulary， and thesebiases can subconsciously influence your judgment. Bilinguals are more confident with theirchoices after thinking it over in the second language and seeing whether their initial conclusionsstill stand up.7. You improve your mother languageLearning a foreign language draws your focus to the mechanics of language： grammar，conjugations， and sentence structure. This makes you more aware of language， and the ways itcan be structured and manipulated， These skills can make you a more effective communicatorand a sharper editor and writer. Language speakers also develop a better ear for listening， sincethey're skilled at distinguishing meaning from discreet sounds.安妮·梅里特说，学外语不仅是丰富你的简历或者方便旅行。
英语二作文中间段模板
英语二作文中间段模板## 英文回答：Paragraph 2。
From an individual perspective, the benefits of language learning extend beyond the realm of communication. Studies have shown that proficiency in multiple languages enhances cognitive function, improves memory, and fosters creativity. Bilingual individuals have been found to possess greater mental flexibility, problem-solving abilities, and cultural sensitivity. The brain of a bilingual person is constantly switching between languages, which strengthens neural connections and improves overall cognitive performance. Moreover, the act of learning a new language requires the acquisition of new vocabulary, grammar, and cultural knowledge, which stimulates brain activity and enhances memory capacity. Additionally, the ability to express oneself fluently in multiple languages promotes linguistic creativity and allows individuals toexplore different perspectives and modes of communication. Paragraph 3。
精通两钟语言的英语作文
精通两钟语言的英语作文Bilingual Proficiency: A Cognitive Edge.Bilingualism, the ability to fluently communicate in two or more languages, has long captivated the interest of scholars and educators alike. Beyond its practical benefits in enhancing communication and facilitating intercultural exchange, bilingualism has been found to confer a multitude of cognitive advantages, ranging from improved executive function to heightened academic performance.Enhanced Executive Function.One of the most well-established cognitive benefits of bilingualism is its impact on executive function, the umbrella term for mental processes that coordinate and control other cognitive abilities. Studies have shown that bilinguals consistently outperform monolinguals on tasks requiring cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and working memory.Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch between different mental tasks or perspectives, while inhibitory control involves suppressing irrelevant thoughts and actions. Working memory is the ability to temporarily store and manipulate information in the mind. Bilinguals' superior performance in these areas is attributed to the constant mental juggling they engage in when switching between languages, which strengthens the underlying neural pathways associated with executive function.Improved Academic Performance.Bilingualism has also been linked to enhanced academic performance, particularly in literacy and language skills. Bilingual children tend to develop stronger phonological awareness, the ability to recognize and manipulate individual sounds in language. This phonological advantage extends to both their native language and the second language, leading to improved reading and spelling skills.Additionally, bilinguals often exhibit superiormetalinguistic awareness, the ability to reflect on and analyze language itself. This heightened awareness translates into advantages in grammar, syntax, and vocabulary, contributing to overall academic success.Cognitive Reserve and Brain Health.Beyond the immediate cognitive benefits, bilingualismis also associated with improved cognitive reserve and brain health in later life. Cognitive reserve refers to the brain's ability to cope with age-related decline or injury. Studies have shown that bilinguals have a larger cognitive reserve than monolinguals, which may protect them from the onset of cognitive impairment and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's.Moreover, bilingualism has been found to stimulate neural plasticity, the brain's ability to adapt and change in response to new experiences. The constant mental exercise required to process and produce two languages strengthens neural connections and promotes the growth of new neurons, contributing to overall brain health.Social and Cultural Implications.The cognitive advantages of bilingualism extend beyond the individual to have broader social and cultural implications. Bilingualism fosters cultural understanding, tolerance, and empathy. By bridging linguistic and cultural divides, bilinguals serve as bridges between different communities, promoting intercultural exchange and mutual respect.In an increasingly globalized world, bilingual proficiency is becoming increasingly valuable. It not only enhances cognitive function but also facilitates communication, broadens perspectives, and promotes cross-cultural understanding. As educators and policymakers recognize the myriad benefits of bilingualism, efforts to promote and support language learning are essential to unlocking the full potential of our diverse societies.。
英语启蒙课程从小培养双语能力
英语启蒙课程从小培养双语能力"Education is the passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs to those who prepare for it today." - Malcolm XIntroduction:In today's globalized world, being bilingual or multilingual is becoming increasingly important. English, as an international language, is in high demand. Therefore, it is crucial to start nurturing bilingual abilities from an early age. This article will explore the significance of English language immersion programs and their role in developing linguistic proficiency among children.The Importance of Early Bilingual Education:As children's brains are highly adaptable, the early years of their lives are the most opportune time to acquire language skills. Research shows that children exposed to a second language at an early age have a much higher chance of becoming fluent speakers. Bilingual education is essential for cultivating cognitive flexibility, enhanced problem-solving skills, and cultural understanding since it exposes children to different worldviews and communication styles.Benefits of English Language Immersion Programs:English language immersion programs provide an ideal environment for young learners to immerse themselves in the target language. By using English as the primary medium of instruction, students are constantly exposed to the language through conversations, reading, and listeningactivities. This immersion approach accelerates language acquisition and helps children develop near-native proficiency.Enhancement of Cognitive Abilities:Studies have shown a positive correlation between bilingualism and cognitive abilities. Bilingual children often demonstrate better problem-solving skills, enhanced memory, and more advanced analytical thinking. Learning English as a second language from an early age can significantly stimulate brain development and promote cognitive flexibility, leading to overall academic excellence.Increased Cultural Awareness:English language immersion programs not only focus on language acquisition but also foster an understanding and appreciation of diverse cultures. Through exposure to English literature, songs, and cultural traditions, children gain awareness and respect for different customs, fostering a sense of global citizenship from a young age.Preparation for Future Opportunities:In an increasingly interconnected world, proficiency in English opens doors to numerous opportunities. Whether it be pursuing higher education abroad, securing competitive job positions, or participating in international collaborations, a strong command of English is a valuable asset. Starting English language education early in life provides a solid foundation for future success.Building Confidence and Communication Skills:With regular practice and exposure, children in English language immersion programs gradually build their confidence in speaking and communicating effectively. Engaging in conversations, presentations, and group discussions enhances their oral communication skills and promotes self-assurance, facilitating their success in both personal and professional endeavors.Conclusion:In conclusion, starting English language education from an early age through immersion programs is vital for cultivating bilingual abilities. These programs offer a conducive environment for children to develop linguistic proficiency and cognitive skills. Additionally, they foster cultural understanding and prepare children for future academic and professional opportunities. By investing in English language education, parents and educators empower children to become global citizens who can navigate the increasingly interconnected world with ease and confidence.。
语言学教程的意义英语作文
语言学教程的意义英语作文Linguistics, the scientific study of language and its structure, plays a pivotal role in enhancing one'sproficiency in English composition. A linguistics tutorialcan provide students with a deeper understanding of the intricacies of the English language, which is essential for crafting well-structured and effective written communication. Here's why a linguistics tutorial is significant for anyone looking to improve their English writing skills:1. Understanding Language Structure: A linguistics tutorial delves into the syntax and morphology of the English language, helping students grasp how sentences are constructed and how words are formed. This knowledge is fundamental for writing coherent and grammatically correct sentences.2. Enhancing Lexical Knowledge: Through a linguisticstutorial, students can expand their vocabulary and learnabout the nuances of word meanings, usage, and connotations. This is particularly useful for avoiding ambiguity and choosing the most appropriate words to convey a specific message.3. Improving Pronunciation and Spelling: Phonology, a branchof linguistics, focuses on the study of the sound system of languages. Understanding the phonetic aspects of English can help students improve their pronunciation and spelling, which are crucial for clear communication in writing.4. Cultural Insights: Language is deeply intertwined with culture. A linguistics tutorial can offer insights into the cultural aspects of the English language, such as idioms, proverbs, and colloquial expressions, enriching a student's writing with cultural references.5. Developing Critical Thinking: Analyzing language patterns and structures requires critical thinking. A linguistics tutorial can sharpen this skill, which is invaluable for evaluating and improving one's own writing and for understanding complex texts.6. Learning Writing Techniques: A tutorial can introduce students to various writing techniques and styles, such as descriptive, narrative, and persuasive writing. Understanding the linguistic principles behind these techniques can enhance a student's ability to employ them effectively.7. Preparing for Advanced Studies: For those pursuing higher education, especially in fields like literature, communication, or education, a strong foundation inlinguistics can be a significant advantage. It prepares students for more advanced language studies and research.8. Professional Advancement: In professional settings, the ability to write clearly and persuasively is often a key differentiator. A linguistics tutorial can provide the tools necessary to communicate effectively in professional documents, emails, and reports.9. Empowering Language Learners: For non-native speakers, a linguistics tutorial can be particularly empowering, as it can demystify the complexities of English and provide a structured approach to learning the language.10. Promoting Language Awareness: Lastly, a linguistics tutorial promotes metalinguistic awareness, which is the ability to think about and reflect on language. This awareness can lead to a more thoughtful and deliberate approach to writing, resulting in more polished and professional compositions.In conclusion, a linguistics tutorial is not just an academic exercise; it is a practical tool that can significantly enhance one's ability to write in English. By providing a comprehensive understanding of the language's structure, vocabulary, and cultural context, it empowers individuals to communicate more effectively in writing.。
精通两钟语言的英语作文
精通两钟语言的英语作文英文回答：Bilingual proficiency offers remarkable advantages that enhance personal, professional, and societal well-being. The ability to seamlessly navigate between two languages empowers individuals with a unique set of cognitive, communicative, and cultural capabilities. Mastering two languages transcends mere linguistic fluency; it encompasses a deep understanding of the nuances, idioms, and cultural contexts associated with each language.The cognitive benefits of bilingualism are well-documented. Bilingual individuals exhibit superior executive function, multitasking abilities, and problem-solving skills compared to their monolingual counterparts. Their enhanced cognitive flexibility allows them to switch between languages effortlessly, fostering a higher level of attention and mental agility. Moreover, research has shown that bilingualism can delay the onset of age-relatedcognitive decline, such as dementia and Alzheimer's disease.Bilingualism also opens doors to countless professional opportunities. In today's globalized world, employers value employees who can communicate effectively withinternational clients, partners, and colleagues. Bilingual individuals possess a competitive advantage in various industries, including business, healthcare, education, and diplomacy. Their ability to bridge linguistic and cultural divides facilitates effective communication, fostering stronger relationships and enhancing collaboration.Beyond the professional realm, bilingualism enriches personal lives in profound ways. It allows individuals to connect with a wider range of people, bridging culturalgaps and fostering a sense of belonging in diverse communities. Bilingualism provides a unique lens through which to appreciate the world, whether it be through literature, art, or music. By experiencing different perspectives and immersing themselves in diverse cultures, bilingual individuals develop a deeper understanding of the human experience.Moreover, bilingualism has societal implications that extend beyond the individual level. It promotes cultural diversity and tolerance, fostering greater understanding and appreciation of different cultures. Bilingual individuals serve as cultural ambassadors, bridging communication barriers and facilitating intercultural exchange. In societies where multiple languages coexist, bilingualism plays a crucial role in promoting social cohesion and fostering a sense of unity among diverse linguistic groups.In conclusion, bilingual proficiency is an invaluable asset that brings forth a myriad of benefits. From enhanced cognitive abilities and professional opportunities to personal enrichment and societal harmony, the mastery of two languages empowers individuals to navigate the complexities of the modern world with confidence and cultural awareness.中文回答：掌握两种语言的优势显而易见，它可以提升个人、职业和社会福祉。
教学法12principles
What is motivation?
It is the extent to which you make choices about (a) goals to pursue and (b) the effort you will devote to that pursuit
Application in teaching
their own language learning
with the teacher as a
facilitator or guide. teacher-dependent self-dependent
Socioaffective Principles
7. Language Ego
Students feel awkward in the learning environment and good teachers… compensate.
Application in teaching
Appeal to students’ language… needs and goals link new knowledge to… previous knowledge avoid pitfalls of teaching for… the test
interferபைடு நூலகம்nce
Native language can also facilitate…
learning.
Application in teaching
Point out common L1 interference teach cognates teach students to think directly in the target language.
新编语言学教程第一章 chapter1
B.Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
c) Linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force languages into a Latinbased framework.
• To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;
2. There are no absolute standards of correctness in language uses.
•
秋浦歌
• 白发三千丈， 缘愁似个长。 • 不知明镜里， 何处得秋霜。 • 单看“白发三千丈”一句，真叫人无法理 解：白发怎么能有“三千丈”呢？愁生白 发，人所共晓，而长达三千丈，该有多少 深重的愁思。十个字的千钧重量落在一个 “愁”字上。以此写愁，匪夷所思。奇想 出奇句，不能不使人惊叹诗人的气魄和笔 力。
A Course on Linguistics for Students of English Linguistics: A New Coursebook
《新编语言学教程》
The Goals for this Course
• To get a scientific view on language; • To understand some basic theories on linguistics;
英语教学法教程重点-English Language Teaching
第一章1. Views on language: Structural view, Functional view, interactional view.2. Views on language learning and learning in general: Behaviorist theory, Cognitive theory, Constructivist theory, Socio-constructivist theory.3. Elements that contribute to the qualities of a good English teacher: Ethic devotion, professional qualities, personal styles. ④补充的excellent teachers: flexibility, encouragement, enthusiasm, leading by example, integrity, never stop learning, good communication.4.Excellent teachers: Flexibility, Encouragement, Enthusiasm, Leading by example—e.g. risk taking, Integrity, Never stops learning, Good communication.5. Stage 1 language development ,stage 2 learning from other`s experience learning the received knowledge learning from one`s own experience as a learner. Stage3 professional competence.第二章1.The ultimate goal of ELT: the ultimate of foreign language teaching is toenable students to use the foreign language in work or life when necessary. Thus we should teach that part of the language that will be used (rather than all part of the language).2Components of communicative competence:Linguistic competence,Pragmatic competence,Discourse competence,Strategic competence,Fluency.3 3 principles of communicative language teaching:communication principle , task principle , meaningfulness principle4 the key assumption in CLT is that students learn the language through engaging in a variety of communicative activities,5 6 criteria for Evaluating how communicative classroom activities are:a. Communicative purpose:b. Communicative desire:c. Content, not form:d. Variety of language:e. No teacher intervention:d. No material control:6 Definition of task: a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention in principally focused on meaning rather than form. (Nunan 1989:8)Four components of a task: a purpose ,a context ,a process , a product.7 Four sets of questions when designing tasks:(how to design tasks?)--- What is the objective of the task?--- What is the content of the task?--- How is the task to be carried out?--- In what situation is the task to be carried out?7. 5个设计任务的步骤：a. Think about students’ need, interests, and abilitiesb. Brainstorm possible tasksc. Evaluate the listd. Choose the language itemse. Preparing materials第三章1. Figure 3.1 Framework of objectives in the new National English Curriculum:Learning Strategy: Cognitive, Self-management, Communication, ResourcingLanguage skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading, WritingLanguage knowledge: Phonetics, Grammar, Vocabulary, Functions, TopicsCultural awareness: Knowledge, Understanding, AwarenessAffect and attitudes: International, Perspectives, Patriotism, Confidence, Motivation Questions: What is the main aim of English language teaching?What is it composed of?What are the relations among all the components?What are the major characteristics compared with the 1992 Syllabus?The new curriculum is designed to promote the students ‘overall language ability, which is composed of five interrelated components, namely, language skills, language knowledge, affects, learning strategies and cultural understanding. Each component is further divided to a few subcategories as shown in the diagram. Language teaching is no longer aimed only for developing language skills and knowledge, but expanded to developing learners’positive attitude, motivation, confidence as well as strategies for life-long learning along withcross-cultural knowledge, awareness and capabilities.2. LEVEL 2 covers Grade 5 and Grade 6LEVEL 3 to LEVEL 5 are intended for the junior high school phase from Junior 1 to Junior 3(also named Grades 7-9)LEVEL 6 and 7 are required of every senior high school studentLEVEL 7 is requirement for every senior high school leavers语言教学的目标（课程目标）Overall Language Ability①language knowledge: phonetics, grammar, vocabulary, functions, topics ②language skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing ③learning strategy: cognitive, self management, communication, resourcing ④affect and attitude: international, perspectives, patriotism, confidence, motivation ⑤cultural awareness: knowledge, understanding, awareness.第4章1、what ‘s a lesson plan :A lesson plan is a framework of a lesson in which teachers make advance decision about what they hope to achieve and how they would like to achieve it. In other words, teachers need to think about the aims to be achieved, materials to be covered, activities to be organized, and techniques and resources to be used in order to achieve the aims of the lesson.2. P52: what can teachers benefit from lesson planning? (para. 2, totally there are 6 ideas)Firstly, a class plan makes the teacher aware of the aims and language contents of the lesson. Secondly,it helps teacher distinguish the various stages of a lesson and see the relationship between them so that the activities of different difficulty levels can be arranged properly and the lessons can move smoothly from one stage to another.Thirdly, proper lesson planning gives teachers the opportunity to anticipate potential problems that may arise in class so that they can be prepared with some possible solutions or other options for the lesson.Fourthly, good lesson planning gives teachers, especially novice teacher, confidence in class. They know what they are going to do next therefore they can pay more attention to Ss’ reaction and performance in class rather than themselves.Fifthly, when planning the class, the T also becomes aware of the teaching aids that are needed for the lesson.Last but not least, planning is a good practice and a sign of professionalism.3. P53: principles for good lesson planningAimVarietyFlexibilityLearnabilityLinkage4. P54: what does macro planninginvolve?a. Knowing about the profession: the T should get to know which language areas and language skills should be taught or practiced in the course, what materials and teaching aids are available, and what methods and techniques can be used.b. Knowing about the institution: the T should get to know the institution’s arrangements regarding time, length, frequency of lessons, physical conditions of classrooms, and exam requirement.c. Knowing about the learners: the T should acquire information about the Ss’age range, sex proportion, social background, motivation, attitudes, interests, learning needs and other individual factors.d. Knowing about the curriculum/syllabus: the teacher should be clear about the principles, purposes, requirements and targets specified by the curriculum or syllabus. She/ He should also be aware of the methodological suggestions and assessment requirement for the course.e. Knowing about the textbook: in China, teaching is generally based on a textbook provided to a teacher. Therefore, teachers should not only know the curriculum well but also know the textbook well in terms of its philosophy of teaching, organization of learning contents, major topics, recommended teaching methodology, unit components and ways of assessment.f. Knowing about the objectives: the T should get to know what the learners are expected to achieve and able to do after one semester or a year’s learning so that he/she can design suitable activities to meet the objectives.5. P55-60: 8 components of a lesson plan (micro planning)Background informationTeaching aimsLanguage contents and skillsStages and proceduresTeaching aidsEnd of lesson summaryOptional activities and assignmentsAfter lesson reflections6. P59: models for teaching a new structure-based lesson and for a skill-oriented lesson (see the bold words)Models for teaching a new structure-based基于结构lesson: Presentation, Practice, Production Models for teaching a new skill-oriented 导向lesson: Pre-reading, While-reading, Post-reading7. 阅读教学的步骤Pre-reading: 1. Arouse interest and introduce topics. ( lead in)2. Teach key new words/phrases, predict content, etc. ( pre-tasks)While-reading: 1. Focus on overall understanding.2. Focus on detail understanding/teach new words and sentences.Post-reading: Encourage personal response.第五章1. Classroom management is the way teachers organize what goes on in the classroom. It contributes directly to the efficiency of teaching and learning as the most effective activities can be made almost useless if the teacher does not organize them efficiently. As the goal of classroom management is to create an atmosphere conductive to interacting in English in meaningful ways.2. Efficient classroom management can be achieved when the following six conditions are met:a. The teacher plays appropriate roles.b. The teacher provides clear instructions.c. Students are grouped in a way suitable for the learning activities.d. The teacher asks appropriate questions.e. There is discipline as well as harmony in the class.f. The Ss’ errors are treated properly.3. Roles of the teacher:ControllerAssessorOrganizerPrompterParticipantResource-providerTeacher’s new roles(Guides researchers )①controller: control the pace; control time; control the whole class. ②assessor: assess the students’ work; correct mistake; organize feedback.③organiser: design and organize tasks④prompter: give appropriate prompts;⑤participant: join students⑥resource-provider：instruction materials. ⑦new roles: facilitator; guide; researcher.4. Classroom instructionsGiving directions to tasks or activitiesProviding explanation to a concept or language structureSetting requirementsChecking comprehensionDrawing attentionMotivating learnersGiving feedbackAssigning homework对无纪律课堂的措施measures①act immediately②stop the class③rearrange the class④change the activity⑤talk to students after class⑥create a code of behavior5. Student groupingWhole class workPair workGroup workIndividual study6. Discipline here refers to a code of conduct which binds a teacher and a group of Ss together so that learning can be more effective.7. What contribute to discipline: classroom management, T’s behavior, S’s motivation.8. Questioning in the classroom: Ts use questions to focus Ss’ attention, to invite thinking and imaginations, to check understanding, to stimulate recall of information, to challenge Ss, and to asses learning.课堂问题的建议advice about problems in class①deal with it quietly②don’t take things personally③don’t use threats有效的课堂指令规则rules to follow for making instructions effective：①use simple instructions and make them suit the comprehension level of the students.②use the mother-tongue only when it is necessary.③give students time to get used to listening to English instructions and help them make an effort to understand them.第7章一．Grammar presentation1. Purpose: Ss perceive理解the structure—its form and meaning—in both speech and writing, and take it into short-term memory.2. 3 ways used in presentation: the Deductive method演绎法, The Guided discovery method, the Inductive method归纳法.3. P105. Guided discovery method的步骤a. Create a content. （创设一个语境，用简洁、明了、易懂的语言从视和听两个方面来。
新编简明英语语言学上课重点
Linguistics' notes第一周Chapter 1 Introduction .1. Definition of language*Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.●Language is a system.●Language is arbitrary.●Language is vocal.●Language is human-specific.2.Design features of language●Arbitrariness 任意性●Productivity 多产性●Duality 双重性●Displacement 移位性●Cultural transmission 文化传播性3.Functions of language(Halliday)●The ideational 概念功能to organize language user's experience of the word.●The interpersonal 人际功能to establish/maintain social relationship.●The textual 语篇功能to organize texts in a coherent and appropriate way.第二周1. Definition of linguistics*Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.----general linguistics.Scientific study of language.2. The branches of linguistics●Phonetics语音学--the study of how speech sounds are produced and classified@研究发音，自然属性，无序的语音●Phonology音系学--the study of how sounds form systems and functions to convey meaning@研究音间联系，注重功能，有序的语音●Morphology形态学、词法--the study of the form off words@涉及词语的内部组织，研究词语的最小单位-语素●Syntax句法学--the study of how words and phrases are combined to form sentences@研究如何组词成句，形成、理解正确的句子●Semantics语义学--the study of meaning(in abstraction)@研究词语的意义如何在语音中编码●Pragmatics语用学--the study of meaning in context of use@特定情景中的特定话语的理解和运用●Historical linguistics历史语言学--the study of language change.●Sociolinguistics社会语言学--the study of language with reference to society●Psycholinguistics心理语言学--the study of language with reference to the working ofthe mind.●Applied linguistics应用语言学--the study of applying linguistic findings to the solutionof practical problems.@广义-实践，狭义-教学研究3.Some important distinctions in linguistics1)Prescriptive vs. DescriptivePrescriptive规定式--to aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" verbal behaviour.@做规定Descriptive描写式--to describe and analyze the language people actually use.@写现象Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2）Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic共时--the description of a language at some point of time in history.@语言在特定时间点上的研究Diachronic历时--the description of a language as it changes through time.@语言随时间演变的研究Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic.3)Speech vs. WritingModern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, written language as secondary.●Linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing;●the amount of information, speech is more than writing;●the learning of mother tongue, speech first,writing later.4)Langue and ParoleTheir distinction was made by the Swiss linguist F. De Saussure.Langue语言--the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.@抽象的。
英语说课术语汇总
目录一、英语说课常用教学术语 (2)二、英语教学术语 (3)三、英语教学法术语 (8)四、教学常用英语 (23)五、校园常用英语口语 (27)一、英语说课常用教学术语A. Brief introduction to the teaching material 教材分析Teaching Tasks 教学任务Teaching contents 教学内容B. Teaching objectives; Teaching aims; Teaching goals 教学目标1. Language knowledge objectives 知识目标2. Language skills objectives 能力目标3. Emotion objectives 情感目标C. Emphases and consolidation 重点与巩固D. Difficulties and breakthrough 难点与突破E. Ideas of language teaching 教学思想F. Teaching methods and teaching aids 教法教具G. Teaching process and distribution of time 教学过程与时间分配Teaching procedure 教学过程Teaching steps 教学环节（Warm up）1. Presentation2. Sample drills3. Explanation to the linguistic points4. Consolidation practice5. Summary6. Test7. Homework8. Distribution of timeH. Layout of blackboard writing 板书Blackboard design 板书设计Whole class work 全班活动Pair work 双人活动Group work 小组活动Learning strategies 学习策略After class reflection 课后反思Description of students Junior 2 （45students）Main structureMain vocabularyVisual aidsReviewBackground informationOptional activities and assignmentsPresentation Practice ProductionPre-reading While-reading Post-readingWarming-up 热身活动；准备活动Lead-in 导入二、英语教学术语1. Plans and objectives计划和目标aims and demands目的与要求plan for the topic课题计划analysis of teaching materials教学分析main points重点difficult points (trouble spots)难点allocation of time时间分配lesson plan课时计划teaching objectives教学目标develop skills (in listening, speaking, reading and writing)培养/发展（听、说、读、写）技能2. Types and content of lesson课型和内容old(new) lesson旧（新）课revision/ review复习（课）reading 阅读课dialogue对话课listening 听力课conversation会话（课）(writing) precis（写）概要composite lesson综合课open class(demonstration lesson)公开课3. procedure程序introduction导言（课）checkup/ checking检查(have) dictation（进行）听写listening to recording听录音model reading (by the teacher) 范读，示范朗读read in chorus声朗读watching lantern-slidespoint to … in the chart/ diagram在图/表中指示retelling (retell the story) 复述（故事）rewrite the paragraph 改写段落generalize , induce 概括、归纳row work一排（座位）同练pair work 结对儿练习group work 小组练习summing-up 总结4. Assignments and tests 作业与考查assign class work / homework 布置课内（外）作业hand in / collect the homework 交（收）作业oral / written work 口头/书面作业quiz 随堂小测验(unit) test （单元）测验mid-term exam(ination) 期中考试term(inal) exam(ination) 学期考试make-up exam(ination) 补考sit for an exam(ination) （在）参加考试mark the homework / paper 改作业/卷（给分）full marks 满分, A+excellent (superior) 优，A(优减，A－)good 良，Bnormal/ fairly good /fair 中、尚好，Cnot good / bad 差，Dfail 不及格, F教学法流派：audio-lingual approach or aural-oral method听说法；cognitive approach认知法；compromise method 折中法；deductive method演绎法；inductive method归纳法；cramming method灌输法；comparative method比较法；direct method直接法；discovery learning发现学习法；eclecticism优选法；grammar translation method语法翻译法；language teaching methods语言教学法；the natural approach自然法（途径）；reading method阅读法；silent way沉默法；the communicative approach 交际法（途径）；notion-al approach意念法；functional approach 功能法；comprehensive method综合法；situational method情景法；heuristic method of teaching启发式教学法；oral method口授法；didactics教授法；audio-visual method视听法；suggestopoedia 暗示法；activity method活动教学法；card system卡片教学法；group training method分组训练方法；computer aided instruction计算机辅助教学；discussion method讨论教学法；demonstration method演示法；Total Physi-cal Response全身反应法；Structural Method 结构法；Com-munity Language Learning 集体语言学习法；Zhang Sizhong’s Method of Foreign Language Teaching张思中外语教学法Teaching grammar in situations情景法语法教学Teaching grammar by charts and diagrams用图表概括教语法Teaching grammar in sentence patterns结合句型教语法Teaching of grammar by comparison比较法语法教学Teaching grammar in various ways多样化语法教学Teaching grammar in a communicative way交际式语法教学Teaching of grammar by inductive method归纳法语法教学Teaching of grammar by deductive method演绎法语法教学Teaching vocabulary in situations情境法词汇教学Teaching words in cultural context结合文化背景教单词Teaching of sentence patterns句型教学Mechanical drills机械操练Meaningful drills意义操练Communicative drills交际性练习Presenting patterns in situations情景呈现句型Presenting patterns by raising questions问题呈现句型Presenting patterns by pictures看图呈现句型Presenting patterns by narration叙述呈现句型Presenting patterns through action动作表情呈现句型Pattern drills by imitation模仿式句型操练Pattern drills by substitution替换式句型操练Pattern drills by conversion转换式句型操练Teaching methods and classroom techniques教学方法与课堂技巧Micro-teaching微型教学Teaching of pronunciation语音教学Teaching liaison连读教学Teaching words in sentence patterns利用句型教单词Teaching vocabulary by comparison比较法教词汇Teaching words by rules of word formation利用构词法教词汇Goals/ objectives目标Aims目的Requirements要求Role of the English Teacher 英语教师的作用Revision复习activator记忆激活者presentation呈现demonstrator示范者drill操练organizer or director组织者或指挥者practice 练习supervisor or monitor 监督者或监听者consolidation巩固helper or marker帮手或记分员能够实现的目标：achievable goals；理解检查：comprehension check；结伴学习：cooperating with others；手段：device；自我测评：evaluating one’s learning ；细读：full reading ；功能词：function word；基本思路：general tendency；小组活动：group work；分类聚词：grouping；圈划重点：highlighting；明确目的；identifying the purpose of a language task；输入假设：input theory；内省法：introspection；以学生为中心：learner-centered；学习策略：learning strategy；逻辑思维：logical thinking；排除焦虑：lowing one’s anxiety；记忆策略：memory strategy；误解misunderstanding；需要分析：needs analysis；观察（法）：observation；口头报告：oral report；片面理解：partial understanding；解决问题：problem-solving；步骤：procedure；有目的的听说读写purposeful listening/ speaking/ reading/ writing；规则演绎：reasoning deductively；现场记录：recording ；查阅：scanning；争取机会：seeking practice opportunities；自选话题：selecting the topic；自我意识：self-awareness；自我评价：self evaluating；社交策略：social strategy；列单式笔记：shopping list note form；提要式笔记：standard outline note form；有声思维：think aloud三、英语教学法术语Aachievement test? 成绩测试acquisition? 习得，语言习得acquisition? 语言习得顺序active mastery? 积极掌握active vocabulary? 积极词汇，主动词汇affective filtering? 情感筛选aim,objective? 目的，目标analysis of errors? 错误分析analytic approach? 分析教学法，分析法analytical reading? ?分析性阅读application to practice? 运用于实践applied linguistics? 应用语言学approach? 教学路子aptitude test? 能力倾向测验Army method? 陆军法associative learning? 联想性学习auditory discrimination? 辨音能力auditory feedback? 听觉反馈auditory memory? 听觉记忆auditory perception? 听觉audio-lingual method? 听说法audio-visual method? 视听法aural-oral approach? 听说教学法，听说法aural-oral method? 听说法Bbasic knowledge? 基本知识basic principle? 基本原则basic theory? 基本理论basic training? 基本训练basic vocabulary? ?基本词汇behaviourism? 行为主义bilingual? 双语的bilingual education? 双语教育blank filling? 填空Cchain drill? 链式操练，连锁操练choral repetition? 齐声照读，齐声仿读class management? 课常管理classroom interaction? 课常应对cloze? 完形填空cognitive approach? 认知法common core? 语言的共同核心，语言共核communicative drill? 交际性操练communicative exercise? 交际练习communicative langunge teaching? 交际派语言教学法，交际教学法community language learning? 集体语言学习法comparative method? 比较法communicative approach? 交际法comprehensible input? 不难理解的输入comprehensive method? 综合法computer-managed instruction? 计算机管理教学concord and coordination? 默契与配合console? 控制台consonant cluster? 辅音连缀context? 上下文controlled composition? 控制性作文course density? 课堂密度course design? 课程设计cramming method? 灌输式cue word? 提示词curriculum? 课程，教学大纲curriculum development? 课程编制，课程设计cultrual objective,aim? 教养目的cclical approach? 循环教学法，循环法Ddeductive learning? 演绎性学习deductive method? 演绎法delayed auditory feedback? 延缓听觉反馈demonstration? 演示demonstration lesson? 示范教学describe a picture in writing? 看图说话describe a picture orally? 描写语言学diagram? 图解diagnostic test? 诊断性测验dicto-comp? 听写作文direct application? 直接应用direct comprehension? 直接理解direct learning? 直接学习direct method? 直接教学法Eeducational objective, aim? 教育目的EFL? 英语作为外语English as a Foreign Language? 英语作为外语English as an International Language? 英语作为国际语言English environment? 英语环境English for Academic Purposes? 学术英语English for general prupose? 普通英语English for General Purposes? 通用英语English for specific purposes? 专用英语ESOL English for Speakers of Other Languages? 供非英语民族使用的英语English medium school? 英语授课学校English teaching;teaching English? 英语教学WSD（English as a Second Dialect）? 英语作为第二方言WSL（English as a Second Language）? 英语作为第二语言ESL Programme（English as a Second Language Programme）?英语（第二语言）教程ESP（English for Special Purposes）? 专用英语EST（English for Science and Technology）? 科技英语evaluation? 评语，评价examination? 考试examination question? 考题experimental method? 实验法extensive reading? 泛读external speech? 外语言语extra-curiculum activity? 课外活动extra-curriculum club,group? 课外小组Ffacial expression? 面部表情feedbace? 反馈film projector? 电影放映机filmstrip? 电影胶片final stage? 高级阶段first language? 第一语言，母语formative evaluation? 自由作文free practice? 自由练习frequency of word? 词的频率al approach? 功能法al syllabus? 功能派教学大纲Ggeneral linguistics? 普通语言学gestalt style? 格式塔式（学习），整体式（学习）gesture? 手势getting students ready for class? 组织教学global learning? 整体式学习，囫囵吞枣式学习global question? 综合性问题gradation? 级进法，分级递升法graded direct method? 循序直接法grading? 级进法，分级递升法；评分grammar lesson? 语法课grammar method? 语法法grammar translation method? 语法翻译法grammatical analysis? 语法分析group reading? 集体朗读group training? 集体练习guided composition? 引导性作文Hheuristic method of teaching? 启发式教学法heurstics? 启发法；探索法humanistic approach? 人本主义教学法Iidealism? 唯心主义imitatiom? 模仿immersion programme? 沉浸式教学imparting knowledge? 传授知识incomplete plosive? 不完全爆破independent composition? 独立作文individualized instruction? 个别教学individual training? 个别练习inductive learning? 归纳性学习inductive method? 归纳法inflection,inflexion? 词形变化information,processing? 信息处理initial beginning stage? 初级阶段inner speech? 内语言语in-service training? 在职培训instructional objective? 语言教学目标integrative teaching? 综合教学integrated approach? 综合教学法，综合法intelligent memory? 理解性记忆language training? 强化教学intensive training? 精读intermediate stage? 中级阶段interpretation? 头口翻译International Phonetic Alphabet? 国际音标Jjuncture? 连读，音渡junior high school? 初级中学junior school? 初级学校junior sceondary school? 初级中等学校junior-senior high school? 初高中junior technical college(or school)? 初级职业学院（或学校）junior year? 大学三年级Kkey words? 基本词，关键字kinesics? 身势语，身势学kinesthetic memory? 动觉记忆knowledge? 知识knowledge structure? 知识结构Llanguage acquisition? 语言习得language acquisition device? 语言习得机制language arts? 语言技能language competence,or knowledge? 语言知识language learning capability? 语言学习能力language laboratory;lab? 语言实验室language leaning capacity? 语言学习能力language pedagogy? 语言教育language performance? 语言行为language program design? 语言课程设计language test? 语言测试learning by deduction? 演绎性学习learning by induction? 归纳性学习learning process? 学习过程learning style? 学习方式lesson conducting? 教课lesson plan? 课时计划，教案lesson preparation? 备课lesson type? 课型linguistics? 语言学linguistic competence? 语言能力linguistic method? 口语领先教学法living language? 活的语言long-term memory? 长期记忆look-and-say method? 看图说话法Mmeaningful drill? 有意义的操练neabubgful exercise? 有意义的练习meaningful learning? 理解性学习means of teaching? 教学手段mechanical drill? 机械操练mechanical exercise? 机械练习mechanical memory? 机械记忆mechanical translation? 机器翻译medium of instruction? 教学媒介语，教学语言memory? 记忆，记忆力memory span? 记忆幅度memorizing? 用记记住method? 方法methodology of teaching? 教学法methodology of teaching English? 英语教学法micro-teaching? 微型教学mim-mem method? 模仿—记忆法minimal pair? 最小对立体（一种辨音练习）modeling? 示范教学modern equipment? 现代化设备modern language? 现代语言monitor hypothesis? 语言监控说mother tongue? 母语motivation? 引起动机Nnative language? 本族语natural approach? 自然教学法，自然法natural method? 自然法needs analysis? 需要分析new lesson? 新课nine-pile grading? 九堆法notional approach? 意念法notional-al syllabus? 意念-功能派教学大纲notional syllabus? 意念大纲、意念派教学大纲Oobservation lesson? 观摩教学objective? 教学目标optimum age hypothesis? 学习最佳年龄说operating principle? 操作原则oral approach? 口语教学法，口语法oral exercise? 口语练习oral method? 口授法oral reading? 朗读order of acquisition? 语言习得顺序organization of teaching materials? 教材组织organs of speech? 发音器官outside reading? 课外阅读Over learning? 过量学习Ppaired-associate learning? 配对联想学习法pair work? 双人作业，双人练习passive vocabulary? 消极词汇pattern drill? 句型操练pattern practice? 句型练习pedagogical grammar? 教学语法pedagogy? 教育法peer teaching? 同学互教penmanship handwriting? 书法perception? 知觉performance objective? 语言实践目标personality? 个性philosophy? 哲学phoneme? 音素phonetics? 语音法phonetic method? 按字母音值拼读法phonology? 音位学picture? 图画placement test? 分班测验plateau of learning? 学习高原practical objective? 实用目的practice effect? 练习效应practice of teaching? 教学实践presentation of new materials? 提出新材料pre-teaching? 预教primary of speech? 口语领先principle of communication? 交际性原则principle of teaching? 教学原则problem solving? 习题解答production stage? 活用阶段，产出阶段productive exercise? 活用练习productive mastery? 活用掌握productive vocabulary? 活用词汇proficiency? 熟练program designing? 课程设计psycho-linguistics? 心理语言学psychological method? 心理法Qqualified teacher? 合格教师question band? 试题库questionnaire? 调查问卷questions? 提问Rrapid reading? 快速阅读，快读rate of reading? 阅读速度readability? 易读性read by turns? 轮读reading? 阅读reading lesson? 阅读课reading method? 阅读法reading speed? 阅读速度reading vocabulary? 阅读词汇，阅读词汇量receptive language knowledge? 接受性语言知识receptive vocabulary? 领会词汇reformed method? 改良法regression? 回看，重读reinforcement? 巩固reinforcement lesson? 巩固课repetition drill? 复述操练repetition-stage? 仿照阶段response? 反应retelling? 复述retention? 记忆review;revision? 复习review（revise）and check up? 复习检查review（revision）lesson? 复习课rewriting? 改写rhythm? 节奏role-play? 扮演角色rote learning? 强记学习法，死记硬背Sscanning? 查阅，扫瞄school practice? 教学实习scientific way of thinking? ?科学的思想方法second language? 第二语言segment? 音段，切分成分semantics? 语义学seminar? 课堂讨论sentence completion? 完成句子short-term memory? 短期记忆sight vocabulary? 一见即懂的词汇silent reading? 默读silent way? 沉默法，静授法simplification? 简写simplified reader? 简写读本simulation? 模拟，模拟性课堂活动simultaneous interpretation? 同声翻译situational method? 情景法situational language teaching? 情景派语言教学法，情景教学法situational method? 情景教学法situational syllabus? 情景派教学大纲situation reinforcement? 情景强化法skimming? 略读，济览slide? 幻灯片slide projector? 幻灯片socialized speech? 社会化言语socio-linguistics? 社会语言学soft ware? 软件speech disorder? 言语缺陷speech pathology? 言语病理学speech perception? 言语知觉speech reading? 唇读法speed reading? 快速阅读，快读speelling? 正字法spiral approach? 螺旋式教学法，螺旋法spoken language? 口语stage of teaching? 教学阶段stick drawing;mathch drawing? 简笔画stimulus and response? 刺激与反应stress accent? 重音，重读structuralism? 结构主义（语言学）structural method? 结构法student-centered? 学生中心student-centered learning? 学生为主学习法student teacher? 实习教师student teaching? 教育实习submersion programme? 沉浸式教程substitution? 替换substitution table? 替换表subvocal reading? 默读suggestopaedia? 暗示教学法syllabus? 教学大纲syllabus design? 教学大纲设计syllabus for middle school English? 中学英语教学大纲synthetic approach? 综合性教学法，综合法synthetical reading? 综合性阅读Ttarget language? 目的语，译文语言teacher’s book? 教师用书teacher’s manual? 教师手册teaching experience? 教学经验teaching objective,aim? 教学目的teaching procedure? 教学过程teaching tools;property? 教具teaching words in isolation? 孤立教单词theory of teaching? 教学理论TEFL? 英语（外语）教学TESL? 英语（第二语言）教学TESOL? 对非英语民族教英语time allotment? 时间分配total physical response method? 整体动作反应法transformation drill? 转换操练translation method? 翻译法transformational generative grammar? 转化生成语法Uunconscious? 潜意识underclassman? 低年级学生undergraduate? 大学本科生undergraduate course? 大学本科课程undergraduate school? 大学本科学院undergraduate special? 大学特殊课程unified studied? 统一课程university high school? 大学附属中学university of the air? 广播电视大学updating courses/training? 现代化课程/训练upgrading courses/training? 进修课程/训练upperclassman? 高年级学生use and usage? 使用和用法四、教学常用英语常见的语法术语摘要1.名词noun 动词verb 形容词adjective 数词numeral 代词pronoun2.介词preposition 副词adverb 连词conjunction 冠词article 感叹词interjection3.结构：structure 简单句simple sentences 并列句compound sentences4.复合句complex sentences 倒装句inverted sentences 省略句elliptical sentences5.陈述句declarative sentences 疑问句interrogative sentences6.祈使句imperative sentences 感叹句exclamatory sentences7.否定句negative sentences 被动句passive sentences8.虚拟语气句subjunctive sentences 同义句synonymous sentences9.歧义句ambiguous sentences 委婉句euphemisms 强调句emphasis10.疑难句difficult sentences 叙述句narrative sentences 说明句expository sentences11.议论句argumentative sentences 人物描写句descriptive sentences of people12.动作描写句：descriptive sentences of actions13.环境描写句descriptive sentences of environment14.日常口语句sentences for everyday talk15.实用情景句sentences of actual situations16.课堂教学句sentences of classroom teaching17.名人语句quotations 格言句maxims 谚语句proverbs18.状语adverbial 补语complement 宾语object 宾语补助语objective complement19.表语predicative 主语subject 谓语predicate 谓语动词finite verb20.非谓语动词non-finite verb 情态动词modal verb21.并列coordination 选择alternative 转折transition 对比contrast22.原因cause 结果effect 解释explanation23.动词时态verb tenses24.一般现在时simple present (tense)25.一般过去时simple past (tense) 一般将来时simple future (tense)26.过去将来时future (tense) in the past 现在完成时present perfect (tense)27.过去完成时past perfect (tense) 将来完成时future perfect (tense)28.现在进行时present continuous (tense) 过去进行时past continuous (tense)29.将来进行时future continuous (tense)30.现在完成进行时present perfect continuous (tense)31.主句main clause 从句subordinate clause32.限定性定语从句restrictive attributive clause33.非限定性定语从句non-restrictive attributive clause34.宾语从句object clause 壮语从句adverbial clause 主语从句subject clause35.表语从句predicative clause 同位语从句appositive clause36.双重复合句double complex sentences37.多重复合句multiple complex sentences38.插入语parenthesis39.IT引导的句子IT sentences40.THERE引导句THERE sentences41.省略名词omission of noun42.判断句statements 列举句enumeration 比较句comparison 让步句concession43.一般疑问句general question 特殊疑问句special question44.选择疑问句alternative question 反意疑问句disjunctive question45.陈述式疑问句declarative question 省略疑问句elliptical question46.一般否定general negation 全部否定complete negation 部分否定partial negation47.双重否定double negation 否定句negative sentences 肯定句affirmative sentences48.主格subjective case 宾格objective case 所有格possessive case49.单数与复数singular and plural 语序word order50.不定式infinitive 动名词gerund 现在分词present participle51.主动的active 被动的passive 语态voice 标点符号punctuation mark52.抽象的abstract 具体的concrete 名言saying 语气mood53.典故allusion 习语idiom 俚语slang 外来语foreign word 行话jargon54.直接引语direct speech 间接引语indirect speech 命题proposition课堂教学句sentences of classroom teaching开始上课beginning of the class1.我们开始吧Let’s start/ Let’s begin now2.让我们开始上课Let’s begin our lesson.3.今天我们上新课，先学生词，然后读课文We are going to have a new lesson today. We’lllearn the new words first. Then we’ll read the text.4.我们先学课文，然后提问。
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开发集 NIST MT-08 test set， 句子长度不超过20 测试集
NIST MT-06 test set
实验-结果1
实验-结果2
对比在MEBTG中加入词类特征的结果
先前的相关工作2
缺点2：
块A1的尾词特征，“计划/plan”可以被另一 个类似的名词替换（如：plans，events， meetings），训练数据中可能无法包含所有类 似的情况。
其他相关工作
除了利用首尾词的词汇化特征，还利用了源短 语端句法特征。
LABTG。在源语言端加入了句法标记和词性 特征。
Presented by Fu Chunlin
10/22/2009
计算所讨论班，北京
1
提出一种包含更多语言学特征的重排序模型
用于基于BTG的统计机器翻译 工作：
从对齐语料抽取的词性和词类信息，以及特殊的长 度信息
利用上述特征训练一个最大熵重排序模型。
实验：汉-英
先前的相关工作1
扁平模型。重排序的概率由一个固定的概率值 决定。
因此，引入了长度特征来缓解这个问题
引入长度特征
如R class： {"R1=Na", "R2=Caa", "R3=Na"} 源语言端和目标语言端均加入这个特征
最后抽取的重排序特征实例
上面这个实例可得出： {“S.B1=Nes”, “S.B2=Nv”, “S.B3=DE”,
“S.B4=Na”, “T.B1=14”, “T.B2=18”, “T.B3=14”, "T.B4=50"}
{"T1L=14", "T1R=18", "T2L=14", "T2R=50"} 因此，基本将前文提到“the details of / the
plan”泛化为“the ... NOUN” and “the ... of”. 的能力
词性和词类标注可能会遇到的问题
在特征集中，重排序实例（a）和（b）在源语 言端有相同的特征：
利用词性与词类信息—源语言端
源语言端，即在汉语句子中加入词性标注
e.g. Nc 地名 Nd 时间 VA 不及物动词 VC 及物动词 。。。
利用词性与词类信息—目标语言端
目标语言端，如果同样加入POS特征，会造成 另一个数据稀疏的问题：一个源语言可能对应 多个不同词性序列的目标语言
因此，利用mkcls工具包对目标语言进行词聚 类。
Learning Bilingual Linguistic Reordering Model for Statistical Machine Translation
NAACLHLT09 2009
Han-Bin Chen, Jian-Cheng Wu and Jason S. Chang Department of Computer Science National Tsing Hua University
注：均利用了句法标注，当源短语为非句法短 语时，要么采用一个恒定的概率，或者利用词 性特征。
作者提出的方法
主要需要解决的问题：数据稀疏和如何抽取更 具有代表性的特征。
在模型中利用了词性和词类这种语言学信息 在模型中利用了双边界特征，并考虑了短语的
长度特征，而不仅仅是首词或尾词特征。 模型基于BTG-SMT, 例如求块A的概率
缺点：与上下文信息无关，准确率低
扭曲模型。由相邻目标短语的源短语的相对位 置决定。
缺点：缺乏上下文的信息，对于长距离的调序更差。
先前的相关工作2
MEBTG。最大熵括号转录语法。将重排序看 作是一个分类问题来预测不同情况下保序和逆 序的可能性。利用首词或尾词作为重排序的特 征
缺点1：
例如：“the details of / the plan”，两个 块的首词均为the，不足以正确指导调序。简 单的解决办法：利用块的首尾边界同时作为特 征，但仍然局限于只利用词汇特征，存在数据 稀疏界特征和长度特征的 结果
实验-结果4
对比词类特征（WC）和长度特征的影响
总结
提出了基于双语语言学的重排序模型来改进当 前的BTG-SMT。
主要解决了两个问题：
解决了词汇化模型中的数据稀疏问题 提出了一种更具有代表性的特征方法。
Thanks！
实验-训练
短语表和重排序模型
Hong Kong Parallel Text (LDC2004T08) and Xinhua News Agency (LDC2007T09)
Size：2.2M ，句子长度不超过60. 分词与词性标注工具：CKIP Chinese word segmentation system 语言模型