托福真题2014-07-12Reading理解古代中美洲艺术+泥土如何形成+文明的出现

Understanding Ancient Mesoamerican Art
Starting at the end of the eighteenth century and continuing up to the present, explorers have searched for the ruins of ancient Mesoamerica, a region that includes Central America and central and southern Mexico. With the progress of time, archaeologists have unearthed civilizations increasingly remote in age. It is as if with each new century in the modern era an earlier stratum of antiquity has been revealed. Nineteenth-century explorers, particularly John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood, came upon Maya cities in the jungle, as well as evidence of other Classic cultures. Twentieth-century research revealed a much earlier high civilization, the Olmec. It now scarcely seems possible that the frontiers of early Mesoamerican civilization can be pushed back any further, although new work—such as in Oaxaca, southern Mexico—will continue to fill in details of the picture.
The process of discovery often shapes what we know about the history of Mesoamerican art. New finds are just as often made accidentally as intentionally. In 1971 workers installing sound and light equipment under the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan stumbled upon a remarkable cave that has since been interpreted by some scholars as a royal burial chamber. Archaeology has its own fashions too: the isolation of new sites may be the prime goal in one decade and the excavation of pyramids the focus in the next. In a third decade, outlying structures rather than principal buildings may absorb archaeologists’ energies. Nor should one forget that excavators are vulnerable to local interests. At one point, reconstruction of pyramids to attract tourism may be desired; at another, archaeologists may be precluded from working at what has already become a tourist attraction. Also, modern construction often determines which ancient sites can be excavated. In Mexico City, for example, the building of the subway initiated the excavations there and renewed interest in the old Aztec capital.
But the study of Mesoamerican art is not based exclusively on archaeology. Much useful information about the native populations was written down in the sixteenth century, particularly in central Mexico, and it can help us unravel the pre-Columbian past (the time prior to the arrival of Columbus in the Americas in 1492). Although many sources exist, the single most important one to the art historian is Bernardino de Sahagún’s General History of the Things of New Spain. A Franciscan friar (member of the Roman Catholic religious order), Sahagún recorded for posterity many aspects of pre-Hispanic life in his encyclopedia of twelve books, including history, ideology, and cosmogony (theories of the origin of the universe), as well as detailed information on the materials and methods of the skilled native craft workers. Furthermore, traditional ways of life survive among the native peoples of Mesoamerica, and scholars have increasingly found that modern practice and belief can decode the past. Remarkably, some scholars have been turned this process around, teaching ancient writing to modern
peoples who may use it to articulate their identity in the twenty-first century.
During the past 40 years, scholars also have made great progress in deciphering and interpreting ancient Mesoamerican writing systems, a breakthrough that has transformed our understanding of the pre-Columbian mind. Classic Maya inscriptions, for example—long thought to record only calendrical information and astrological incantations—can now be read, and we find that most of them glorify family and ancestry by displaying the right of individual sovereigns to rule. The carvings can thus be seen as portraits or public records of dynastic power. Although scholars long believed that Mesoamerican artists did not sign their works, Mayanist scholar David Stuart’s 1986 deciphering of the Maya glyphs (written symbols) for “scribe” and “to write” opened a window on Maya practice; now we know at least one painter of ceramic vessels was the son of a king. Knowledge of the minor arts has also come in large part through an active art market. Thousands more small-scale objects are known now than in the twentieth century, although at a terrible cost to the ancient ruins from which they have been plundered.
Paragraph 1
Starting at the end of the eighteenth century and continuing up to the present, explorers have searched for the ruins of ancient Mesoamerica, a region that includes Central America and central and southern Mexico. With the progress of time, archaeologists have unearthed civilizations increasingly remote in age. It is as if with each new century in the modern era an earlier stratum of antiquity has been revealed. Nineteenth-century explorers, particularly John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood, came upon Maya cities in the jungle, as well as evidence of other Classic cultures. Twentieth-century research revealed a much earlier high civilization, the Olmec. It now scarcely seems possible that the frontiers of early Mesoamerican civilization can be pushed back any further, although new work—such as in Oaxaca, southern Mexico—will continue to fill in details of the picture.
1.According to paragraph 1, which of the following best describes the progress
made in the search for ruins of ancient Mesoamerica?
The oldest remains were discovered immediately after Columbus arrived, and later findings correspond to more recent ruins.
From the late eighteenth century through the twentieth century, increasingly older remains were found.
All of the archaeological work was completed in the twentieth century.
Technological developments made it progressively easier for explorers to discover Mayan cities in the jungle.
2.Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about the revealing of
early Mesoamerican civilization?
The Maya and Olmec civilizations were discovered by explorers at approximately the same time.
Most of our understanding of Mesoamerican civilization comes from discoveries made in the twentieth century.
The discoveries made at Oaxaca in southern Mexico show that the Olmec civilization had its origins there.
Evidence still to be found in Oaxaca, Mexico, is likely to provide additional information about the high civilization of early Mesoamerica.
Paragraph 2
The process of discovery often shapes what we know about the history of Mesoamerican art. New finds are just as often made accidentally as intentionally. In 1971 workers installing sound and light equipment under the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan stumbled upon a remarkable cave that has since been interpreted by some scholars as a royal burial chamber. Archaeology has its own fashions too: the isolation of new sites may be the prime goal in one decade and the excavation of pyramids the focus in the next. In a third decade, outlying structures rather than principal buildings may absorb archaeologists’ energies. Nor should one forget that excavators are vulnerable to local interests. At one point, reconstruction of pyramids to attract tourism may be desired; at another, archaeologists may be precluded from working at what has already become a tourist attraction. Also, modern construction often determines which ancient sites can be excavated. In Mexico City, for example, the building of the subway initiated the excavations there and renewed interest in the old Aztec capital.
3.In paragraph 2, why does the author discuss the Pyramid of the Sun at
Teotihuacan?
To introduce the discussion of a specific style of Mesoamerican art
To illustrate the importance of an accidental discovery
To emphasize the necessity of systematic study
To argue against the use of modern equipment in archaeology
4.The word "outlying" in the passage is closest in meaning to
ceremonial
temporary
far from the center
simple
5.Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a factor affecting
the process of discovery in archaeology?
Fashions that change over time
The popularity of archaeology as a field of study
The interests of local inhabitants
The building of modern structures
6.The word "initiated" in the passage is closest in meaning to
destroyed
interferedwith
occurred at the same time as
started
Paragraph 3
But the study of Mesoamerican art is not based exclusively on archaeology. Much useful information about the native populations was written down in the sixteenth century, particularly in central Mexico, and it can help us unravel the pre-Columbian past (the time prior to the arrival of Columbus in the Americas in 1492). Although many sources exist, the single most important one to the art historian is Bernardino de Sahagún’s General History of the Things of New Spain. A Franciscan friar (member of the Roman Catholic religious order), Sahagún recorded for posterity many aspects of pre-Hispanic life in his encyclopedia of twelve books, including history, ideology, and cosmogony (theories of the origin of the universe), as well as detailed information on the materials and methods of the skilled native craft workers. Furthermore, traditional ways of life survive among the native peoples of Mesoamerica, and scholars have increasingly found that modern practice and belief can decode the past. Remarkably, some scholars have been turned this process around, teaching ancient writing to modern peoples who may use it to articulate their identity in the twenty-first century.
7.The word "exclusively" in the passage is closest in meaning to
exactly
solely
traditionally
primarily
8.According to paragraph 3, why was Bernardino de Sahagún important to the
study of Mesoamerican art?
He recorded detailed information about native populations in the sixteenth century.
He made important archaeological discoveries in central Mexico.
He studied the methods and materials of skilled Mesoamerican craft workers as a basis for his own art.
He encouraged native people to preserve their traditional ways of life.
9.The word "posterity" in the passage is closest in meaning to
the religious leadership
publication
the native people
future generations
10.According to paragraph 3, which of the following is true of ancient
Mesoamerican writing?
It is very similar to the modern writing of Mesoamerican peoples.
It is not as old as originally thought.
It can be used by modern peoples to express their own identities.
It is most thoroughly understood by skilled native craft workers.
Paragraph 4
During the past 40 years, scholars also have made great progress in deciphering and interpreting ancient Mesoamerican writing systems, a breakthrough that has transformed our understanding of the pre-Columbian mind. Classic Maya inscriptions, for example—long thought to record only calendrical information and astrological incantations—can now be read, and we find that most of them glorify family and ancestry by displaying the right of individual sovereigns to rule. The carvings can thus be seen as portraits or public records of dynastic power. Although scholars long believed that Mesoamerican artists did not sign their works, Mayanist scholar David Stuart’s 1986 deciphering of the Maya glyphs (written symbols) for “scribe” and “to write” opened a window on Maya practice; now we know at least one painter of ceramic vessels was the son of a king. Knowledge of the minor arts has also come in large part through an active art market. Thousands more small-scale objects are known now than in the twentieth century, although at a terrible cost to the ancient ruins from which they have been plundered.
11.According to paragraph 4, how did the deciphering of ancient
Mesoamerican inscriptions transform our understanding of the pre-Columbian mind?
It showed that most attention was given to the prediction and magical control of the future.
It revealed a much greater concern with the identity and ancestry of particular individuals than had been suspected.
It demonstrated that painting was regarded as a royal art.
It disproved the idea that the Maya devoted much thought to record keeping.
12.According toparagraph 4, all of the following are true of Mayanist scholar
David Stuart’s 1986 discovery EXCEPT:
It reversed a belief held by earlier scholars.
It uncovered long lists of royal dynastic records.
It allowed scholars to understand two glyphs for the first time.
It revealed that at least one Maya painter was a king’s son.
Paragraph 2
The process of discovery often shapes what we know about the history of Mesoamerican art. New finds are just as often made accidentally as intentionally. ■In 1971 workers installing sound and light equipment under the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan stumbled upon a remarkable cave that has since been interpreted by some scholars as a royal burial chamber. ■Archaeology has its own fashions too: the isolation of new sites may be the prime goal in one decade and the excavation of pyramids the focus in the next. In a third decade, outlying structures rather than principal buildings may absorb archaeologists’ energies. ■Nor should one forget that excavators are vulnerable to local interests. ■At one point, reconstruction of pyramids to attract tourism may be desired; at another, archaeologists may be precluded from working at what has already become a tourist attraction. Also, modern construction often determines which ancient sites can be excavated. In Mexico City, for example, the building of the subway initiated the excavations there and renewed interest in the old Aztec capital. 13.Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can
be added to the passage.
The chance discovery has done as much for our understanding of the pyramid as any systematic study would have.
Where would the sentence best fit?
14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is
provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the passage, click on View Text.
Answer Choices
John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood used the ruins of Maya cities in the jungle as evidence that the Maya civilization was older than the Olmec civilization.
Classic Maya inscriptions primarily recorded calendrical information, astrological incantations, and signature …
Often discoveries accidentally, Mesoamerican pyramids not only contain numerous samples of native art but also attract tourism.
Words & Phrases
1.the ruins of ancient Mesoamerica：古代中美洲的废墟
2.unearthed civilizations increasingly remote in age：出土（年龄上越来
越久远的）文明
unearth：v. 挖掘，出土
3.an earlier stratum of antiquity：一个更早的古代岩层
Stratum: 岩层
扩展：Stratification: (尤指社会的)分层，形成阶层 Stratification is the division of something, especially society, into different classes or layers
4.came upon Maya cities in the jungle：偶然遇到密林里的玛雅城市
Come upon：偶然碰到(或发现) If you come upon someone or something, you meet them or find them by chance.
5.workers installing sound and light equipment：安装音响和光照设备的
工人
6.stumbled upon a remarkable cave：偶然发现一个极大的洞穴
Stumble：v. 跌跌撞撞走，结巴说
stumble upon：偶然发现
7. a royal burial chamber：一个皇室的埋葬密室
royal：adj. 皇室的
8.the excavation of pyramids：金字塔的挖掘
9.outlying structures rather than principal buildings：外围结构而非主要建
筑物
Outlying：adj. 偏僻的；边远的；远离城市的 Outlying places are far away from the main cities of a country
10.initiated the excavations there: 引发了那个地方的考古挖掘
initiate= start= trigger 引发，开始
excavate = unearth v.挖掘
11.unravel the pre-Columbian past：解开(哥伦布发现美洲大陆之前的)过去
unravel: v. 解开绳套或谜团
pre-Columbian：adj. 哥伦布发现美洲大陆之前的
12.turned this process around：将该过程反转
turn around = reverse 反转
13.to articulate their identity in the twenty-first century：去清晰地表达他
们在21世纪的身份
articulate：v. 清晰表达
Syntax
1.It now scarcely seems possible that the frontiers of early
Mesoamerican civilization can be pushed back any further, although new work—such as in Oaxaca, southern Mexico—will continue to fill in details of the picture.
2.In 1971 workers installing sound and light equipment under the
Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan stumbled upon a remarkable cave that has since been interpreted by some scholars as a royal burial chamber.
3.Archaeology has its own fashions too: the isolation of new sites may
be the prime goal in one decade and the excavation of pyramids the focus in the next.
4.At one point, reconstruction of pyramids to attract tourism may be
desired; at another, archaeologists may be precluded from working at what has already become a tourist attraction.
Preclude：v. 排除在外，阻止=prevent
5.
ideology, and
as well as
of the skilled native craft workers.
Catholic：adj. 天主教的
Posterity：n. 后代=offspring=descendant
Post-：后缀，意为后面，post-war：战后的
Encyclopedia：n. 百科全书
Ideology：意识形态;思想体系;思想方式 An ideology is a set of beliefs, especially the political beliefs on which people, parties, or countries base their actions
Cosmogony：n. 宇宙的产生
Craft workers: 手工艺工人
6.During the past 40 years, scholars also have made great progress in
deciphering and interpreting ancient Mesoamerican writing systems,
a breakthrough that has transformed our understanding of the
pre-Columbian mind.
Decipher：v. 破解密码=decode, cipher=code 密码
Interpret：v.解释，理解
Transform：v. 转变
7.
Calendrical：历法的，日历的
astrological incantations：占星的咒语
incantation：咒语 An incantation is a series of words that a person says or sings as a magic spell
glorify：赞美；颂扬；吹捧；美化 To glorify something means to praise it or make it seem good or special, usually when it is not
ancestry：n. <集合词>祖先；世家，名门
sovereigns：n. 君主
8.
sign their works, Mayanist
the Maya glyphs (written symbo ls) for “scribe”
practice; now we know at least one
Mayanist：玛雅专家
decipher: 破译（密码）；辨认（潦草字迹）；解读；解释（古代文学）glyphs：象形文字
practice: n. 通常做法；常规；惯例 You can refer to something that people do regularly as a practice.
Ceramic vessels: 瓷器器皿
Vessel：n. 器皿；船只；血管
9.Thousands more small-scale objects are known now than in the
twentieth century, although at a terrible cost to the ancient ruins from which they have been plundered.
At a …cost = at …expense 以…的代价
plunder：v. 抢劫，窃取
Abstract →Concrete
1.The process of discovery often shapes what we know about the
history of Mesoamerican art.
2.Archaeology has its own fashions too.
3.Nor should one forget that excavators are vulnerable to local
interests.
4.Also, modern construction often determines which ancient sites can
be excavated.
5.But the study of Mesoamerican art is not based exclusively on
archaeology.
6.During the past 40 years, scholars also have made great progress in
deciphering and interpreting ancient Mesoamerican writing systems,
a breakthrough that has transformed our understanding of the
pre-Columbian mind.
How Soil is Formed
Soil formation is a dynamic process that takes place in different environments. It is strongly influenced by the parent material, climate (largely vegetation and temperature and water exchanges), topography (the elevations, depressions, directions and angles of slopes, and other surface features of the landscape), and time.
The parent material is the unconsolidated mass on which soil formation takes place. This material may or may not be derived from the on-site geological substrate or bedrock on which it rests. Parent materials can be transported by wind, water, glaciers, and gravity and deposited on top of bedrock. Because of the diversity of materials involved, soils derived from transported parent materials are commonly more fertile than soils from parent materials derived in place. Whatever the parent material, whether derived in place from bedrock or from transported material, it ultimately comes from geological materials, such as igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, and the composition of the rocks largely determines the chemical composition of the soil.
Climate is most influential in determining the nature and intensity of weathering and the type of vegetation that further affects soil formation. The soil material experiences daily and seasonal variations in heating and cooling. Open surfaces exposed to thermal radiation undergo the greatest daily fluctuations in heating and cooling, soils covered with vegetation the least. Hill slopes facing the sun absorb more heat than those facing away from the sun. Radiant energy has a pronounced effect on the moisture regime, especially the evaporative process and dryness. Temperature can stimulate or inhibit biogeochemical reactions in soil material.
Water is involved in all biogeochemical reactions in the soil because it is the carrier of the acids that influence the weathering process. Water enters the soil material as a liquid and leaves it as a liquid by percolation (the slow movement of water through the soil’s pores) and as a gas through evaporation. The water regime—the water flow over a given time—in soil material is sporadic, and in many parts of the Earth is highly seasonal. Water that enters the soil during heavy rainfall and snowmelt moves down through the soil. As it moves, it leaves behind suspended material and may carry away mineral matter in solution, a process called leaching. On sloping land, water distributes material laterally (sideways) through the soil.
Topography is a major factor in soil development. More water runs off and less enters the soil on steep slopes than on relatively level land. Water draining from slopes enters the soil on low and flat land. Thus soils and soil material tend to be dry on slopes and moist on wet on the low land. Steep slopes are subject to surface erosion and soil creep—the downslope movement of soil material, which accumulates on lower slopes and lowlands.
Vegetation, animals, bacteria, and fungi all contribute to the formation of soil. Vegetation, in particular, is responsible for organic material in the soil and influences its nutrient content. For example, forests store most of their organic matter on the surface, whereas in grasslands most of the organic matter added to the soil comes from the deep fibrous root systems. Organic acids produced by vegetation accelerate the weathering process.
The weathering of rock material and the accumulation, decomposition, and mineralization or organic material require considerable time. Well-developed soils in equilibrium with weathering, erosion, and biotic influences may require 2,000 to 20,000 years for their formation, but soil differentiation from parent material may take place in as short a time as 30 years. Certain acid soils in humid regions develop in 2,000 years because the leaching process is speeded by acidic materials. Parent materials heavy in texture require a much longer time to develop into soils because of an impeded downward flow of water. Soils develop
more slowly in dry regions than in humid ones. Soils on steep slopes often remain poorly developed regardless of geological age because rapid erosion removes soil nearly as fast as it is formed. Floodplain soils age little through time because of the continuous accumulation of new materials. Such soils are not deeply weathered and are more fertile than geologically old soils because they have not been exposed to the leaching process as long. The latter soils tend to be infertile because of long-time leaching of nutrients without replacement from fresh material.
Paragraph 2
The parent material is the unconsolidated mass on which soil formation takes place. This material may or may not be derived from the on-site geological substrate or bedrock on which it rests. Parent materials can be transported by wind, water, glaciers, and gravity and deposited on top of bedrock. Because of the diversity of materials involved, soils derived from transported parent materials are commonly more fertile than soils from parent materials derived in place. Whatever the parent material, whether derived in place from bedrock or from transported material, it ultimately comes from geological materials, such as igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, and the composition of the rocks largely determines the chemical composition of the soil.
1.According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true about parent material
found at a given site?
It was most likely deposited there by glaciers rather than by wind and water. It is formed and consolidated entirely from the bedrock on which it rests.
It can vary in its richness and fertility according to where it originated.
The speed with which it is transported determines its location.
2.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the
highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
Transported parent materials, parent materials derived in place from bedrock, and various kinds of rocks all contribute to the composition of a soil.
The chemical composition of a soil is ultimately determined by the geological materials from which it forms, regardless of where or how the parent material originates.
The parent material from which a soil is formed ultimately comes from igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
The composition of the geological materials from which the parent material was originally derived can be determined by studying the chemical composition of the soil.
Paragraph 3
Climate is most influential in determining the nature and intensity of weathering
and the type of vegetation that further affects soil formation. The soil material experiences daily and seasonal variations in heating and cooling. Open surfaces exposed to thermal radiation undergo the greatest daily fluctuations in heating and cooling, soils covered with vegetation the least. Hill slopes facing the sun absorb more heat than those facing away from the sun. Radiant energy has a pronounced effect on the moisture regime, especially the evaporative process and dryness. Temperature can stimulate or inhibit biogeochemical reactions in soil material.
3.The word "further" in the passage is closest in meaning to
as a result
additionally
potentially
eventually
4.The word "fluctuations" in the passage is closest in meaning to
extremes
increases
variations
effects
5.The word "inhibit" in the passage is closest in meaning to
initiate
remove
slow down
damage
Paragraph 4
Water is involved in all biogeochemical reactions in the soil because it is the carrier of the acids that influence the weathering process. Water enters the soil material as a liquid and leaves it as a liquid by percolation (the slow movement of water through the soil’s pores) and as a gas through evaporation. T he water regime—the water flow over a given time—in soil material is sporadic, and in many parts of the Earth is highly seasonal. Water that enters the soil during heavy rainfall and snowmelt moves down through the soil. As it moves, it leaves behind suspended material and may carry away mineral matter in solution, a process called leaching. On sloping land, water distributes material laterally (sideways) through the soil.
6.According to paragraph 4, water passing through the soil canaffect the soil’s
composition in which of the following ways?
By stopping certain chemical reactions from taking place in the soil
By carrying away minerals
By reducing the acidity of the soil。