in the long run

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克鲁格曼第八版-国际金融下答案Chap15

Chapter 15Price Levels and the Exchange Ratein the Long RunChapter OrganizationThe Law of One PricePurchasing Power ParityThe Relationship Between PPP and the Law of One PriceAbsolute PPP and Relative PPPA Long-Run Exchange-Rate Model Based on PPPThe Fundamental Equation of the Monetary ApproachOngoing Inflation, Interest Parity, and PPPThe Fisher EffectEmpirical Evidence on PPP and the Law of One PriceBox: Some Meaty Evidence on the Law of One PriceExplaining the Problems with PPPTrade Barriers and NontradablesDepartures from Free CompetitionDifferences in Consumption Patterns and Price Level MeasurementPPP in the Short Run and in the Long RunBox: Sticky Prices and the Law of One Price: Evidence From Scandinavian Duty-free ShopsCase Study: Why Price Levels are Lower in Poorer CountriesBeyond Purchasing Power Parity: A General Model of Long-Run Exchange RatesChapter 15 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run 71The Real Exchange RateDemand, Supply, and the Long-Run Real Exchange RateNominal and Real Exchange Rates in Long-Run EquilibriumInternational Interest Rate Differences and the Real Exchange RateReal Interest ParitySummaryAppendix: The Fisher Effect, the Interest Rate, and the Exchange Rate under the Flexible-PriceMonetary Approach72 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionChapter OverviewThe time frame of the analysis of exchange rate determination shifts to the long run in this chapter. An analysis of the determination of the long-run exchange rate is required for the completion of the short-run exchange rate model since, as demonstrated in the previous two chapters, the long-run expected exchange rate affects the current spot rate. Issues addressed here include both monetary and real-side determinants of the long-run real exchange rate. The development of the model of the long-run exchange rate touches on a number of issues, including the effect of ongoing inflation on the exchange rate, the Fisher effect, and the role of tradables and nontradables. Empirical issues, such as the breakdown of purchasing power parity in the 1970s and the correlation between price levels and per capita income, are addressed within this framework.The law of one price, which holds that the prices of goods are the same in all countries in the absence of transport costs or trade restrictions, presents an intuitively appealing introduction to long-run exchange rate determination. An extension of this law to sets of goods motivates the proposition of absolute purchasing power parity. Relative purchasing power parity, a less restrictive proposition, relates changes in exchange rates to changes in relative price levels and may be valid even when absolute PPP is not. Purchasing power parity provides a cornerstone of the monetary approach to the exchange rate, which serves as the first model of the long-run exchange rate developed in this chapter. This first model also demonstrates how ongoing inflation affects the long-run exchange rate.The monetary approach to the exchange rate uses PPP to model the exchange rate as the price level inthe home country relative to the price level in the foreign country. The money market equilibrium relationship is used to substitute money supply divided by money demand for the price level. TheFisher relationship allows us to substitute expected inflation for the nominal interest rate. The resulting relationship models the long-run exchange rate as a function of relative money supplies, the inflation differential and relative output in the two countries;E (M/M *) l(p e–p*e, (Y*/Y))The l function represents the ratio of foreign to domestic money demand; thus, both the difference in expected inflation rates and the output ratio enter the function with aChapter 15 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run 73positive sign. An increase in inflation at home means higher home interest rates (through the Fisher equation) and lower home money demand. An increase in foreign output raises foreign money demand.One result from this model that students may find initially confusing concerns the relationship between the long-run exchange rate and the nominal interest rate. The model in this chapter provides an example of an increase in the interest rate associated with exchange rate depreciation. In contrast, the short-run analysis in the previous chapter provides an example of an increase in the domestic interest rate associated with an appreciation of the currency. These different relationships between the exchange rate and the interest rate reflect different causes for the rise in the interest rate as well as different assumptions concerning price rigidity. In the analysis of the previous chapter, the interest rate rises dueto a contraction in the level of the nominal money supply. With fixed prices, this contraction of nominal balances is matched by a contraction in real balances. Excess money demand is resolved through a rise in interest rates which is associated with an appreciation of the currency to satisfy interest parity. In this chapter, the discussion of the Fisher effect demonstrates that the interest rate will rise in response to an anticipated increase in expected inflation due to an anticipated increase in the rate of growth of the money supply. There is incipient excess money supply with this rise in the interest rate. With perfectly flexible prices, the money market clears through an erosion of real balances due to an increase in the price level.This price level increase implies, through PPP, a depreciation of the exchange rate. Thus, with perfectly flexible prices (and its corollary PPP), an increase in the interest rate due to an increase in expected inflation is associated with a depreciation of the currency.74 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionEmpirical evidence presented in the chapter suggests that both absolute and relative PPP perform poorly for the period since 1971. Even the law of one price fails to hold across disaggregated commodity groups. The rejection of these theories is related to trade impediments (which help give rise to nontraded goods and services), to shifts in relative output prices and to imperfectly competitive markets. Since PPPserves as a cornerstone for the monetary approach, its rejection suggests that a convincing explanationof the long-run behavior of exchange rates must go beyond the doctrine of purchasing power parity. The Fisher effect is discussed in more detail and accompanied by a diagrammatic exposition in an appendix to the chapter.A more general model of the long-run behavior of exchange rates in which real-side effects are assigned a role concludes the chapter. The material in this section drops the assumption of a constant real exchange rate, an assumption that you may want to demonstrate to students is necessarily associated with the assumption of PPP. Motivating this more general approach is easily done by presenting students with a time series graph of the recent behavior of the real exchange rate of the dollar which will demonstrate large swings in its value. The real exchange rate, q, is the ratio of the foreign price index, expressed in domestic currency, to the domestic price index, or, equivalently, E q (P/P *). The chapter includes an informal discussion of the manner in which the long-run real exchange rate, q, is affected by permanent changes in the supply or demand for a country’s products.Answers to Textbook Problems1. Relative PPP predicts that inflation differentials are matched by changes in theexchange rate.Under relative PPP, the franc/ruble exchange rate would fall by 95 percent withinflation rates of 100% in Russia and 5% in Switzerland.Chapter 15 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run 752. A real currency appreciation may result from an increase in the demand fornontraded goodsrelative to tradables which would cause an appreciation of the exchange rate since the increase inthe demand for nontradables raises their price, raising the domestic price level and causing the currency to appreciate. In this case exporters are indeed hurt, as one can see by adapting the analysis in Chapter 3. Real currency appreciation may occur for different reasons, however, with different implications for exporters’ incomes. A shift in foreign demand in favor of domestic exports will both appreciate thedomestic currency in real terms and benefit exporters. Similarly, productivity growth in exports is likely to benefit exporters while causing a real currency appreciation. If we consider a ceterus paribus increase in the real exchange rate, this is typically bad for exporters as their exports are now more expensive to foreigners which mayreduce foreign export demand. In general, though, we need to know why the real exchange rate changed to interpret the impact of the change.3. a. A tilt of spending towards nontraded products causes the real exchange rate toappreciate as the price of nontraded goods relative to traded goods rises (thereal exchange rate can be expressed as the price of tradables to the price ofnontradables).b. A shift in foreign demand towards domestic exports causes an excess demandfor the domestic country’s goods which causes the relative price of these goods to rise; that is, it causes the real exchange rate of the domestic country toappreciate.4. Relative PPP implies that the pound/dollar exchange rate should be adjusted tooffset the inflation difference between the United States and Britain during the war.Thus, a central banker might compare the consumer price indices in the UnitedStates and the U.K. before and after the war. If America’s price level had risen by 10%, while that in Britain had risen by 20%, relative PPP would call for apound/dollar exchange rate 10% higher than before the war—a 10% depreciation of the pound against the dollar.76 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionA comparison based only on PPP would fall short of the task at hand, however, if itignoredpossible changes in productivity, productive capacity, or in relative demands for goods producedin different countries in wake of the war. In general, one would expect largestructural upheavalsas a consequence of the war. For example, Britain’s productivity might have fallen dramatically asa result of converting factories to wartime uses (and as a result of bombing). Thiswould call for a real depreciation of the pound, that is, a postwar pound/dollarexchange rate more than 10% higher than the prewar rate.5. The real effective exchange rate series for Britain shows an appreciation of thepound from 1977 to 1981, followed by a period of depreciation. Note that theappreciation is sharpest after the increasein oil prices starts in early 1979; the subsequent depreciation is steepest after oil prices soften in 1982. An increase in oil prices increases the incomes received by British oil exporters, raising their demand for goods. The supply response of labor moving into the oil sector is comparable to an increase in productivity which also causes the real exchange rate to appreciate. Of course, a fall in the price of oil has opposite effects. (Oil is not the only factor behind the behavior of the pound’s real exchange rate. Instructors may wish to mention the influence of Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher’s stringent monetary policies.)6. A permanent shift in the real money demand function will alter the long-runequilibrium nominal exchange rate, but not the long-run equilibrium real exchange rate. Since the real exchange ratedoes not change, we can use the monetary approach equation, E (M/M *) {L(R*, Y*)/L(R, Y)}.A permanent increase in money demand at any nominal interest rate leads to aproportional appreciation of the long-run nominal exchange rate. Intuitively, the level of prices for any level of nominal balances must be lower in the long run for money market equilibrium. The reverse holdsfor a permanent decrease in money demand. The real exchange rate, however,depends upon relative prices and productivity terms which are not affected bygeneral price-level changes.Chapter 15 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run 777. The mechanism would work through expenditure effects with a permanent transferfrom Polandto the Czech Republic appreciating the koruna (Czech currency) in real terms against the zloty(Polish currency) if (as is reasonable to assume) the Czechs spent a higher proportion of theirincome on Czech goods relative to Polish goods than did the Poles.8. As discussed in the answer to Question 7, the koruna appreciates against the zloty inreal terms with the transfer from Poland to the Czech Republic if the Czechs spend a higher proportion of their income on Czech goods relative to Polish goods than did the Poles. The real appreciation would lead to a nominal appreciation as well.9. Since the tariff shifts demand away from foreign exports and toward domestic goods,there is a long-run real appreciation of the home currency. Absent changes inmonetary conditions, there is along-run nominal appreciation as well.10. The balanced expansion in domestic spending will increase the amount of importsconsumed in the country that has a tariff in place, but imports cannot rise in thecountry that has a quota in place. Thus, in the country with the quota, there would be an excess demand for imports if the real exchange rate appreciated by the same amount as in the country with tariffs. Therefore, the real exchange rate in the country with a quota must appreciate by less than in the country with the tariff.11. A permanent increase in the expected rate of real depreciation of the dollar againstthe euro leads to a permanent increase in the expected rate of depreciation of the nominal dollar/euro exchange rate, given the differential in expected inflation rates across the U.S. and Europe. This increase in the expected depreciation of the dollar causes the spot rate today to depreciate.78 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition12. Suppose there is a temporary fall in the real exchange rate in an economy, that is,the exchangerate appreciates today and then will depreciate back to its original level in the future.The expected depreciation of the real exchange rate, by real interest parity, causes the real interest rate to rise. If there is no change in the expected inflation rate, then the nominal interest rate rises with the rise in the real exchange rate. This event may also cause the nominal exchange rate to appreciate if the effect of a currentappreciation of the real exchange rate dominates the effect of the expecteddepreciation of the real exchange rate.13. International differences in expected real interest rates reflect expected changes inreal exchange rates. If the expected real interest rate in the United States is 9% and the expected real interest rate in Europe is 3%, then there is an expectation that the real dollar/euro exchange rate will depreciate by 6% (assuming that interest parity holds).14. The initial effect of a reduction in the money supply in a model with sticky prices isan increasein the nominal interest rate and an appreciation of the nominal exchange rate. The real interest rate, which equals the nominal interest rate minus expected inflation, rises by more than the nominal interest rate since the reduction in the money supply causes the nominal interest rate to rise, and deflation occurs during the transition to the new equilibrium. The real exchange rate depreciates during the transition to the new equilibrium (where its value is the same as in the original state).This satisfies the real interest parity relationship which states that the differencebetween the domestic and the foreign real interest rate equals the expecteddepreciation of the domestic real exchange rate—in this case, the initial effect is an increase in the real interest rate in the domestic economy coupled with an expected depreciation of the domestic real exchange rate. In any event,the real interest parity relationship must be satisfied since it is simply a restatement of the Fisher equation, which defines the real interest rate, combined with theinterest parity relationship, whichis a cornerstone of the sticky-price model of the determination of the exchange rate.Chapter 15 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run 7915. One answer to this question involves the comparison of a sticky-price with a flexible-price model.In a model with sticky prices, a reduction in the money supply causes the nominal interest rate torise and, by the interest parity relationship, the nominal exchange rate to appreciate.The real interest rate, which equals the nominal interest rate minus expectedinflation, increases both because of the increase in the nominal interest rate andbecause there is expected deflation. In a model with perfectly flexible prices, anincrease in expected inflation causes the nominal interest rate to increase (while the real interest rate remains unchanged) and the currency to depreciate since excess money supply is resolved through an increase in the price level and thus, by PPP, a depreciation of the currency.An alternative approach is to consider a model with perfectly flexible prices. Asdiscussed in the preceding paragraph, an increase in expected inflation causes the nominal interest rate to increase and the currency to depreciate, leaving theexpected real interest rate unchanged. If there is an increase in the expected real interest rate, however, this implies an expected depreciation of the real exchange rate. If this expected depreciation is due to a current, temporary appreciation, then the nominal exchange rate may appreciate if the effect of the current appreciation (which rotates the exchange rate schedule downward) dominates the effect due to the expected depreciation (which rotates the exchange rate schedule upward).16. If long term rates are higher than short term rates, it suggests that investors expectinterest rates to be higher in the future, that is why they demand a higher rate of return on a longer bond. If they expect interest rates to be higher in the future, they are either predicting higher inflation in the future or a higher real interest rate. We cannot tell which by simply looking at short and long rates.80 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition17. If we assume that the real exchange rate is constant, then the expected percentagechange in the exchange rate is simply the inflation differential. As the question notes, this relationship holds better over the long run. Starting from interest parity, we see that R R * %∆e E. The change in the exchange rate is π–π* when PPP holds, so if PPP holds over a horizon, we can say that R R *π–π*. This means r r*. So, real interest rate differentials at long maturities should be smaller.On the other hand, if the real exchange rate changes or is expected to change, we would say that %∆e E %∆e qπ–π*. In that case, there can be a significant wedge between r and r*. Thus, ifPPP does hold over the long run and people predict this (and consequently are not expecting large changes in the real exchange rate), we would expect to see smaller real interest rate differentials at long maturities.18. If markets are fairly segmented, then temporary moves in exchange rates may leadto wide deviations from PPP even for tradable goods. In the short run, firms may not be able to respondby opening up new trading relationships or distribution channels. On the other hand, if there are persistent deviations from PPP of tradable goods, we would expect firms to try to increase their presence in the high-price market. If they do this, it should reduce prices there and bring pricesback towards PPP.19. PPP for non-tradables would arise if technologies were similar across countries, andthus similar prices for goods in the long run would be consistent with competitive markets and similar labor costs. If the labor costs are similar, then (again assuming similar technologies) the costs of non-tradables should be similar also. Of course, as the chapter notes, differences in productivity thatvary across sector could result in Balassa Samuelson style effects where despitetradables PPP holding, non-tradables are still priced differently across countries.。

Be in the mood 想要做某事-英语俚语

Be in the mood 想要做某事To feel like doing somethingExample: She is not in the mood for playing cards and says she should really be preparing her lecture notes.Over the moon 欣喜若狂Extremely happyExample: She’s over the moon about her promotion – she reall y wasn’t expecting it.Get a move on 赶快To hurry upExample: Get a move on! The train is about to leave.Over and above 除…这外, 额外的In addition toExample: Over and above our salary, we are getting a large bonus, because business has been very profitable this year.Get the picture了解某事To understand something, to grasp some meaningExample: When they started cutting back and laying people off at work, I got the picture and starting looking for another job.Be out of pocket 花光了钱的To be without moneyExa mple: He’s complaining because he spent all of his money on slot machines and now he’s out of pocket.Keep somebody posted 传达消息To regularly give somebody up-to-date information or details of the progress being made.Example: I phoned in at the end of each working day to keep my boss posted about developments at the trade conference.In the long run 最终, 最后Over a long period of time, once a process has maturedExample: The grocery store is making a loss right now. In the long run, however, we hope to achieve a situation of stable profit.On a shoestring 生活拮据In a thrifty manner; with costs or spending down to a bare minimum Example: She lives on a shoestring – she gets a tiny pension and has to budget very tightly.Lose track of失去消息, 失去线索To lose contact with somebody to not know where something is Example: I lost track of Fran when she moved to Boston. I’ve even tried to locate her on the Internet.Keep in the dark 隐瞒To keep something secretExample: We know my brother has a new girlfriend, but he's keeping her name in the dark.Fall on deaf ears 不加理睬的, 不听取Not to take any notice of what is saidExample: The city council’s order that garbage should be put in the bins fell on deaf ears; the sidewalks are still littered with trash!Take things easy 放轻松To relaxExample: It's better for our health to take things easy than to worry about problems all the time.Eat like a horse 吃得很多To eat a lot; to have a very big appetiteExample: Fred eats like a horse. When I was a growing lad like him, I used to eat a lot, too.Catch one’s eye 吸引某人注意To attract somebody’s attentionExample: A movement behind the curtain caught my eye – I thought it was a burglar and rushed out of the room!Have an eye for something对某事(某物体)了解得非常清楚To be very good at doing something, or have a great understanding of something. Example: As a botanist, he has to describe and draw plants accurately, so he must have an eye for detail.Turn a blind eye .熟视无睹To ignore an action, even though one should do something about itExample: Parents will spoil their children if they constantly turn a blind eye to their bad behavior.Keep an eye on 照看, 密切注视To watch carefully; to look afterExample: Keep an eye on my purse – I'm just going to the bathroom.Lose face 丢脸To have one's reputation spoiled; to be embarrassedExample: The large drug houses have lost face, because smaller companies are selling similar products at a cheaper price!Lead the field处于领头地位To be the most successful person or group in an activityExample: For decades, the House of Dior led the field in elegant fashion design. Be in the mood 想要做某事To feel like doing somethingExample: She is not in the mood for playing cards and says she should really be preparing her lecture notes.Over the moon 欣喜若狂Extremely happyExample: She’s over the moon about her promotion –she really wasn’t expecting it.Get a move on 赶快To hurry upExample: Get a move on! The train is about to leave.Over and above 除…这外, 额外的In addition toExample: Over and above our salary, we are getting a large bonus, because business has been very profitable this year.Get the picture了解某事To understand something, to grasp some meaningExample: When they started cutting back and laying people off at work, I got the picture and starting looking for another job.Be out of pocket 花光了钱的To be without moneyExample: He’s complaining because he spent all of his money on slot machines and now he’s out of pocket.Keep somebody posted 传达消息To regularly give somebody up-to-date information or details of the progress being made.Example: I phoned in at the end of each working day to keep my boss posted about developments at the trade conference.In the long run 最终, 最后Over a long period of time, once a process has maturedExample: The grocery store is making a loss right now. In the long run, however, we hope to achieve a situation of stable profit.On a shoestring 生活拮据In a thrifty manner; with costs or spending down to a bare minimumExample: She lives on a shoestring – she gets a tiny pension and has to budget very tightly.Lose track of失去消息, 失去线索To lose contact with somebody to not know where something isExample: I lost track of Fran when she moved to Boston. I’ve even tried to locate her on the Internet.。

2022高考英语一轮总复习选修6Unit17Laughter学案含解析北师大版

Unit17 Laughter(主题语境:人与自我——做人与做事)核心考点课堂突破1.amusevt.使开心,逗乐,使(某人)笑;使消遣[经典例句]Not everyone experiences anger in the same way;what angers one person may amuse another.并非每个人都以同样的方式经历愤怒;让一个人生气的事情可能会让另一个人开心。

语境巧练[用所给词的适当形式填空]①The baby seemed (amuse) by its father’s funny expressions.②To our (amuse),the teacher sang a funny song during the class.[完成句子]③但是在我们恢复了平静之后,这个小动物的激动和纯真把我逗乐了。

(2018·浙江卷,读后续写)But after we regained our calm,I both the thrill and the innocence of the little creature.考点必记①amuse sb/oneself (with...)用……使某人/自己快乐,用……给……提供娱乐be amused at/by/with...以……为乐be amused to do sth做某事取乐②amused adj.逗乐的;觉得好笑的amusing adj.逗人笑的;有乐趣的amusement n.愉悦,娱乐;娱乐活动,游戏to one’s amusement 使某人觉得有趣的是[写作佳句]Some students amuse themselve s by playing computer games,which isn’t beneficial to their study.一些学生以玩电脑游戏为乐,这对他们的学习不利。

2.harmonyn.协调,和谐,和睦,融洽[经典例句]It is about the harmony between man and animals.它是关于人与动物之间的和谐的。

全面实用!高考英语常见短语+例句

高考英语常见短语及例句一、时间短语1. In the long run （从长远来看）例句：In the long run, hard work always pays off.从长远来看，努力工作总是会有回报的。

2. At the eleventh hour （在最后一刻）例句：They finished the project at the eleventh hour.他们在最后一刻完成了这个项目。

3. On the spur of the moment （一时冲动）例句：She decided to go on a trip on the spur of the moment. 她一时冲动决定出去旅行。

二、情感和情绪短语4. On cloud nine （非常快乐）例句：After winning the championship, she was on cloud nine. 赢得冠军后，她非常快乐。

5. Lose one's temper （发脾气）例句：He lost his temper when hisputer crashed.当他的电脑崩溃时，他发了脾气。

6. Have mixed feelings （心中有千言万语）例句：I have mixed feelings about leaving my hometown for college.我对离开家乡去上大学心中有千言万语。

三、交际短语7. Break the ice （打破沉默）例句：I told a joke to break the ice at the party.我讲了个笑话来打破聚会上的沉默。

8. Keep in touch （保持通信）例句：Although we live in different cities, we still keep in touch. 虽然我们住在不同的城市，但是我们依然保持通信。

in the long run用法

in the long run用法
inthelongrun是一个习语，意为“从长远来看”、“最终”、“最后”。

它通常用来表达一个事件或行动在长时间内的影响或结果。

例如：虽然现在的投资可能会带来一些短期的损失，但从长远来看，它可能会带来更大的回报。

另一个例子是，尽管学习可能是困难的和繁琐的，但在长期内，它可能会为你的职业和个人发展带来重要的好处。

在使用in the long run时，需要注意以下几点：
1. 通常它用于强调长期结果，而不是短期结果。

所以，在决定做出某个行动或决策时，考虑到长期的结果是很重要的。

2. 它通常在一个句子的结尾使用，以强调最终的结果。

比如，我们应该关注如何保护环境，因为在长期内，环境的破坏会对我们的生存造成威胁。

3. In the long run经常与其他词语和表达搭配使用，以表达更具体的含义。

例如，我们可以说“在长期内，良好的健康习惯会使你更健康和更长寿”，或者“尽管你可能需要投资一些额外的时间和精力，但从长远来看，这将是值得的”。

总之，in the long run是一个有用的习语，可以帮助我们考虑长期影响和结果。

了解如何使用它可以帮助我们更好地表达我们的想法和意图。

- 1 -。

新标准大学英语综合教程1课后答案

新标准大学英语综合教程1课后答案Unit 1Active readi ng 14 Match the words and expressions in the boxwith their definitions.1 to make a sincere statement that you are telling the truth (swear)a piece of flesh that connects bones and moves a particular part of yourbody 2(muscle)3 to make you admire or respect someone (impress)4 to drink in small amounts (sip)5 a period of time between two events (gap)6 to arrive somewhere and give your personal details to the person workingat the reception desk (check in)5 Replace the underlined words with thecorrect form of the words and expressions in the box.1 There was only just enough room for two people. (barely)2 Be careful or you’ll accidentally pour your drink down your clothes. (spill)3 He was completely unaware of what to do in the library. (ignorant)4 She was very clever and got excellent grades. (intelligent)5 You write your name on the list to join the club. (sign up)6 She tells me that she’s definitely read the book. (assures)She assures me that she’s read the book.7 I need to go and buy some tea, I have finished it all. (run out of)I need to go and buy some tea, I have run out of it. 6 Answer the questions about the words andexpressions.1 Is a warden likely to be (a) a teacher at the college, or (b) someonewho looks after the hall of residence?2 Is a tutor likely to be (a) a teacher, or (b) astudent?3 If you go along somewhere, do you (a) go to aplace and join other people there, or (b) walk a long wayto get to a place?4 If you rent out a room, do you (a) paint and decorate it, or (b) allow itto be used by someone who pays you regularly to use it?Active readi ng 2Dealing with unfamiliar words4 Replace the underlined words with thecorrect form of the words in the box. 1 When he speaks, people notice that he sounds Irish. (detect) 2 Frank McCourt had read a lot of books which was deserving respect consideringhe had no high school education. (admirable)3 You can tell the students on the underground trains by the number ofbooks they carry. (subways)4 The woman in the admissions office suggests that his European educationis not good enough.(inadequate)5 The professor was writing very quickly in his notebook. (scribbling)6 Many immigrants came to America to escape extremely badtreatmentbecause of their race, religion or political beliefs in their own countries. (persecution) 5 Answer the questions about the expressions.1 I’m in heaven Does this mean I’m (a) delighted, or (b)unhappy?Does this mean thatideas (a) need 2 ideas don’t drop fully formed from the skiesto be developed with careful thinking, or (b) areimmediately created through good teaching?3 in the long run Does this mean (a) at a timein the future, or (b) with a great deal of effort?4 frighten the life out of someone Does this mean (a) to makesomeone very ill, or (b) to make someone extremely afraid andnervous?Language in usewith / without1 Match the sentences with the uses of with /without .1 (a)2 (b)3 (a)4 (c)5 (c)6 (d)2 Rewrite the sentences using with / without.1 Her tutor moves his head from side to side. He spills his coffee intothe saucer. With his head moving from side to side, her tutor spills his coffee intothe saucer.“Splendid,” he says. He doesn’t wait for an answer. 2“Splendid,” h e says, without waiting for an answer.3 Frank McCourt speaks in class. He has an Irish accent.Frank McCourt speaks in class with an Irish accent.4 He plans to go on the subway. He has the books covered in purple andwhite NYU jackets.He plans to go on the subway with the books covered in purple and whiteNYU jackets. 5 He’s only allowed to take two courses. He isn’t told why.He’s only allowed to take two courses without being told why. 6 He would like to ask a question. He doesn’t like to raise his hand. He would like to ask a question without raising his hand. collocations3 Read the explanations of the words andexpressions. Answer the questions. 1 climb When you climb into / out of / throughsomething, you do it with difficulty. (a) So why does the writer’s father climb out of the room?Because the room is very small.(b) Why would you climb into bed?You would climb into bed if you are so tired that it feels like a hugeeffort. (c) If you climb through a hole, what do you do with your body? You would probably need to bend over, and crawl through the hole.2 spill This word usually suggests several ideas: liquid,accidentally, movement and out of control.(a) What has happened if you’ve spilt coffee all over your desk?You have accidentally knocked over a cup / mug and the coffee has gone(uncontrolled) all over thedesk.(b) What has happened if toys spilt out all over the carpet?The toys are in a container, such as a box, and either the box istoo fullso some toys are falling outonto the carpet, or the box has been tipped over so most of the toys havefallen out of the box.(c) What might be happening if crowds were spilling out of the bars andrestaurants? Many people would be leaving the bars and restaurantsall at once,probably because they were closingfor the night.3 join When you join something, you become part of it. Thewriterjoins a queue, and several clubs.(a) When might someojoin a bandne ?When they can play a musical instrument and want to play with others.(b) What has happened if you join the unemployed?You have lost your job and become unemployed.(c) What do you do when you join in?You do the same activity that most other people are doing.4 burst into This phrase suggests that something suddenly happens,or someone suddenly starts doing something.(a) What does the writer suddenly start doing when she bursts intotears? The writer suddenly starts crying.(b) What bursts into bloom?Flowers, when they emerge from buds.(c) What do you do when something bursts into flames?Put out the flames immediately if you can, or keep well clear and call theemergency services (thefire brigade).5 clean This word usually suggests several ideas: not dirty, notillegal or wrong, without problems,inoffensive.(a) If you’ve got a clean licence, what have or haven’t you done?This refers to a driving licence. It means that you have been drivingsafely or at least you have nopenalty points on the licence – a person gets such points as a punishmentafter breaking the law onthe roads, eg speeding or causing an accident, and the licence then has anote on it (it’s not “clean”)and the police have a record.(b) If you use clean language, what do you avoid saying?You avoid using swear words or other examples of bad language. (c) If something has a clean bill of health, is it healthy orworking correctly?Here this phrase is used metaphorically and means something is workingproperly, for example, acar might have a clean bill of health, after a check or test thatit is working properly.6 easy This word usually suggests that something is not difficultor doesn’t need much work. It can also suggest that a person is confident,happy and not worried about anything.(a) If someone is easy-going, how do they behave with other people? An easy-going person behaves in a relaxed, calm manner with othersand is happy to accept thingswithout getting worried or angry.(b) If someone is easy on the eye, how do they look?A person who is easy on the eye is pleasant to look at inappearance and in the way they dress.(c) If something is easier said than done, is it more orlessdifficult to do? When something is easier said than done, it is easy to talk about,but difficult to achieve.(d) If someone tells you to “Take it easy”, what are the ytellingyou to do? When they tell you to “Take it easy” they can mean either of twothings: You should rest and not dothings that will make you tired, or you should keep calm, being less upsetor angry. 4 Complete the sentences using thecollocations inAc tivity 3. 1 If ever I spill out of my clothes, it’s because I have put on a lot of weight and my clothesdon’t fit me any more.2 The last time someone made me burst into tears was when I was asmall child and someone hurt me.3 I always use clean language when I talk to my teachers or parents.4 It was easier said than done when someone suggested that we should put the flag on thetop of the mountain.5 I’ll never forget the time when I had to climb through a window becauseI was locked out of the house.6 Unfortunately I spilt water over myassignment, so I had to print another copy.7 When my friends suggested that they wanted to play football on thebeach, I decided to join in.When the cherry trees burst into bloom, I think of myvisit to Japan two years ago. 89 I would only lose my clean licence if ever I had acar accident in which I was driving under theinfluence of alcohol.10 The people I think are easy on the eye are attractiveand pleasant to look at. 5 Translate the sentences into Chinese.1 Finally, with my mother red in the face and short of breath, wefind Room8, I unlock the door, and we all walk in.等我们终于找到8号房间的时候，妈妈已经涨红了脸，累得上气不接下气。

Lecture28[1] short_long_run ATC

Draw a typicalﬁrm’s(short-run)marginal cost,average total cost,average variable cost and marginal revenue curves.Explain why the curves have these shapes.Explain the relationship between marginal cost and average total cost curves.Draw the marginal cost,average variable cost and marginal revenue curves for aﬁrm that will shut down in the short-run.Draw the marginal cost,average variable cost and marginal revenue curves for aﬁrm that will stay in business in the short-run.If,as the quantity produced increases,a production functionﬁrst exhibits increasing marginal product and later diminishing marginal product,what will be the shape of the corresponding marginal-cost curve?In the long run,if a very small factory were to expand its scale of operations, it is likely that it would initially experiencea.Economies of scaleb.Constant returns to scalec.Diseconomies of scaled.An increase in average total costsSuppose you have a job in production management.A portion of your costs are:Quantity Average Total Cost500200501201Your current level of production is500units.All500units have been or-dered by your regular customers.The phone rings.It’s a new customer who wants to buy one unit of your product,oﬀering$450for the unit.You would have to increase production to 501unit.Should you do it?Compare marginal cost with marginal revenue.Total cost at500units is 200×500=100,000.Total cost at501units is201×501=100,701.So marginal cost is701.You should not do it,as701>450.Sunk CostsA sunk cost is a cost that cannot be recovered,regardless of what one does.When aﬁrm decides to shut down in short run,it ignores sunk costs.In this case,sunk costs are theﬁxed costs.Theﬁrm cannot recover them whatever it does.Thus it ignores these costs when deciding how much to pro-duce.Why do restaurants stay open for lunch even if business is slow at lunchtime?Theﬁrm has already committed to pay theﬁxed costs for rent of building, kitchen equipment,tables,plates,etc.These are sunk costs.When deciding whether to serve lunch,only variable costs are relevant–cost of waiters,cooks.The restaurant will shut down at lunchtime if and only if variable cost exceeds revenue from lunchtime customers.Similarly,owner of a miniature golf course must decide whether to stay open oﬀ-season.Does the revenue from the few customers they will get exceed the variable costs paid to staﬀ,etc.?Theﬁxed costs–costs of building the course, cost of the land–are sunk,and therefore irrelevant.Firm’s long-run decision to exit or enter a marketIn the long run,when aﬁrm exits the market,it will save itsﬁxed costs.Thus aﬁrm exits the market if its total revenue is less than its total costs.Exit if T R<T C↔T R/Q<T C/Q↔P<AT C.Aﬁrm exits the market if the price of its good is less than the minimum of average total cost.Similarly,aﬁrm that is considering entering a market will enter if price ex-ceeds expected minimum average total cost of production.The competitiveﬁrm’s long-run supply curve is the portion of the marginal cost curve that lies above average total cost,and zero below the minimum of average total cost.ProﬁtTo measure proﬁt on the graph,use:Π=T R−T C=(T R/Q−T C/Q)×Q=(P−AT C)×Q.Therefore proﬁt or losses are given by the rectangles in the graphs:The left graph shows aﬁrm earning positive proﬁts.At the quantity where marginal revenue equals marginal cost,price exceeds average total cost.So proﬁt equals(P−AT C)×Q>0.The left graph shows aﬁrm earning negative proﬁts.At the quantity where marginal revenue equals marginal cost,price is lower than average total cost. Therefore proﬁt equals(P−AT C)×Q<0.Thisﬁrm would exit the market if the price stays this way for the whole long-run period.Supply curve in a competitive marketConsider two cases:1.A market with aﬁxed number ofﬁrms2.A market with varying number ofﬁrmsTheﬁxed number ofﬁrms assumption can hold over short periods of time. The variable number ofﬁrms assumption is appropriate for longer periods of time.Short runA market has1000identicalﬁrms(their costs are all identical,product is identical).For a given price P,eachﬁrm supplies quantity Q such that MC(Q)=P.The market quantity supplied equals the sum of all the quantities supplied by theﬁrms.Sum the graphs of theﬁrms’supply curves horizontally to get the market supply curve.Since there are1000identicalﬁrms,the sum of the quantities at a given price will be1000times the quantity for oneﬁrm at that price.Long runIn the long run,entry and exit is possible.Again,allﬁrms have the same cost curves or potential cost curves.Ifﬁrms in the market are making proﬁts,otherﬁrms will enter the market.This entry will increase the quantity of good supplied.This drives down the price,and proﬁts decrease.Ifﬁrms in the market are making losses,some of them will exit.This decreases the quantity of the good supplied.Prices,and thus proﬁts,increase for theﬁrms that have not left the market.When allﬁrms and potentialﬁrms have identical cost curves:Due to the processes of entry and exit,ﬁrms remaining in the market must be making zero economic proﬁt.Firm’s proﬁt isΠ=(P−AT C)×Q.For this to be zero,P−AT C must equal zero.So at the quantity Q that theﬁrm produces at,average total cost must equal the price.At this quantity also marginal cost equals price.So marginal cost must equal average total cost.Then,since the marginal cost curve intersects the average total cost curve at the minimum of average total cost,theﬁrm must be producing at the minimum of average total cost.The long-run equilibrium of a competitive market with identicalﬁrms and free exit and entry has allﬁrms operating at their eﬃcient scale.In a long-run equilibrium,P=MC=AT C.Because of zero proﬁts,new ﬁrms have no incentive to enter the market,but existingﬁrms have no incentive to leave it.The long-run supply curve for the market can be determined from the equi-librium condition.There is only one price at which zero proﬁt is made.That is the minimum of average total cost.At any price above it,positive proﬁts would be made. Then entry would occur,leading to an(inﬁnite)increase in supply.At any price below it,negative proﬁts would be made,and allﬁrms would exit the market–there would be zero supply.Therefore the long-run supply curve is horizontal at the minimum of average total cost.Why do competitiveﬁrms stay in business when they make zero proﬁt?Proﬁt equals total revenue minus total cost,where total cost equals all op-portunity costs of theﬁrm.This includes the opportunity costs of the owners of theﬁrm.When proﬁts are zero the owners of theﬁrm are getting the opportunity cost of the time and money they put into theﬁrm paid back as revenue.They are indiﬀerent between running theﬁrm and taking the next-best opportunity to invest their time and money in.Shift in demand in short-run and long-runSuppose a market begins at long-run equilibrium.Firms earn zero proﬁt, price equals minimum of average total cost.Then tastes for the good change so that demand increases.The short-run equilibrium moves up.Eachﬁrm’s supply curve is part of their marginal cost curve.So how much they increase production by depends on the marginal cost curve.In the new short-run equilibrium price exceeds marginal cost.Firms are making positive proﬁt.In the long run,otherﬁrms encouraged by positive proﬁt to enter the market.The number ofﬁrms in the market grows,causing short-run supply curve to shift to right from S1to S2.This causes price to fall.Price goes back down to minimum of average total cost.At this point proﬁts are zero soﬁrms stop entering.New long-run equilibrium,at same price as originally,but higher quantity due to moreﬁrms being in the market.Why might long-run supply curve slope upward?When there are no barriers to entry and exit,large number of potential entrants,each facing the same costs,long run supply curve is horizontal at min-imum of average total cost.When one necessary resource for production in limited supply,or cost curves of allﬁrms not the same,long-run supply curve may be upward-sloping.1.Suppose a necessary resource,such as land,is in limited supply.As more people become farmers,price of farmland bid up.This raises cost to all farmers in the market(even if a farmer owns their land,when land rises in value,the opportunity cost of owning it is higher).Therefore when demand for farm products increases,quantity supplied in-creases due to moreﬁrms entering the market→cost of land increases→price of farm products rises.Thus the long-run supply market curve is upward-sloping.2.Supposeﬁrms have diﬀerent costs.Consider market for house painters. Costs vary because some people have better alternative possibilities for their time and some paint faster than others.For given price,painters with lower costs more likely to enter market than painters with higher costs.Then to increase quantity supplied,the price must be increased for painters with higher costs to enter market.The long-run market supply curve slopes upward.Whenﬁrms have diﬀerent costs,someﬁrms will earn positive proﬁts even in long run.The marginalﬁrm(theﬁrm that would exit the market if price were any lower)makes zero proﬁts.Butﬁrms whose costs are lower than those of the marginalﬁrm make posi-tive proﬁts.In general,becauseﬁrms can enter and exit more easily in the long run than in the short run,long run market supply curve is typically more elastic in long-run than short-run market supply curve.11。

成人高等教育学士学位英语真题12 (1)

成人高等教育学士学位英语真题12(总分：100.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、Part Ⅰ Vocabulary and Structure(总题数：40，分数：20.00)1.The lady treats the boy next door well as if he ______ her own son.（分数：0.50）A.isB.wasC.were √D.would be解析：[解析] 由treats一词可知，此处as if引导的从句表示与现在事实相反，所以应用一般过去时表示对现在情况的虚拟，be动词用were。

故选C。

2.______ Pacific Ocean is ______ very large sea to the west of North and South America, and to the east of Asia and Australia.（分数：0.50）A.The; a √B.A; theC.The; theD.A; a解析：[解析] 表示海洋、湖泊等地理名词前要加定冠词the；不特指的可数名词单数前要加a或an(首字母发音是元音的单词时)。

故选A。

3.If only I ______ hard in the past few months! But I didn"t work hard enough and failed the maths examination,（分数：0.50）A.workB.workedC.have workedD.had worked √解析：[解析] if only意为“要是……就好了”，其后的从句常用虚拟语气表示一种没有实现或无法实现的愿望。

根据句中的“in the past few months”可知，此处是对过去情况的假设，所以要用过去完成时(had done)。

故选D。

4.Be careful when you cross this very busy street. If not, you may get ______ by a car.（分数：0.50）A.run outB.run over √C.run awayD.run after解析：[解析] run out：用完，耗尽；run over：撞倒并辗过；run away：跑开；run after：追赶。

in the long run 从长远来看

in the long run 从长远来看，最后on offer 在出售中choose from... 从...中挑选be curious about... 对...感到好奇confront with... 使面临, 使面对with interest 有兴趣地an average of ... 平均是...at high altitudes 在很高的地方draw one’s attention 吸引某人的注意focus on 集中考试大论坛in years to come 在未来的几年内as a matter of fact 实际上adopt a positive approach 采取一种正确的方法wait for 等待pass through 经过, 通过a sequence of 一系列的set apart from 把...区分开take ... for granted 以...为骄傲be aware of/that 注意到translate into 翻译成set in 开始intend to do 想要做looking forward to 期望be built from... 用...去建造a wide variety of 很多的at advanced levels 在高级范围内carry out 完成，实施according to 根据aim to do 指望做某事make sacrifices to do 做出牺牲而做in depth 深入地新整理的有用词组~a series of 一系列,一连串above all 首先,尤其是after all 毕竟,究竟ahead of 在...之前ahead of time 提前all at once 突然,同时all but 几乎;除了...都all of a sudden 突然all over 遍及all over again 再一次,重新all the time 一直,始终all the same 仍然,照样的as regards 关于,至于anything but 根本不as a matter of fact 实际上apart from 除...外(有/无)as a rule 通常,照例as a result(of) 因此,由于as far as ...be concerned 就...而言as far as 远至,到...程度as for 至于,关于as follows 如下as if 好像,仿怫as good as 和...几乎一样as usual 像平常一样,照例as to 至于,关于all right 令人满意的;可以as well 同样,也,还as well as 除...外(也),即...又aside from 除...外(还有)at a loss 茫然,不知所措at a time 一次,每次at all 丝毫(不),一点也不at all costs 不惜一切代价at all events 不管怎样,无论如何at all times 随时,总是at any rate 无论如何,至少at best 充其量,至多at first 最初,起先at first sight 乍一看,初看起来at hand 在手边,在附近at heart 内心里,本质上at home 在家,在国内at intervals 不时,每隔...at large 大多数,未被捕获的at least 至少at last 终于at length 最终,终于at most 至多,不超过at no time 从不,决不by accident 偶然at one time 曾经,一度;同时at present 目前,现在at sb's disposal 任...处理at the cost of 以...为代价at the mercy of 任凭...摆布at the moment 此刻,目前at this rate 照此速度at times 有时,间或back and forth 来回地,反复地back of 在...后面before long 不久以后beside point 离题的,不相干的beyond question 毫无疑问by air 通过航空途径by all means 尽一切办法,务必by and by 不久,迟早by chance 偶然,碰巧by far 最,...得多by hand 用手,用体力by itself 自动地,独自地by means of 用,依靠by mistake 错误地,无意地by no means 决不,并没有by oneself 单独地,独自地by reason of 由于by the way 顺便说说by virtue of 借助,由于by way of 经由,通过...方法due to 由于,因为each other 互相even if/though 即使,虽然ever so 非常,极其every now and then 时而,偶尔every other 每隔一个的except for 除了...外face to face 面对面地far from 远非,远离for ever 永远for good 永久地for the better 好转for the moment 暂时,目前for the present 暂时,目前for the sake of 为了,为了...的利益for the time being 暂时,眼下from time to time 有时,不时hand in hand 手拉手 ,密切关联head on 迎面地,正面的heart and soul 全心全意地how about ...怎么样in a hurry 匆忙,急于in case of 假如,防备in a moment 立刻,一会儿in a sense 从某种意义上说in a way 在某种程度上in a word 简言之,总之in accordance with 与...一致,按照in addition 另外,加之in addition to 除...之外(还)in advance 预先,事先in all 总共,合计in any case 无论如何in any event 无论如何in brief 简单地说in charge of 负责,总管in common 共用的,共有的in consequence(of) 因此;由于in debt 欠债,欠情in detail 详细地in difficulty 处境困难in effect 实际上,事实上in general 一般来说,大体上in favor of 支持,赞成in front of 面对,在...前in half 成两半in hand 在进行中,待办理in honor of 为庆祝,为纪念in itself 本质上,就其本身而言in line with 与...一致in memory of 纪念in no case 决不in no time 立即,马上in no way 决不in order 按顺序,按次序in other words 换句话说in part 部分地in particular 特别,尤其in person 亲自,本人in place 在合适的位置in place of 代替,取代,交换in practice 在实践中,实际上in proportion to 与...成比例in public 公开地,当众in quantity 大量in question 正在谈论的in regard to 关于,至于in relation to 关于,涉及in return 作为报答/回报/交换in return for 作为对...报答in short 简言之,总之in sight 被见到;在望in spite of 尽管in step 齐步,合拍in step with 与...一致/协调in tears 流着泪,在哭着in the course of 在...期间/过程中in the distance 在远处in the end 最后,终于in the event of 如果...发生,万一in the face of 即使;在...面前in the first place 首先in the future 在未来in the least 丝毫,一点in (the)light of 鉴于,由于in the way 挡道in the world 究竟,到底in time 及时in touch 联系,接触in turn 依次,轮流;转而in vain 徒劳,白费力instead of 代替,而不是just now 眼下;刚才little by little 逐渐地lots of 许多many a 许多more or less 或多或少,有点next door 隔壁的,在隔壁no doubt 无疑地no less than 不少于...;不亚于... no longer 不再no more 不再no more than 至多,同...一样不none other than 不是别的,正是on one's guard 警惕,提防nothing but 只有,只不过now and then 时而,偶尔off and on 断断续续,间歇地off duty 下班on a large/small scale 大/小规模地on account of 由于on(an/the) average 平均,通常on behalf of 代表on board 在船(车/飞机)上on business 因公on condition that 如果on duty 上班,值班on earth 究竟,到底on fire 起火着火on foot 步行,on guard 站岗,值班on hand 在场,在手边on occasion(s) 有时,间或on one's own 独立,独自on purpose 故意地on sale 出售,廉价出售on schedule 按时间表,准时on second thoughts 经重新考虑on the contrary 正相反on the grounds of 根据,以...为由on (the) one hand 一方面on the other hand 另一方面on the point of 即将...的时刻on the road 在旅途中on the side 作为兼职/副业on the spot 在场;马上on the whole 总的来说,大体上on time 准时once again 再一次once(and)for all 一劳永逸地once in a while 偶尔once more 再一次once upon a time 从前one another 相互or else 否则,要不然or so 大约,左右other than 非;除了out of 从...中;由于;缺乏out of breath 喘不过气来out of control 失去控制out of date 过时的out of doors 在户外out of order 出故障的out of place 不适当的out of practice 久不练习,荒疏out of sight 看不见,在视野外out of the question 毫无可能的out of touch 不联系,不接触over and over(again) 一再地,再三地prior at 在...之前quite a few 相当多,不少rather than 不是...(而是) regardless of 不顾,不惜right away 立即,马上side by side 肩并肩,一起so far 迄今为止sooner or later 迟早,早晚step by step 逐步地such as 例如,诸如thanks to 由于,多亏that is (to say) 就是说,即to the point 切中要害,切题under control 处于控制之下under the circumstances 这种情况下up to date 在进行中up to 多达;直到;胜任;取决于what if 切合目前情况的what about 怎么样with respect to 如果...将怎么样with regard to 关于,至于without question 关于,至于,with the exception of 除...之外without question 毫无疑问word for word 逐字的。

国际经济学 Y and E in the long run

重庆工商大学财政金融学院陶庆梅
1
Learning goals P421
• Output market equilibrium and assets market equilibrium as well as equilibrium of whole economy • Macroeconomic policies and economic adjustments as well as current account
重庆工商大学财政金融学院陶庆梅
3SΒιβλιοθήκη me review• Asset market Foreign exchange market Domestic money market Joint analysis of the foreign exchange market and the domestic money market • Output market • Equilibrium in the economy as a whole: equilibrium both in the asset market and in the output market
重庆工商大学财政金融学院陶庆梅
2
introduction
• Real exchange rate affects the aggregate demand • An open economy achieves short-run equilibrium when both asset market and output market are in equilibrium • In the short run both monetary and fiscal policies affect the exchange rate and national output, but not in the long run • Dynamic analysis on macroeconomic policies, the current account balance and E

in the long run 造句

in the long run 造句in the long run 造句1、in the long run，the Depression weakened American families，and the current crisis will probably do the same.(从长远来看，经济大萧条削弱了美国家庭的力量，当前的危机可能也会如此。

)2、Companies have more to gain in the long run from driving up revenue than by driving down costs.(从长远来看，企业从提高收入中获得的好处要多于降低成本。

)3、If you're investing with a long time horizon，having an equity bias makes sense，stocks go up in the long run.(如果你进行长线投资，存在股权偏好是合理的，那么从长期看，股票是上涨的。

)4、"in the long run we'll win，" he says.(“从长远来看我们会获胜，”他说道。

)5、Hunger and wretchedness rise superior to fears in the long run.(从长远来看，饥饿和不幸会战胜恐惧。

)6、Companies are more likely to succeed in the long run if they compete on quality or performance than on price.(从长远来看，如果公司在质量或性能上比在价格上更具竞争力，就更有可能获得成功。

)7、in the long run，that'll definitely benefit poorer families in the neighbourhood.(从长远来看，这肯定会使附近的贫困家庭受益。

run的英语短语

run的英语短语关于run的英语短语不管你现在上高一、高二，还是即将参加明年高考，多积累一些英语短语是有好处的，店铺整理了关于run的英语短语，一起来复习下吧：1.dry run(noun) a trial of something, a rehearsal of something before it happens.（名词）某事的试验，在发生之前进行排演。

I think we should make a few dry runs before we give the presentation.我觉得，我们应该在成熟之前先排练几次。

Let's do just one more dry run before we give it a try!在我们开始之前先再排练一次吧！2.in the long run(prepositional phrase) eventually, over time（介词短语）最终，长远。

Many people find that they actually do want to have children in the long run.许多人发现，从长远意义上来讲，他们还是乐意要孩子的。

In the long run, we'll be able to win the contract and keep his business.我们最后一定会成功夺标，将业务延续下去。

3.make a run for it(verb phrase) to run as quickly as you can through the rain or other bad weather; to try to esc（动词短语）因为雨天或坏天气的影响，尽可能有多快跑多快；逃跑。

It's pouring done rain. Let's make a run for it and get to thecar.大雨倾盆哪，快跑去车上吧。

从长远来看英语短语

从长远来看英语短语【释义】1in the long run在长期来看：指的是某个事物或决策在未来较长的时间内的影响和结果。

2in the long term从长远来看：在一个较长的时间段内，通常是指某事物开始后的较长时间。

在这段时间内，某事物可能会发生变化、产生影响或取得结果。

【短语】1但从长远来看But in the long run2从长远看来in the long run;in the long term;auf die Dauer3从长远来看让你更快乐make you happier in the long run4从长远观点来看in the long term;in the long run5从长远的观点来看in the long run【例句】1从长远来看这项举措的结果就是要多纳税。

This measure inevitably means higher taxes in the long run.2有机肥料从长远来看将产生非常积极的效果。

Organic fertilizers will have very positive results in the long term.3有时昂贵的药物或其他疗法从长远来看是省钱的。

Sometimes expensive drugs or other treatments can be economical in the long run.4外卖服务有很多优势，但从长远来看，我们需要确保自己做出正确的选择。

There are many advantages of online food delivery services,but we need to make sure that we make the right choices in the long run.5从长远来看，以这种方式花费的10分钟最终可以为你节省大量时间。

Ten minutes spent in this way could save you quite a lot of time in the long run.6从长远来看，我认为在网上得到陌生人的赞扬并不是很有用。

高中英语与in有关的词组

in addition / / 另外in addition to / / 除…之外(还有)in advance / / 在前面；预先all in all / / 总的说来；头等重要的in all / / 总共，共计in case / / 假如；免得in case of / / 假如，万一…in no case / / 决不，无论如何不in this case / / 既然是这样in any case / / 不管怎样arm in arm / / 手挽手地in brief / / 简言之；以简洁的形式in charge / / 主管；在…掌管之下in charge of / / 主管，掌管，照管in common / / 共用，公有，共同in the course of / / 在…期间，在…过程中in danger / / 在危险中，垂危in debt to sb. / / 欠某人的债in detail / / 详细地in all directions / / 向四面八方in the distance / / 在远处，远方的in effect / / 实际上；正实行中in error / / 弄错了的；错误地in any event / / 不管怎样，无论如何in exchange for / / 交换in face of / / 面对；纵然，即使in fact / / 其实，实际上be in fashion / / (人、物)合于时尚in favour of / / 赞成，支持；有利于in focus / / 焦点对准；清晰in full / / 充足，十足in general / / 通常，一般地说be in the habit of / / 有…习惯(或脾气)at hand / / 在手边；在附近by hand / / 用手；用手工的in hand / / 现有在手头；在进行中hand in hand / / 手拉手；联合in good health / / 身体好in one's honour / / 向…表示敬意in a hurry / / 匆忙；立即，很快地in the least / / 一点(也不)，丝毫(不) in line / / 成一直线；整齐；一致in line with / / 跟…一致；符合in the long run / / 从长远来看，最后in the main / / 基本上，大体上in the mass / / 总体上，整个儿地in memory of / / 纪念…in the open / / 在户外；在露天in order / / 整齐；状况良好in part / / 在某种程度上；部份地in particular / / 特别，尤其；详细地in person / / 亲自；身体上；外貌上in place / / 在适当的位置；适当的in place of / / 代替out of place / / 不相称；不合适in practice / / 在实践中in public / / 公开地，当众in quantity / / 大量in relation to / / 关于，有关；与…相比in return / / 作为回报，作为报答in return for / / 作为…的交换in search of / / 寻找；寻求in season / / (水果等)应时的in secret / / 秘密地，私下地in a sense / / 从某种意义上说in the shape of / / 呈…的形状in short / / 总之，总而言之in sight / / 被见到，看得见；在望in spite of / / 尽管；不顾；虽然in support of / / 支援；支持；拥护in tears / / 流着泪；含泪哭in terms of / / 根据；以…的措词in turn / / 依次，轮流in use / / 在使用着in view of / / 鉴于，考虑到；由于in a way / / 在某种程度上in every way / / 在各方面，以各种方式in no way / / 决不，一点也不in the way / / 挡道的，妨碍人的in a word / / 总而言之，总之in other words / / 换句话说，也就是说。

in搭配的短语

in搭配的短语in搭配的短语是一种常见的表达方式，可以在不同场合中使用，具有广泛的应用。

下面是一些常用的in搭配短语及其相关参考内容。

1. in addition (此外)In addition, we need to consider the budget before making a final decision.此外，在做出最终决定之前，我们需要考虑预算。

2. in conclusion (总之)In conclusion, the project was a success due to the hard work of the team.总之，由于团队的辛勤工作，这个项目是成功的。

3. in contrast (相比之下)In contrast to his sister, who is outgoing, John is much more reserved.相比之下，约翰比他姐姐更加内向。

4. in order to (为了)We need to work efficiently in order to meet the deadline.为了按时完成，我们需要高效地工作。

5. in other words (换句话说)He is unemployed, or in other words, he doesn't have a job.他失业了，换句话说就是他没有工作。

6. in spite of (尽管)In spite of the rain, we still went hiking.尽管下雨，我们仍然去远足了。

7. in the meantime (与此同时)I will prepare the presentation, and in the meantime, you can gather the data.我会准备演示文稿，与此同时，你可以收集数据。

8. in the same boat (处于同样的困境)We are all facing financial difficulties, so we are in the same boat. 我们都面临财务困难，所以我们处于同样的困境。

ALevelEconomicsModelEssayAnswer经济学范文

A Level Model A nswer: Theory of the FirmIn production, a distinction is made between short-run cost curves and long-run cost curves. Using appropriate cost curve diagrams, explain this distinction. (12 marks) The costs that a firm incurs can be separated into fixed costs and variable costs, which together make up a firm’s total costs. Fixed costs remain constant regardless of quantity output – for example, the rent paid on a factory used when producing a good. Variable costs change as output increases or decreases. An example is the wage cost of labour. To produce more output, the firm hires more labour, and has increased wage costs. The more variable inputs a firm uses, the greater the total variable costs.In microeconomics, the ‘short-run’ refers to the period of time in which at least one factor of production (usually land, labour and/or capital) is fixed. For example, the time it takes for a contract with a property owner to end before the firm can move to a different location.Figure 1 Short-run cost curvesIn Figure 1, the AFC curve indicates that average fixed cost falls continuously as output increases, because it represents the amount of total fixed costs divided by an ever growing quantity of output. The average variable cost, average total cost and marginal cost curves,although different from one other, all follow the same general pattern: at first they fall, reach a minimum, and then they begin to rise.Marginal cost rises with the amount of output produced, reflecting the property of diminishing marginal product – as units of one input are added (with other inputs held constant) a point will be reached where the resulting additions to output will begin to decrease (marginal product will decline). Consider the limited size of the factory discussed earlier – we can keep adding more and more variable inputs (such as labour) but, constrained by the limited space, we will eventually see no further increases in output and output may even start to fall due to overcrowding of the fixed factor(s). Thus the cost of producing an additional cost continues to rise even though the firm may be gaining no benefit in terms of increased output.In the ‘long-run’, all factors of production become variable – in the example given, the firm can move to a bigger or less expensive factory. Because many costs are fixed in the short run but variable in the long run, a firm’s long-run cost curves differ from its short-run cost curves. As the firm plans its future activities in the long run, it can select any size or scale of operation depending on the quantity of output it is aiming for. The particular size it selects will be the one that minimises costs for that level of output. The long-run average total curve is the curve that is tangent to each of the short-run cost curves. Long run average total costs represent the lowest possible average cost, or cost per unit of output, for every level of output, when all resources are variable.Figure 2 Long-run average total cost curvesThe U-shape of the long-run ATC curve is a result of economies and diseconomies of scale.Economies of scale refer to the benefits in terms of falling average total cost gained from large scale production, occurring for a number of reasons. Firstly, as the scale of productionincreases, more workers must be employed, allowing for greater labour specialisation. Aseach worker specialises in a narrower range of tasks that make use of existing skills, anddevelop skills through repetition, worker efficiency is increased, allowing output to beproduced at a lower average cost.Larger scales of production allow for more managers to be employed, each of whom can bespecialised in a particular area, again resulting in greater efficiency and lower average cost. Large machines are often more efficient than smaller ones. However, a small firm with a small volume of output cannot make effective use of large machines, and so is forced to use smaller, less efficient ones. Some machines are only available in large sizes that require large volumes of output in order to be used effectively. Some production processes, such as mass production assembly lines, require large volumes of inputs and output in order to be used efficiently. Costs of certain activities such as advertising, design, research and development result in lower average costs if they can be spread over large volumes of output.However, as a firm increases its scale of production, costs per unit of output may eventually start to increase. As a firm grows, management faces co-ordination difficulties. Communication and decision-making will be slower. Staff may feel alienated in a large organisation and unless they are monitored effectively, the quality and output of their work may decline.Evaluate the view that productive and allocative efficiency is more likely to be achieved in perfectly competitive industries than monopolies. [13 marks]Productive efficiency occurs when production takes place at the lowest possible cost. Allocative efficiency occurs when firms produce the particular combination of goods and services that consumers prefer. It is achieved when price equals marginal cost. This is because the price paid by consumers to acquire a good reflects the marginal benefit they derive from consumption of an additional of the good and shows the amount of money they are willing to pay to buy one more unit.Marginal cost measures the value, or opportunity cost, of the resources used to produce one extra unit of the good. When price is equal to marginal cost, therefore, what consumers are prepared to pay to get one more unit and what it costs to produce one more unit are equal.Figure 3 Long-run equilibrium position of a firm in a perfectly competitive industry.Figure 3 shows the firm in a competitive industry earns zero economic profit in the long-run.Thus, the perfectly competitive firm achieves both allocative and productive efficiency. As the competitive firm must accept the market price, price equals average revenue andmarginal revenue and the supply curve facing the firm is perfectly elastic at the market price.The profit-maximising level of output is set where price (marginal revenue) equals marginalcost (allocative efficiency is achieved) and average total cost is minimised (productiveefficiency is achieved).The monopolist, as the only supplier in the market, can restrict supply and charge a higher price to consumers to maximise profit (see Figure 4).Figure 4 Monopoly price, output and profitHigher prices and lower output are not in consumers’ best interests. The area BCD represents this welfare loss, indicating there is allocative inefficiency. Some monopolists achieve productive efficiency because they may output where average total cost is minimised (although this is not always the case). ‘Natural’ monopolies exist when an industry can only support one firm producing at efficient scale – for example, utility companies such as tap water providers.Lack of competition in monopoly may lead to higher costs (‘X-inefficiency’). Whereas in perfect competition firms are under constant pressure to produce with the lowest possiblecosts to survive, in monopoly the lack of competition may make the monopolist lessconcerned about keeping costs low. Higher costs may arise due a poorly motivatedworkforce and lack of innovation due to lack of competitive pressure.Nevertheless, monopolies can be desirable from the perspective of consumers and society.Why a monopoly may be desirable. Monopolists’ economic profits can provide them with theability to finance large research and development projects. In fact, this is the rationale forawarding firms patent protection for a period of time.Economies of scale are an argument in favour of large firms that can achieve lower costs asthey grow in size. If monopolists pursue research and development that leads totechnological innovation, they may adopt production processes and technologies that make them more efficient and thus able to produce at a lower cost, which could be passed toconsumers in the form of lower prices. Therefore, it remains disputable that perfectlycompetitive firms are always more likely to achieve allocative and productive efficiency thanmonopolists.。

汉王英文翻译笔：一招让你降服英语写作(精)

汉王英文翻译笔:一招让你降服英语写作虽然高考已经结束, 但是大部分同学还在为期末考奋战, 英语写作是不是其中最让人头疼的部分呢?其实英语写作时, 头尾两部分很重要, 因为这两部分往往是阅卷老师的阅读重点,写好头尾能为你的作文加分不少。

下面汉王英文翻译笔分享 5句经典英语写作尾句, 供大家参考。

1、 It is hoped that we should place much emphasis on/pay more attention to... 例句:It is hoped that we should pay more attention to the problems of unemployment.2、 Only in this way/only when/only through..., will/can we...例句:It is only if all sides of society take their roles fully that we will achieve the society we want.3、 As long as..., we will be able to.../the problems is bound to...例句:As long as we persist in spreading scientific knowledge among the masses, all the superstitions are bound to go out of our life.4、 In the course of time/In a long run/In the long term, sth. is morelikely/bound/sure to...例句:In a long run, the practice of birth control is believed to do a great benefit to the future of China.5、 In a word, there is every/little chance/probability/possibility that...in time to come.例句:In a word, there is every chance that this wise move in economic construction will acquire a broader significance in time to come.是不是很轻松就会用了。

短语搭配解析

短语搭配解析短语搭配是指两个或多个词或词组在语法上和语义上紧密结合，形成一个整体，具有特定的意义。

熟练掌握不同领域的短语搭配，可以提高语言表达的准确性和流畅度。

本文将就几个常用的短语搭配进行解析和示例。

一、"take into account"（考虑到）"Take into account"是一个常用的短语搭配，意为考虑到某个因素或情况。

这个短语常用于正式的书面语和口语交流中，可以用于描述人们做决定或采取行动时所考虑的各种因素。

例如：1. When choosing a career, it is important to take into account your personal interests and skills.（选择职业时，考虑到个人的兴趣和技能十分重要。

）2. The company's financial report takes into account both revenue and expenses for the current fiscal year.（公司的财务报告综合考虑了本财年的收入和支出情况。

）二、"get along with"（与...相处）"Get along with"是一个表示与某人相处的短语搭配，常用于描述人际关系中的相处方式。

这个短语通常用于口语交流中。

例如：1. Jane is very friendly and easy to get along with, so she has many friends.（简非常友好，容易相处，所以她有很多朋友。

）2. It can be challenging to get along with a difficult coworker, but good communication is key.（与一个困难的同事相处可能会有挑战，但良好的沟通是关键。

lrac和lrmc的公式

lrac和lrmc的公式英文回答：LRAC (Long-Run Average Cost) and LRMC (Long-RunMarginal Cost) are two important concepts in economics that help analyze the cost structure of a firm in the long run.LRAC represents the average cost per unit of output when all inputs are variable and the firm is operating atits optimal scale in the long run. It is calculated by dividing the total cost by the quantity of output produced. LRAC curve shows the lowest average cost at which a firmcan produce a given level of output in the long run.For example, let's consider a car manufacturing company. The LRAC curve will show the average cost per car producedat different levels of output. If the company is operatingat its optimal scale, the LRAC curve will be U-shaped. This means that initially, as the company increases its production, the average cost per car decreases due toeconomies of scale. However, after a certain point, the average cost starts to increase due to diseconomies of scale.On the other hand, LRMC represents the additional cost incurred by producing one more unit of output when all inputs are variable in the long run. It is calculated by dividing the change in total cost by the change in quantity of output. LRMC curve shows the minimum additional cost required to produce an additional unit of output in the long run.Continuing with the car manufacturing example, the LRMC curve will show the additional cost of producing one more car at different levels of output. If the LRMC is below the LRAC, it indicates that the firm can increase its production without increasing the average cost per car. However, if the LRMC is above the LRAC, it means that producing one more car will increase the average cost per car.In summary, LRAC represents the average cost per unitof output in the long run, while LRMC represents the additional cost of producing one more unit of output in the long run. Both concepts are important in understanding the cost structure and production decisions of a firm.中文回答：LRAC（长期平均成本）和LRMC（长期边际成本）是经济学中的两个重要概念，用于分析企业的长期成本结构。

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. in the long run (=in the end)从长远来说,最后; in the short term (从短期来说) 443. (be) at a loss 不知所措444．major in 主修（某课程）481. once and for all =once and forever永远地all at once (=suddenly, now) 立即,马上once in a while (=occasionally) 偶尔(just) for once 就这一次482. (all) by oneself 独自(没有别人帮助)483. operate on sb. 给某人做手术operation n. come/ go into operation开始运转put/bring sth. into operation 使…投产,运转484. be of the opinion 持有…的看法485. in one’s opinion 按某人的看法486. be opposed to… 反对…487. be opposite to 与…相反的488. (be) in order(=acceptable)合适的,恰当的in order 井井有条,处于良好状态; out of order(=in bad condition)出毛病,发生故障489. made to order 定做的(衣服)490. originate in/from(=begin)起源于,由..引起491. on the outskirts (of) 在城郊492. owe…to 把…归于…493. on one’s own (=along, without h elp)单独494. of one’s own某人自己的495. keep pace with 跟…齐步前进496. go to great pains=take pains 下功夫,努力497. part with (=give up, sell) 舍弃,卖掉498. participate in (=take part in)参加499. (be) particular about 讲究,挑剔(吃,穿)500. in particular (=especially) 特别是,尤其445. as a matter of fact 实际上, 事实是446. by all means (=at all costs)不惜一切.(=certainly) 当然行;by means of用…; by no means 完全不, 决不447. on memory of 为纪念…448. on the mend (=in the process of recovering) 好转, 在康复中449. mention sth. to sb. 向某人提起某事450. at the mercy of (=in the power of) 任…摆布, 在…支配下451. be in a mess 乱七八糟, 处境困难make a mess of 弄乱, 打乱452. bear(or keep)…in mind(=remember)牢记453. bring(or call)to mind(=remember)使回想起454. by mistake(由于粗心,健忘原因而)错误地455. at the moment (=now) 此刻,现在for the moment (=for the time being)暂时just a moment 稍等片刻at the last moment 在最后一刻456. in the mood for 有情绪去做..,有心境做. 457. no more…than 和…一样都不…458. for the most part 多半,大多数,一般来说459. at (the) most 最多, 至多460. mainitiate vt. 开始，创始insight n. 洞悉，洞穿力inspiration n. 灵感，妙计insulate vt. 隔离，绝缘integral a. 构成整体的必需，基本的integrity n. 诚实intelligible a. 可理解;明白易懂的intensify v. (使)增强，(使)变尖锐intent n. 意图，目的a. 专注的(on) intervene vi. 干涉，干预，干扰intimidate vt. 恐吓，威胁intricate a. 错综复杂的，复杂精细的intrinsic a. 固有的，本质的intuition n. 直觉invalid n. 病弱者a. 法律上无效的irritate vt. 使恼怒，使烦躁jeopardize v. 危及junction n. 联络点，会合点landscape n.风景，全景leaflet n. 传单，小册子lease n. 租约，租契，出租legislation n. 法律，法规;立法ke the most of 充分利用131) intrude 入侵extrude 逐出detrude 推下132) contort 扭弯distort 弄弯retort 反驳133) eminent 杰出的imminent 逼近的134) decline 下降recline 放置incline 倾斜135) exclaim 呼喊proclaim 宣布acclaim 欢呼declaim 朗诵136) edict 法令indict 控告137) perfuse 泼洒profuse 浪费的138) reject 拒绝eject 逐出inject 注射deject 使沮丧139) literacy 识字literary 文学的literature 文学literal 文字的140) median 中央的,中线的medium 媒体141) expel 驱逐repel 反击impel 推动dispel 驱散142) rip 撕ripe 熟的143) wench 绞车wrench 扭伤144) confidant 知己confident 有信心的145) dine 吃饭diner 吃饭人dinning n 吃饭dinner 晚饭146) dreg 渣滓drag 拖拉147) faint 失去知觉feint 佯攻148) imprudence 轻率impudence 无耻149) specie 硬币species 种类150) hanger 钩子hangar 棚厂hunger 饥饿151) suite 一(宾馆套房) suit一套衣服keep…to oneself(=keep secret)不告诉别人422. to(the best of) one’s knowledge 据…所知423. at large(=at liberty, free) 在逃, 逍遥法外at large(=in general) 一般来说, 大体上at large(=at full length; with details)详细地424. lean against (背)靠着…425. at least 至少; at most 至多426. (not) in the least 一点(也不), 丝毫(也不) 427. at one’s leisure 在…有空的时候428. lend itself/themselves to适合于(某用途) 429. at length (=after a long time, at last)终于at length (=in detail, thoroughly)详细地430. go to any length想一切办法, 尽一切力量431. be liable to (=be subject to)易于..的,应受(罚) 432. be liable for 对…应负责任的433. lie in 在于434. in life 一生中435. for life 终身436. in the light of (=considering; taking into account) 考虑到, 根据437. throw light on ( = make clear, explain) 使…更为清楚, 提供线索, 阐明438. in line with(=in agreement with)符合,一致439. long for(=want very much)渴望,希望得到440. for long 很久,很长时间(否定句.疑问句中). in the position of 处在…位置上522. in practice 实际上(状语);业务熟练(表语)523. be(get) out of practice 荒疏,不熟练524. bring(put)…into practice使…成为现实525. prefer…to… (choose rather, like better) 宁要, 更喜欢526. prepare for breakfast 准备吃早饭prepare breakfast 作早饭527. in the presence of 在…在场的情况下528. for the present(=for the time being, for now)暂且,就现在来说; at present现在,此刻529. preside over / at 主持(会议,业务等)530. prevail over 占优势, 压倒, 战胜531. prevent…from 使…不, 防止…做532. previous to (=prior to) 在…之前533. take pride in(=pride oneself on) 以…自豪534. pride oneself on / upon 以…自豪535. in principle (=only in regard to the main idea) 原则上536. prior to (=before) 在…之前537. in private (=privately) 私下, 秘密地in public 公开地538. proceed from (=arise from, result from) 由…发出, 由…引起(产生) 539. proceed with ( =begin and continue sth.) 继续进行540. in progress(=in the state of be done)进行中。