跨文化交际复习纲要

跨⽂化交际复习纲要
跨⽂化交际复习纲要
Unit 1
1.Culture Defined from the Intercultural Perspective
Culture is a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviours and artifacts that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning.
2.Three Ingredients of culture
artifacts⼈造物品
concepts (beliefs, values, world views…)
behavior
3.The Characteristics of Culture
Culture is Not Innate, it is Learned.
Culture is Dynamic
Culture is pervasive
Facets of Culture are Interrelated
Culture is Ethnocentric
Culture is adaptive
4.The definition of communication
/doc/488e977502768e9951e7388f.html ponents of communication (第⼀课课件P66-71)
6.Intercultural Communication
Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose cultural backgrounds (perception and symbol system) are distinct enough to alter their communication (课本p.10).
7.co-culture
cultures which exist side-by side
the following would be some good examples:
The cultures of youth and the culture of older persons
The cultures of media-worshipers and mainstream American culture
Unit 2
1.Verbal intercultural communication
“verbal” means “consisting of words”. Language, spoken or written, is a means of verbal communication. Verbal communication refers to the communication that is carried either in oral or in written form with the use of words. Verbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.
2.Individualism and collectivism
34
Cultures are typically divided into two categories: collectivist and individualist. Individualist cultures, such as those of the United States and Western Europe, emphasize personal achievement at the expense of group goals, resulting in a strong sense of competition. Collectivist cultures, such as those of China, Korea, and Japan, emphasize family and work group goals above individual needs or desires.
Unit 3
1. Power distance权⼒差距
Power distance is “the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally”. (Hofstede)⼀个国家内的机构和组织的弱势成员期望和接受权⼒分配不均的程度。

它能反映社会中弱势成员和强势成员的价值观。

Cultures that endorse low power distance expect and accept power relations that are more consultative or democratic. People relate to one another more as equals regardless of formal positions. Subordinates are more comfortable with and demand the right to contribute to and critique the decision making of those in power. In high power distance countries, less powerful accept power relations that are more autocratic and paternalistic. Subordinates acknowledge the power of others simply based on where they are situated in certain formal, hierarchical positions. As such, the power distance index Hofstede defines does not reflect an objective difference in power distribution, but rather the way people perceive power differences.
2. Compliments and response
Compliments and praises are of great social functions.
Concerning compliments and compliment responses, the pragmatic rules are various in different cultures.
In American culture, the topic of compliments can be varied. Their response to compliments is positive.
Chinese people are shy to compliment others and also modesty to accept compliments.
3.Differences Between Chinese and English Compliments (P51-54)
Semantic and syntactic formula
4. Cultural Assumption⽂化设定(pg. 56)
A cultural assumption is when we assume that a person has particular values and attitudes based on their cultural backgrounds.
5.Stereotype: A conventional, formulaic, and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image. They refer to negative or positive judgments made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership.（⽂化定势：⽂化定势指基于明显的或受到认可的群体⾝份，对⽬标群体中的个体成员所持有的正⾯或反⾯的判断。

）
A stereotype is an assumption made about a person based on superficial (surface) criteria.You must be careful not to use stereotypes and remember that each person is an individual, therefore their personality is not defined by their ethnicity, gender or age. Giving people characteristics based on race is racism and through gender is sexism. Be aware of how composers use stereotypes and be able to identify them.
6. Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture. The ethnocentric individual will judge other groups relative to his or her own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behavior, customs, and religion. These ethnic distinctions and subdivisions serve to define each ethnicity's unique cultural identity.
It refers to negatively judging aspects of another culture by the standards of
one’s own culture.（民族优越感/民族中⼼主义：民族优越感指从本国⽂化的标准出发，消极地审视另⼀⽂化。

）
7.Assuming similarity instead of difference: It refers to the idea that people coming from another culture are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person’s situation is more similar to yours than it in fact is. （假定⼀致性：假定⼀致性是指认为来⾃另⼀⽂化的他⼈和⾃⼰相似或他⼈的处境与⾃⼰的处境相似，⽽事实上却并⾮如此。

）
Unit 4
1.Relationship between Language and Culture
Language is part of culture and plays a very important role in it. Some social scientists consider it the keystone of culture. Without language, they maintain, culture would not be possible. On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture; it reflects culture. In the broadest sense, language is the symbolic representation of a people, and it comprises their historical and cultural backgrounds as well as their approach to life and their ways of living and thinking.
Language is ambiguous. There may be different interpretations to the same words. Therefore, it is important to make inferences about the meaning of words from the context.
Denotation :the primary, surface meaning, or explicit meaning.字⾯意思Connotation :the implicit meaning, the implication of a word, apart from its primary meaning.隐涵意义
2. Major semantic differences between English and Chinese terms(P73)
a. A term in one language does not necessarily have a counterpart in the other language. (absence of counterpart)
b. Some words or terms appear to refer to the same object or concept, but actually refer to quite different things. (same words, different meaning)
c. Thins or concepts could be represented by many more terms in the other language. (same concept, various terms)
d. Terms with similar primary meaning might have distinctive secondary meaning. (same primary meaning, different secondary meaning)
3. Cultural Reflections on Proverbs
Proverbs may provide int eresting glimpses or clues to a people’s geography, history, social organization, social views, etc. (P74)
4.Discourse Patterns
The original main focus of discourse analysis was on how we form units of communication that are larger than just words or sentences. But our interest is in communication between members of different groups. A spoken discourse represents
the joint product of all the participants in the situation, while a written discourse represents the one-sided product of a discourse by the participants who compose the text.
5. Thought patterns
At least part of the reason why people have different discourse patterns is due to their differences in patterns of thinking, which are important issues for students of intercultural communication. Analytical thinking characterizes the thought pattern of Americans (and many other Westerners) . They tend to analyze and dissect things into elements in order to understand them properly. Their emphasis is upon the parts rather than upon the whole of things. They tend to be quite strong in classification and categorization and to pursue absolute dichotomies ⼆分法such as good and bad, God and the devil, the individual and the whole, in a word, "A" or "not-A" . We Chinese more often employ synthetic thinking patterns. We tend to synthesize elements into a unit, with the emphasis on the "whole". Differences in Cultural Thought Patterns
5Linear & direct Tangential & semi-direct Circular Consistently Circuitous Direct & Circuitous 直接的、
线性的闪族⼈
间接相关与半直接
相结合东⽅⼈：循环、迂回论证罗曼⼈：固守的迂回俄罗斯⼈：直接中⼜带
着隐晦和迂
回
Unit 5
1. Hall's definition of personal space
a. Intimate space —the closest "bubble" of space surrounding a person. Entry into this space is acceptable only for the closest friends and intimates.
b. Social and consultative spaces —the spaces in which people feel comfortable conducting routine social interactions with acquaintances as well as strangers. 社交
c. Public space —the area of space beyond which people will perceive interactions as impersonal and relatively anonymous.公众场所
Cultural expectations about these spaces vary widely.
2. Study areas of non-verbal communication 课本 P95
Time language (chronemics)
Space language(proxemics)
body language (kinesics)
paralanguage
3. Chronemics (第5课课件P38-41)
Chronemics is the study of how people perceive and use time. It includes
a. the sense of time
b.Monochronic and polychronic views of time
4.Proxemics⼈际距离学
Proxemics refers to the study of spatial relations. The study of proxemics includes three aspects of space: (a) fixed features of space. (b) semifixed features of space, and
(c) personal space
5.haptics触觉⾏为
Haptics or touch refers to communicating through the use of bodily contact.
6.kinesics⾝势学
Kinesics is the term used for communicating through various types of body movements including facial expressions, gestures, posture(体位）and stance（站⽴姿势）, and other mannerisms that may accompany or replace oral messages. 7.Other Categories of Nonverbal Communication
ocuelsics (⽬光语): The study of communications sent by the eyes is termed oculesics.
olfactics (嗅觉): The study of communication via smell is called Olfactics. A person’s smell can have a positive or negative effect on the oral message.
chromatics (⾊彩学): Chromatics refers to the study of color use in affecting people’s mood, emotions, and impression of others.
attire (服饰）: People in all cultures use clothing and other forms of bodily adornment to communicate status, intentions, and other messages. The vocabulary of dress that we learn includes not only items of clothing but also hair styles, jewelry, makeup, and other body decoration such as tattoos.
8.Paralanguage
The set of nonphonemic properties of speech, such as speaking tempo, vocal pitch, and intonational contours, that can be used to communicate attitudes or other shades of meaning. 见课件P92-93，P95-96
I. Paralanguage
2.Vocal qualifiers语⾳
a. voice set
the context in which the speaker is speaking:
the situation gender
mood age
person’s culture
b. voice qualities ⾳质
volume pitch⾳⾼
tempo rhythm
articulation resonance洪亮，嘹亮
nasality accent
c. vocalization: speech production,how to speak
characterizers语⾳韵律特征qualifiers修饰特征
segregates语⾳分隔符
Andrews University: Nonverbal Communication Modes
/doc/488e977502768e9951e7388f.html /~tidwell/bsad560/NonVerbal.html
9.Silence is a form of nonverbal communication that may be interpreted in various
ways depending upon the situation, the duration of the silence, and the culture.
The use of silence in communication is also important.
Unit6
1.Theories on CGC（cross gender communication）
Sex and gender
Gender culture
Gender role
Gender bias
Cross-gender communication
2. Sex and Gender
Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females.Sex is static and cannot be changed.
Gender concerns the psychological, social and cultural differences between males and females. Gender is a social and cultural creation. Gender emphasizes more on different roles males and females play in society. Gender is more dynamic and can be constructed in the life time.
Gender= sex+ culture+ role in society
3. Gender Culture
Gender culture refers to the different systems of beliefs, values and behaviors held by people of different sex in a society. Males and females are treated differently since the early stage of life.
4. Gender Role
Gender role refers to the expected role for a male or female to play in a society. The shaping of gender roles in most Asian cultures are heavily influenced by Confucian philosophy.
5. What has influenced the gender socialization?
There are Two primary influences: one is family communication , the other is recreational interaction.
Roots of gender differences
Males and females are inborn different from each
other.
Family communication, particularly between
mothers and children /parental influence
Recreational interaction among children
Interactions with other people such as peers,
teachers…
Learn from medias, books, history, culture…play house; jump rope Football;
Basketball;
6.sexism
Sexism is defined as prejudice or discrimination based on sex; or conditions or attitudes that foster stereotypes of social roles based on sex. Sexist attitudes are frequently based on beliefs in traditional stereotypes of gender roles. Sexism is not just a matter of individual attitudes, but is built into many societal institutions. The term sexism is most often used in relation to discrimination against women in the context of patriarchy.
Unit 7
1.Context
According to Hall, context refers to the stimuli, environment, ambience ['?mbi?ns] (周围环境) surrounding an event.
In his book Beyond Cultures (published in 1976 by Anchor Press/Doubleday, in New York ), Hall distinguishes among cultures on the basis of the role of context in communication and classify culture patterns into high-context culture and low-context culture.
In high-context cultures most of the information is in the physical context or is internalized in the people who are a part of the interaction. Very little information is actually coded in the verbal message. High context transactions feature pre-programmed information that is in the receiver and in the setting, with only minimal information in the transmitted message.
Low context transactions are the reverse. Most of the information must be in the transmitted message in order to make up for what is missing in the context. In low-context cultures, most of the information is contained in the verbal message, and very little is embedded in the context or within the participants
2.Negotiation
Negotiation is a discussion between two or more disputants who are trying to work out a solution to their problem. This interpersonal or inter-group process can occur at a personal level, as well as at a corporate or international (diplomatic) level. Win/win negotiators see deal making as a collaborative and problem-solving process.
3.Cultural differences in negotiation styles
Cultures that emphasize communication as a tool for articulating specific goals in order to accomplish them tend to look upon negotiations as a series of points to "settle". Their language in negotiations is explicit and zeroes in on what has yet to be agreed. But cultures that use communication to encourage harmony, preserve face, and develop long-term relationships are not comfortable with direct and explicit talk. Getting straight to some point might result in confrontation and negative emotions--even anger.
In short, Westerners negotiate a contract, most Orientals and Latins negotiate a relationship. The former is task-oriented, direct and to the point, emphasizing the shot-term, while the latter is relationship-oriented, indirect and ambitious, wanting to know what the long-term effects will be.
Unit 8
1.Explaining Humor
Comparison of Syllogism and Enthymeme
Syllogism三段论法Enthymeme
major premise(s) -------
minor premise(s) minor premise(s)
Conclusion ---------
deductive reasoning in which a conclusion is derived from two premises Enthymemes are also called “truncated截短，省略的syllogisms” since they’re shortened. One or more premise is “held in the mind.”
I explain them like this: “the conclusion should not be drawn from far back, nor is it necessary to include everything…the latter tiresome because of stating what is obvious.”
Unit 9
1.Intercultural communication competence
Intercultural communication competence refers to the ability to accomplish effective and appropriate intercultural communication between communicators of different cultures.
2.Acculturation
Acculturation（⽂化适应）refers to an individual’s learning and adopting the norms and values of the new host culture.
3.Modes of acculturation
a. Assimilation is a process in which members of an ethnic group are absorbed into the dominant culture, losing their culture in the process.
b. Integration is a process of desiring a high level of interaction with the host culture while maintaining identity with their native culture.
c. Separation and segregation: Separation is when individuals prefer low levels of interaction with the host culture and associated microcultural groups while desiring a close connection with, and reaffirmation of, their native culture. If such separation is initiated and enforced by the dominant society, this is called segregation
d. Marginalization (边缘化)Marginalization occurs when the individual chooses not to identify with his or her native culture or with the host cultur
e.
4. Culture Shock
“Culture Shock”, first identified in 1958 by anthropologist Kalvero Oberg, is a long term psychological stress and It refers to the traumatic experience that all human beings may encounter when entering a different culture or when they move to a completely new cultural environment.
Culture shock usually sets in the first few weeks of moving to a new environment, though sometimes can take longer to surface. Culture shock, like a disease, has causes, symptoms and cures.
5. Symptoms of culture shock
a. Physical symptoms are over-concern about cleanliness of food, bedding, and dishes, extreme stress on health and safety; fear or physical contact with anyone in the new country; great concern over minor pains and skin eruptions; craving “home cooking”; use of alcohol and drugs; and a decline in work quality.
b. Psychological symptoms are insomnia, fatigue, isolation and loneliness,
disorientation, frustration, criticism of new country, depression, nervousness, self-doubt, irritability, anger, and emotional and intellectual withdrawal.
6. Phases of Cultural Shock
Culture shock can be described as consisting of at least one of five distinct phases: Honeymoon, Negotiation, Adjustment, Mastery and the interdependence.
a.Honeymoon phase: During this period, the differences between the old and new
culture are seen in a romantic light. For example, in moving to a new country, an individual might love the new food, the pace of life, and the locals' habits. During the first few weeks, most people are fascinated by the new culture. They associate with nationals who speak their language, and who are polite to the foreigners. This period is full of observations and new discoveries.
b.Negotiation phase: After some time (usually around three months, depending on
the individual), differences between the old and new culture become apparent and may create anxiety. Excitement may eventually give way to unpleasant feelings of frustration and anger as one continues to experience unfavorable events that may be perceived as strange and offensive to one's cultural attitude. Language barriers, stark differences in public hygiene, traffic safety, food accessibility and quality may heighten the sense of disconnection from the surroundings.
c.Adjustment phase: Again, after some time (usually 6 to 12 months), one grows
accustomed to the new culture and develops routines. One knows what to expect in most situations and the host country no longer feels all that new. One becomes concerned with basic living again, and things become more "normal". One starts to develop problem-solving skills for dealing with the culture and begins to accept the culture's ways with a positive attitude. The culture begins to make sense, and negative reactions and responses to the culture are reduced.
d.Mastery phase: In the mastery stage assignees are able to participate fully and
comfortably in the host culture. Mastery does not mean total conversion; people often keep many traits from their earlier culture, such as accents and languages. It is often referred to as the biculturalism stage.
7.Strategies for Avoiding Culture Shock and Engaging in Intercultural
Adaptation
a. Study the host culture
b. Study the local environment
c. Learn basic verbal and nonverbal language skills
d. Develop intercultural relationships
e. Maintain an intimate social network
f. Assume the principle of difference/Remember your perceptual context
g. Anticipate failure events。