语言学第一二章知识点
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Chapte r one Introd uctio n
一、定义
1.语言学Lin guisti cs
Lingui stics is genera lly define d as the scient ificstudyof langua ge.
2.普通语言学G e nera l Lingui s tics
The studyof langua ge as a wholeis oftencalled Genera l lingui stics.
3.语言lang uage
Langua ge is a system of arbitr ary vocalsymbol s used for humancommun icati on.
语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征De signFeatures
It refers to the defini ng proper tiesof humanlangua ge that distin guish it from any animal system of commun icati on.
语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrarine ss任意性
Productivit y多产性（创造性）
Dualit y双重性
Displa cemen t移位性
Cultural transm i ssio n文化传递
5.语言能力Co mpete n ce（抽象）
Compet enceis the idealuser‘sknowle dge of the rulesof his langua ge.
6.语言运用pe rform ance（具体）
Perfor mance is the actual realiz ation of this knowle dge in lingui sticcommun icati on.
语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学D i achroniclingui s tics
The studyof langua ge change throug h time. a diachr onicstudyof langua ge is a histor icalstudy, whichstudie s the histor icaldevelo pment of langua ge over a period of time.
8.共时语言学S y nchroni cal lingui s tics
The studyof a givenlangua ge at a giventime.
9.语言lang ue（抽象）
The abstra ct lingui sticsystem shared by all member s of a speech commun ity.
10.言语paro l e（具体）
The realiz ation of langue in actual use.
11.规定性Pre scrip ti ve
It aims to lay down rulesfor‖correc t‖behavi or, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.
12.描述性Des cript i ve
A lingui sticstudydescri bes and analyz es the langua ge people actual ly use.
二、知识点
ngua ge is not an isolat ed phenom enon,it‘sas ocial activi ty carrie d out in a certai n social enviro nment by humanbeings.
语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
2.几种观点和现象的提出者：
⑴瑞士语言学家F.de Saussu re :Langue和paro l e的区别
⑵美国语言学家N.Chomsk y :in1950针对Sau ssure’s langue&parole提出Com peten ce和pe rfor m a nce
⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家
Sapir---langua ge is a purely humanand non-instin ctive method of commun icati on ideas, emotio ns and desire s by meansof volunt arily produc ed symbol s.
Hall----langua ge is the instit ution whereb y humans commun icate and intera ct with each otherby meansof habitu allyused oral-audito ry arbitr ary symbol s.
Chomsk y---from now on I will consid er langua ge to be a set of senten ces, each finite in length and constr ucted out of a finite set of elemen ts.
⑷美国语言学家C harl es Hocket t :提出了语言的识别特征d e sign features
3.theword‘langua ge‘preced ed by the zero-articl e ,it implie s that lingui stics studie s not any partic ularlangua ge.
Langua ge一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。
4.in orderto discov er the nature of the underl yinglangua ge system ,what the lingui sts has to do firstif to studylangua ge facts.
ngua ge is a compli c ated entity with multip l e layers and facts, so it's hardly possib l e for the lingui s tics to deal with it all at once. 判断题
6.Frist drew the attenti on of the lingui sts were the sounds used in langua ges.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。
三、问答题
1.what are majorbranch es of lingui stics? what does each study?
Phonet ics----it‘sdefine d as the studyof the phonic medium of langua ge, it‘sconcer ned with all the sounds that occurin the world‘slangua ges.
Phonol ogy---the studyof sounds system s—the invent ory of distin ctive sounds that occurin a langua ge and the patter ns into whichthey fall.
Morpho logy---It‘sabranch of a gramma r whichstudie s the intern al struct ure of wordsand the rulesby whichwordsare formed.
Syntax-------it's a subfie ld of lingui stics that studie s the senten ce struct ure of a langua ge.
Semant ics---It‘ssimply define d as the studyof meanin g in abstra ction.
Pragma tics---the studyof meanin g in contex t of words.
Sociol ingui stics—the studyof langua ge with refere nce to societ y.
Psycho lingu istic s---the studyof langua ge with refere nce to the workin g of the mind.
Applie d lingui stics---the applic ation of lingui sticprinci plesand theori es to langua ge teachi ng and learni ng.
2.why do we say langua ge is arbitr ary?
Langua ge is arbitr ary in the sensethat thereis no intrin sic connec tionbetwee n the sounds that people use and the object s to whichthesesounds refer.
The fact that differ ent langua ges have differ ent wordsfor the same object is a good illust ratio n of the arbitr ary nature of langua ge, it‘sonlyourtacitagreem ent of uttera nce and concep t at work and not any innate relati onshi p boundup in the uttera nce.
A typica l exampl e to illust ratethe‗arbitr arine ss‘oflangua geis‗arosebyanyothername wouldsmellas sweet‘.
3. what makesmodern lingui stics differ ent from tradit ional gramma r?
Modern lingui stics i s descri ptive, its investi gati ons are basedon authen ti c and mainly spoken
langua ge date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。
tradit ional gramma r is prescr iptiv e. it is basedon‘high‘writte n langua ge.
传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。
4.Is modern lingui stics mainly synchr onicor diachr onic? why
Modern lingui stics is mainly synchr onic, focusi ng on the presen t-day langua ge. unless the variou s states of a langua ge are succes sfull y studie d, it will not be possib le to descri be langua ge from a diachr onicpointof view.
现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。
除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
5.whichenjoys priori ty in modern lingui stics, speech or writin gs?
Speech enjoys for the follow ing reason s:
⑴Speech preced es writin g in termsof evoluti on.
⑵A largeamount of communi cati on is carrie d out in speech than in writin g.
⑶speech i s the form in whichi nfant s acquire theirnative langua ge.
6.how is Saussu re‘sdistin ction betwee n langue and parole simila r to Chomsk y‘s?
Both Saussu re and Chomsk y make the distin ction betwee n the abstra ct langua ge system and the actual use of langua ge. theirpurpos e is to single out the langua ge system for seriou s study
Two lingui sts idea differ in that Saussu re took a sociol ogica l view of langua ge, Chomsk y looksat langua ge from a psycho logic al pointof view, compet enceis a proper ty of the mind of each indivi dual.
6.the distin ction betwee n langue and parole?
⑴langue i s abstra ct, relati velystable⑵parole i s concre te, varies from person to person, from situati on to situat i on.
1/ What is lingui stics?
什么是语言学？
Lingui stics is genera lly define d as the scient ificstudyof langua ge. It studie s not any partic ularlangua ge, but langua ges in genera l.
2/ The scopeof lingui stics
语言学的研究范畴
The studyo f langua ge as a wholei s often called genera l lingui stics. (普通语言学)
The studyo f sounds, whichare used in lingui s ticcommuni cati on, is called phoneti cs.（语音学）The studyo f how sounds are put togeth er and used in communi cati on is called phonol ogy. （音位学）
The studyof the way in whichmorphe mes are arrang ed to form wordsare called morpho l ogy. （形态学）
The studyof how morphe mes and wordsare combin ed to form senten ces is called syntax（句法学）
The studyo f meanin g in langua ge is called semanti cs. （语义学）
The studyo f meanin g in contex t of use is called pragma ti cs. （语用学）
The studyo f langua ge with refere n ce to societ y is called socio-lingui s tics. （社会语言学）The studyo f langua ge with refere nce to the workin g of mind is called psycho-lingui s tics. （心理语言学）
The studyof application s (as the recove ry of speech abilit y) is genera lly knownas applie d lingu
istics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applie d lingui stics refers to the application of lingu i s ticprinci plesand theori es to langua ge teachi ng and learni ng, especiallythe teachi ng of foreig n and second langua ge.
Otherrelate d branch es includ e anthro pologi call ingui s tics, （人类语言学）neurol ogical linguistics, （神经语言学）mathem atical lingui s tics, （数字语言学）and comput ation al lingui stics. （计算机语言学）
3/ Some import ant distin ction s in lingui stics
语言学研究中的几对基本概念
Prescri ptiv e and descri ptive规定与描写
If a lingui sticstudydescri bes and analyz es the langua ge people actual ly use, it is said to be descri ptive, if it aims to lay down rulesto tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescr iptiv e.
Modern lingui stics differ s from tradit ional gramma r. Tradit ional gramma r is prescr iptiv e whilemodern lingui stics is descri ptive. The task of lingui sts is suppos ed to descri be the langua ge people actual ly use, whethe ritis―correc t‖ornot.
Synchronicand diachronic共时和历时
The descri ption of a langua ge at some pointin time is a synchr onicstudy;the descri ption of a langua ge as it change s throug h time is a diachr onicstudy. In modern lingui stics, synchr onicstudyis more import ant.
Speech and writin g口头语与书面语
Speech and writin g are the two majormediaof commun icati on. Modern lingui stics regard s the spoken form of langua ge as primar y, but not the writte n form. Reason s are: 1. Speech preced es writin g; 2. Thereare stillmany langua ges that have only the spoken form; 3. In termsof functi on, the spoken langua ge is used for a widerrangeof purpos es than the writte n, and carrie s a larger load of commun icati on than the writte n.
Langue and parole语言和言语
The Swisslingui st F. de Saussu re made the distin ction betwee n langue and parole early20th centur y.
Langue refers to the abstra ct lingui sticsystem shared by all the member s of a speech commun ity, and parole refers to the realiz ation of langue in actual use. Saussu re made the distin ction in orderto single out one aspect of langua ge for seriou s study. He believ es what lingui sts should do is to abstra ct langue from parole, to discov er the regula ritie s govern ing the actual use of langua ge and make them the subjec ts of studyof lingui stics.
Competenceand performance语言能力和语言运用
Propos ed by Americ an lingui st N. Chomsk yinthelate1950‘s.
He define s compet enceas the idealuser‘sknowle dge of the rulesof his langua ge, and perfor mance the actual realiz ation of this knowle dge in lingui sticcommun icati on. He believ es the task of the lingui sts is to discov er and specif y the langua ge rules.
Chapte r Two Phonol ogy
一、定义
1.宽式音标Broad transcripti on
The transc ripti on of speech sounds with letter symbol s only.
2.窄式音标Na rrowt ranscripti on
The transc ripti on of speech soundwith letter s symbol s and the diacri tics.
3.清音V oiceless
When the vocalcordsare drawnwide apart,lettin g air go throug h withou t causin g vibrat ion ,the sounds produc ed in such a condit ion are called voicel ess sounds.
4.浊音V oici ng
Sounds produc ed whilethe vocalcordsare vibrat ing are called voiced sounds.
5.元音V owel
The sounds in the produc tionof whichno articu lator s come very closetogeth er and the air stream passes throug h the vocaltractwithou t obstru ction are called vowels.
6.辅音Consonant s
The sounds in the produc tionof whichthereis an obstru ction of the air stream at some pointof the vocaltractare called conson ants.
7.音位Phon eme
The basicunit in phonol ogy, it‘sacollec tionof distin ctive phonet ic featur es.
8.音位变体Al lopho nes
Differ ent phones whichcan repres ent a phonem e in differ ent enviro nment s are called the alloph onesof that phonem e.
9.音素phon e
A phonet ic unit or segmen t. it doesno t necess arily distin guish meanin g, it‘saspeech soundwe use when speaki ng a langua ge.
10.最小对立对M i nimal pair
When two differ ent formsare identi cal in everyway except for one soundsegmen t whichoccurs in the same placein the string s, the two wordsare said to form a minima l pair.
11.超切分特征S u prasegmen tal
The phonem ic featur es that occurabovethe levelof the segmen t are called supras egmen tal featur es. the main supras egmen tal featur es includ e stress ,intona tionand tone.
12.互补分布co mplem entary distri butio n P35
Two alloph onesof the same phonem e are said to be in comple menta ry distri butio n.
13.语言的语音媒介Phoni c medium of language
The limite d rangeof sounds whichare meanin gfulin humancommun icati on and are of intere st to lingui sticstudie s are the phonic medium of langua ge.
在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。
有限的声音是语音媒介。
14.爆破音sto ps
When a obstru ction create d by the speech organs is totalor comple te, the speech soundproduc ed with the obstru ction releas ed and the air passin g out againis called a stop or a plosiv e.
they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]
二、知识点
1.statis ticsresult ing from carefu l invest igati ons show that therehave been over5,000lan guage s in the world, abouttwo thirds of whichhave not had writte n form.
2. of the two mediaof langua ge,speech is more basicthan writin g.
3.Phoneti c 组成
⑴Articul atory phoneti cs 发音语音学l onges t establ i shed, mostly develo ped
⑵Audito ry phoneti cs 听觉语音学
⑶Acousti c phoneti cs 声学语音学
4.articu lator yAppara tus /Organs of Speech
Pharyn geal cavity–咽腔
Oral cavity–口腔grea test source of modifi c atio n of air stream foundhere
Nasal cavity–鼻腔
5.The tongue is the most flexib le, respon sible for more variet ies of articu latio n than any other, the extrem e back of the tongue can be raised toward s the uvulaand a speech soundcan be thus produc ed as is used in Arabic and French.
6.Obstru ction betwee n the back of the tongue and the velararea result s in the pronun ciati on of[k] and[g],the narrow ing of spacebetwee n the hard palate and the frontof the tongue leadsto the sound[j];the obstru ction create d betwee n the tip of the tongue and the alveol ar ridgeresult s in the sounds[t]and[d].
7.nasalconson ants: [m] / [n] /[η]
8. A Phoneis a phonet ic unit or segmen t.
9.Sequen tial rules例子
If threeconson antsshould cluste r togeth er at the beginn ing of a word, the combin ation should obey the follow ing threerules:
⑴the first phonem e must be /s/
⑵the second phonem e must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/
⑶the thirdphonem e must be /l/ or /r/ or /w
10.Englis h has four basictypesof intona tion:Fallin g tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone
三、问答题
1.what are the threebranch es of phonet ics? how do they contri buteto the studyof speech sound? Articu lator y —descri bes the way our speech organs work to produc e the speech sounds and how they differ.
Audito ry-–studie s the physic al proper tiesof speech sounds, reache s the import ant conclu sionthat phonet ic identi ty is only a theore tical ideal.
Acoust ic-–studie s the physic al proper tiesof speech sounds ,the way soundtravel from the speake r to the hearer.
发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。
听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。
声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。
2.how are the Englis h conson antsclassi fied?
By placeof articu latio n and By manner of articu latio n
3.how do phonet ics and phonol ogy differ in theirfocusof study? who do you thinkwill be more intere stedin the differ ent betwee n say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonet ician or a philol ogist? why?
语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?
Phonet ics —descri ption of all speech sounds and theirfind differ ences.
Phonol ogy —descri ption of soundsystem s of partic ularlangua ges and how sounds functi on to distin guish meanin g.
A phonet ician wouldbe more intere stedin such differ ences cos such differ ences will not cos
4.what‘saphone? how is it differ ent from a phonem e? how are alloph onesrelate d to a phonem e? Phone—a speech sound,a phonet ic unit.
Phonem e---a collec tionof abstra ct soundfeatur es, a phonol ogica l unit.
Alloph ones---actual realiz ation of a phonem e in differ ent phonet ic contex ts.
5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it import ant to identi fy the minimal set in a langua ge?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?
Minima l pair—two soundcombin ation s identi cal in everyway except in one soundelemen t that occurs in the same positi on.
除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.
Minima l set—a groupof soundcombin ation s with the abovefeatur e.
一组具有上述特征的语音组合.
By identi fying the minima l pair or the minima l set of a langua ge, a philol ogist can identi fy its phonem es.
通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.
6.Explai n with exampl es how broadtransc ripti on and narrow one transc ripti on differ?
Broadtransc ripti on—one letter symbol for one sound.
Narrow transc ripti on—diacri ticsare addedto the one-letter symbol s to show the finerdiffer ences betwee n sounds.
7.explai n the sequen tialrule ,the assimi latio n rule and the deleti on rule.
序列规则Se quenti al rules
Rulesthat govern the combin ation of sounds in a partic ularlangua ge.
同化规则Assimil ation rules
The assimi latio n rule assimi lates one soundto anothe rby‘copyin g‘afeatur e of a sequen tialphonem e, thus making the two phones simila r.
省略规则Del etio n rule
It‘saphonol ogica l rule whichtellsus when a soundis to be delete d althou gh its orthog raphi cally repres ented.。