清朝台湾的开发

清朝台湾的开发
清代自康熙二十二年（1683）统一台湾，至光绪二十一年（1895）依《马关条约》割让台湾给日本，共治理台湾212 年。

在这212 年中，台湾社会有很大的变化，这与大陆汉族居民不断移入台湾有关。

汉人的移入，从初期的10 万人发展到后期的320 余万人，二百年间扩增30 倍，对台湾进行了全面的开发。

在此基础上，清皇朝逐步建立了对全岛的行政统治。

这对台湾的发展及巩固和加强祖国对台湾的主权关系，都有重要的意义。

第一节土地的开发
康熙二十二年（1683）清设台湾府，下辖台湾、凤山、诸罗三县，统治区域也仅限于府治一带百余里。

府城“规模草创，城郭未筑，官署悉无垣墙，唯编竹为篱，蔽内外而已”①。

凤山、诸罗两县衙署皆附设于府城，知县、佐贰不敢莅境，只在府城遥领县事。

其时，“人民尚未集，田土尚未辟，可居可耕之地，惟台邑左右方百里地耳”②。

清廷为了统治秩序的稳定，担心台湾孤悬海外，易为“奸民逋逃之薮”，自康熙以迄咸丰同治时期，始终对台湾的开发持消极态度，对人民的开发活动加以种种限制。

首先是禁民渡台，其次是禁入番地，对于已经移居台湾的人民，清廷禁止他们进入高山族居住区，以防范他们往来接触，萌生动乱。

但是，清廷的禁令并不能阻扼内地人民的渡台以及他们对台湾广漠土地的开发。

清廷设禁最严的康熙、雍正、乾隆时期，也正是内地人民移垦台湾的最盛时期。

据《赤嵌笔谈》记载，除厦门——安平是偷渡的总路以外，北起鸡笼八尺门（基隆港），南至琅娇后湾仔（恒春南湾），东及蛤仔难（宜兰）、钓鱼台（台东秀姑峦溪口），可通行大小各类船只的近海港口69 处，都是人民私渡之处。

至康熙末年，他们已经分布于台湾的一半地区。

蓝鼎元写道：“前此台湾，止府治百余里，凤山、诸罗皆毒恶瘴地，令其邑者尚不敢至，今则郎娇、北穷淡水、鸡笼以上，千五百里，人民趋若鹜矣。

前此大山之麓，人莫敢近，以为野番嗜杀，今则群入深山，杂耕番地，虽杀不畏。

甚至傀儡内山、台湾山后、蛤仔难、崇爻、卑南觅等社，亦有汉人敢至其地，与之贸易，生聚已繁，渐廓渐远，虽厉禁不能使止也。

”①雍正乾隆以后，至者愈多，拓地愈广。

清领台湾之初。

册载民户12，727 户，人口16，820口；嘉庆十六年（1811）有司汇报全台民户，计有241，217 户，男女大小凡2，003，861 口。

光绪十三年（1887）编查户口，造报者已达320 余万人。

移民到台以后，一小部分从事贸易，绝大部分投入了土地开发。

由于清廷禁止搬携眷属，广大佃户绝大多数都是孤身的成年男性，数十、数百乃至千人聚居一庄。

台湾县“乡间之人至四、五十岁未有室者，比比而是”①。

雍正五年（1727）时，“台湾一府总计，唯中路台邑所属有夫妻子母之人民。

北路诸罗、彰化以上，淡水、鸡笼、山后千有余里，通共妇女不及数百人。

南路凤山、新园、琅娇以下四、五百里，妇女亦不及数百人。

”②他们就是在这样艰难困苦的条件下，从事着开发土地的最繁重的劳动。

①郁永河：《裨海纪游》。

②沈起元：《治台湾私议》，《皇朝经世文编》卷34。

①蓝鼎元：《平台纪略总论》，《皇朝经世文编》卷84。

①《台湾县志》卷1《舆地》。

②蓝鼎元：《平台纪略·经理台湾第二畴》。

在广大移民筚路蓝缕、艰苦努力下，台湾土地相继开发，进展极为迅速。

清朝设治初期，北路“流移开垦之众，极远不过斗六门”，康熙四十三年（1704），“已渐至斗六门以北矣”，康熙四十九年（1710），“又渐过半线（今彰化）、大肚溪以北矣。

此后流移日多，乃至日南、后垄、竹堑（今新竹）、南嵌，所在而有”③。

半线初辟时，还是一片荒原。

康熙五十八年（1719），施世榜集流民开垦东螺之野，所筑施厝圳，彰邑十三堡半之田，此圳足灌八堡（一万九千甲），故又名“八堡圳”。

同时有杨志申来到这里，招募佃农数千人，辟田凿圳，线东西两堡之田，皆为杨氏所有。

半线自此日
兴，雍正元年（1723）乃有彰化县之设。

乾隆年间，泉州人吴洛和广东人张振万又来此开发未垦之土，规模皆与施、杨相埒。

张振万所居葫芦墩所产的葫芦墩米，日后甘美冠全台。

竹堑宽长百里，旷野荒埔，仅有少数山胞。

康熙三十年（1691），泉州人王世杰募集同乡百数十人至台，先垦竹堑社地，治田渐至数百甲。

康熙五十八年，复垦滨海之地，凡二十四社，为田数千甲；又垦以南之地，凡十三社。

竹堑一带开垦事业，儿握于世杰之手。

台北原是一片沼泽密林，初名大佳纳，一名艋舺。

康熙三十六年（1697）郁永河经此时，辟土不过千分之一。

康熙四十八年（1709），泉州人陈赖章开始在这里建立村庄。

雍正九年（1731），平原土地已经全部开垦，大佳纳堡已成为繁华的市街。

淡水“夙号烟瘴，近台北之极边”①，康熙二十五年（1686）左右有广东嘉应州人移住，同籍者闻讯来集，康熙末年已俨然形成一大部落。

雍正、乾隆年间，杨道宏、林成祖、胡焯猷等人渡台，继续向北进至兴直之野，开发了淡北平原。

康熙中叶至乾隆中叶是移民开垦的极盛时期，广阔肥沃的北部平原和南部下淡水溪流域已经大部开发。

乾隆中叶以后，土地的拓垦已渐及东部的噶玛兰平原、花莲港流域以及中部的埔里社盆地等土著地区。

噶玛兰初名蛤仔难，三面负山，东临大海，土地广漠，溪流交错，三十六社番散居其间。

乾隆五十二年（1787），漳州人吴沙募漳、泉、粤三籍流民入垦其地，嘉庆元年（1796）进据乌石港，筑头围。

二年（1797），又进筑二围、三围。

其后沙死，沙侄吴化代领其众进至五围（今宜兰市），前后辟地数百里，奠定了汉人开兰的基础。

嘉庆十五年（1810），闽浙总督方维甸勘查噶玛兰地，据总兵武隆阿、知府杨廷理奏报：噶玛兰南北长约六、七十里，东西宽约二、三十里不等，有漳人四万二千五百余丁，泉人二百五十余丁，粤人一百四十余丁；归化生番三十三社，四千五百五十余丁；熟番五社，九百九十余丁。

十七年（1812），清政府在这里经划地界，设置了噶玛兰厅。

③《诸罗县志》。

①《北路参将阮蔡文祭淡水将士文》。

奇莱（花莲港），仅每年三、四月间有汉人前来贸易。

咸丰元年（1851），淡水人黄阿凤集资数万元，募穷民二千二百余人往垦其野。

后垦区移于秀姑峦之麓的璞石阁。

居者千家，遂成一大都聚。

卑南地处台东之中。

咸丰五年（1855），凤山人郑尚至此与土番贸易，且传授耕耘的方法，很受番人的欢迎与尊重。

郑尚致富以后，募佃入垦，土地日辟。

埔里社为台湾中部万山丛中的一小平原，延袤十数里，二十四番社生活其间。

嘉庆十九年（1814），黄林旺、陈大用、郭百年等入垦其地，辟田数千里。

咸丰间，泉州人郑勒先居此与番贸易，始建市廛，即后来的大埔城。

光绪元年（1875），清政府在此设埔里社厅。

第二节经济的发展
广大移民挣脱了大陆层累了两千年的专制制度的束缚，来到行政控制粗疏的台湾，面对广阔的从未开垦的沃土，表现了极大的生产主动性和创造性，使台湾二百年间的农业生产和商业贸易，出现了较之大陆远为迅速和活跃的发展局面。

台湾的土地分为田、园两种，“有陂圹贮水者为田，旱种者为园”，以田育稻，以园植蔗。

土地的计算单位是“甲”，“每甲东西、南北各二十五戈，每戈长一丈二尺五寸。

计一甲约内地十一亩三分一厘零”①。

康熙二十三年（1684），清朝宣布郑氏的官私田园悉为民业，其时在册的有田7534甲5 分7 厘、园10919 甲2 分8 厘，合计18453 甲8 分6 厘；乾隆九年（1744），在册的有田17874 甲8 分1 厘，园38310 甲1 分5 厘，合计53184 甲9 分6厘；光绪二十四年（1898，时在台湾沦陷后三年）的统计为水田（田）236212顷（2088523 甲4 分），旱田（园）165627 顷（1464429 甲7 分），合计401839顷（3552953 甲1 分）。

如以康熙时期实际耕地面积为册载数字的二倍计算，清代二百年间的耕地面积也增加了将近
百倍。

台湾的稻种，有土著居民一向种植的，有荷兰引自海外的，也有汉人从大陆带来的。

仅连横《台湾通史》所记载，就有粳稻27 个品种、糯稻15 个品种。

康熙之时，“三县皆称沃壤..千仓万箱，不但本郡足食，并可资赡内地。

居民只知逐利，肩贩舟载，不尽不休”②。

雍正九年（1731），“部定台湾征收正供之谷十六万九千二百六十六石余，又运福、兴、漳、泉四府平粜之米十二万二百八十七石”。

乾隆七年（1742），“兵米、眷米及拨运福、兴、漳、泉平粜之谷，以及商船定例所带之米，则通计不下八、九十万石”③，成为福建兵民粮米的重要供给地，堪称中国南部的一大谷仓。

台湾的主要水利工程是陂、圳。

陂是水库，圳是水渠，“凡筑堤潴水灌田谓之陂，或决山泉，或导溪流，远数十里，近亦数里。

不用筑堤，疏凿溪泉，引以灌田谓之圳，远七、八里，近亦三、四里。

”④据《台湾通史》记载，清代除了维修和使用荷兰、郑氏时期所开凿的15 个陂以外，还创修了80 陂、132 圳。

其中，施琅私筑1 陂，知县宗永清、周钟瑄、曹瑾募民筑成4 陂、二圳，其余都是民间业户和佃户自行集资筹策、自行组织劳力修凿的。

大致以横贯台湾中部的浊水溪为界，其北以稻作居优势，其南以蔗作居优势。

康熙时期，台南平原已是“蔗田万顷碧萋萋，一望葱茏路欲迷”①的景象。

台糖的产量早岁缺乏准确的记载。

《裨海纪游》谓“台人植蔗为糖，岁产二、三十万”，当是指担而言。

①黄叔璥：《台海使槎录》卷1《赋饷》。

②连横：《台湾通史》卷27《农业志》。

③连横：《台湾通史》卷27《农业志》。

①郁永河：《裨海纪游》。

《台海使槎录》谓台湾“三县每岁所出蔗糖约六十余万篓，每篓一百七、八十斤”，则年产在百万担以上。

二说相去甚远，似乎后者有些夸大，前者较为接近事实。

清朝后期蔗糖产量又有大幅度增长，据统计，同治九——十三年（1870—1874），全台年均产糖78万担；光绪元——十年（1875—1884），年均产糖95 万担；光绪十一——二十年（1885—1894），年均产糖76 万担。

其中，光绪二年（1876）、六年（1880）、九年（1883）、十年（1884）都超过了一百万担，分别为114万担、138 万担、100 万担和125 万担。

台湾四面临海，天然港湾环布。

随着生产的日益发展，台湾的商业以及与祖国内地、日本、南洋、欧美各国的海上贸易也日益繁荣起来。

康熙二十四年（1685），清廷规定以安平为全台的唯一出口，对渡厦门，一切商船均须由此航线行驶，因此康熙雍正乾隆之世，安平乃为全台唯一的商业贸易中心。

雍正三年（1725），台南出现了北郊、南郊、港郊三大商业集团，北郊以苏万利为首，有二十余号营商；南郊以金永顺为首，有三十余号营商；港郊以李胜兴为首，有五十余号营商。

他们“各拥巨资，以操胜算，南至南洋，北及天津、牛庄、烟台、上海，舳舻相望，络绎于途，皆以安平为往来之港”①。

据计，嘉庆元年（1796）安平有往来商船一千余艘。

随着北部地区的开发，日益增长着的北路之米如仍南运至安平由鹿耳门出洋，已经越来越感到不便。

乾隆四十九年（1784），清政府增开彰化县的鹿港与泉州府晋江县的蚶江口对渡，五十五年（1790）又开淡水厅的八里岔与福州的五虎门对渡。

于是，鹿港和地处淡水河航运孔道的艋舺遂渐次兴盛，成为新的两大通商贸易中心。

嘉庆道光时期，鹿港已有泉、厦、南、布、染、油、糖等七郊，“正对渡于蚶江、深沪、獭窟、崇武者，曰泉郊；斜对渡于厦门者，曰厦郊。

间有糖船，直透天津、上海等处者”。

“鹿港大街，街衢纵横，长三里许，泉、厦郊商居多。

舟车辐辏，百货充盈，台自郡城而外，各处货市，当以鹿港为最。

”②八里岔开港而淡水河成为北路通航要冲。

商船直航台北艋舺街，艋舺乃盛极一时。

“估客辏集，以淡为台郡第一”，“商人择地所宜，雇船装贩，近则福州、漳泉、厦门，远则宁波、上海、乍浦、天津以及广东，凡港路可通，争相贸易”。

“赴福
州、江浙者，曰北郊；赴泉州者，曰泉郊，亦称顶郊；赴厦门者，曰厦郊；——统称为三郊。

”北郊之中，“往天津、锦州、盖州的又称大北；上海、宁波又称小北。

”③其后又有香港郊（一名南郊）与鹿郊，成为五郊。

淡水厅的艋舺与府治安平的彰化县的鹿港鼎足而三，时有“一府二鹿三艋舺”之称。

①连横：《台湾通史》卷25《商务志》。

②李廷璧：《彰化县志》。

③陈培桂：《淡水厅志》。

咸丰八年（1858），《天津条约》开台湾府（安平）为通商口岸；咸丰十年（1860），《北京条约》增开淡水为口岸；同治二年（1863），又开打狗（今高雄）、鸡笼分别作为台湾府和淡水的附属口岸。

此后，外商云集台湾，纷纷设立洋行，通商贸易之权渐渐转入外人手中。

原来台湾商人依据贸易地相同或贸易品相同而组织起来的商业行会性质的团体——郊，也就很快解体。

台湾的经济开始沦为半殖民地的性质，台湾的物产开始大量输往殖民者的故乡欧美、日本；同时，在资本主义经营方式刺激下，生产和流通又比在专制制度下有了更快的发展速度。

这一方面的突出表现，莫过于糖、茶、樟脑等业。

台湾的糖业向来商品化程度很高。

台湾开港以后，砂糖贸易很快为外人所操纵，输出额大增，甘蔗的种植面积也迅速扩大。

同治二年（1863）以前，台糖输出总额从未超过30 万担；同治九至十三年（1870—1874），平均每年输出总额激增至66 万担；光绪元年至十年（1875—1884），年均输出达73 万3 千担。

台湾生长茶叶，由来很久。

但直到康熙后期，仍然“不谙制茶之法”①①《诸罗县志》卷12《杂记·外纪》。

嘉庆时，福建人柯朝把二斗武夷茶籽从福建带到台北，辗转传种，这才开始了茶叶在台湾的人工培植。

对外通商以后，外商竞购粗茶，茶业随之大盛。

同治五年（1866）输出13 万斤，光绪六年（1875）输出416 万斤，光绪十九年（1893）达到1795 万斤。

茶叶的价格也在不断上涨，同治五年每担10 元（银元），光绪十三年（1874）每担34 元，光绪二十年（1894）每担44.74 元。

乌龙茶的主要买主是美国，其次是欧洲。

运往欧美的茶叶，经常约占台茶输出总额的95％左右，最少时也不低于80％。

樟脑为台湾重要特产之一，约占世界总产量的70—80％。

康熙时封禁番地，私熬樟脑者洽罪。

雍正三年（1725），清廷在台湾设厂修造战船，南北二路各设军工料馆，采伐樟木为船料，许承办军工的匠首私煎樟脑取利，台湾的樟脑业自此兴起。

咸丰五年（1855），香港美商布宾纳特至打狗，经营樟脑的出口贸易，引起世界对台湾樟脑的注意。

咸丰十一年（1861），英国怡和、邓特两洋行也到台湾经营樟脑贸易，并且很快取得了垄断地位。

同治二年（1863），台湾道陈懋烈鉴于利权外溢，宣布樟脑官营，由官办脑馆统一向制脑业者收购，而后转售给洋行。

当时官府收购价格约每担6 元，卖给外商约每担16 元，而外商在香港的售价为每担18 元，这就引起了外商的很大不满，以至同治七年（1868）英国出动兵舰，占领安平，用武力胁迫清廷于次年制定樟脑章程，废止官营，允许外商领照进入内地自由采购。

这时，外商不仅控制了樟脑的贸易，而且通过借资金给台民，由台民制造，然后全部包购，从而控制了整个樟脑业。

樟脑的输出，从同治四至六年（1865—1867）的年约7 千担，增至七至九年（1868—1870）的年约1 万4 千担。

光绪八年（1882）以后的数年中，由于内山械斗严重，樟木不能砍伐，以致樟脑无出，输出锐减，光绪十一年（1885）输出仅为3 担。

光绪十二年（1886），刘铭传复行官营，次年于台北设脑务总局，又于各主要产地设置分局，制出之脑悉归官局，购价每担8 两，官局转售包商，售价每担12 两。

当时揽办樟脑贸易的是台北德商公泰洋行，配运至香港，其价又在20 两以上，光绪十六年（1890）在外商干涉下，清政府再度废除官营，当年输出8 千担。

十七、十八年（1891、1892）均为2 万1 千担，十九年（1893）增至4 万担，二十年（1894）达到5 万1 千担。

当时日新月异的化学工业对樟脑的需求激增，欧美市场销用日巨，脑价随之而涨。

十六年（1890）每石30 元，
十八至二十年每担41—44 元以上。

外商运至香港，已至每担70 元以上，运至上海，更达每担百元以上。

台湾开发以来的富庶以及海上交通的重要战略地位，日益成为东西方殖民主义者觊觎的目标。

鸦片战争以后，英、美、日、俄更加暴露出夺取台湾的野心。

（英文版）
Two regulations promulgated for implementation is in the party in power for a long time and the rule of law conditions, the implementation of comprehensive strictly strategic plan, implementation in accordance with the rules and discipline to manage the party, strengthen inner-party supervision of major initiatives. The two regulations supporting each other, the < code > adhere to a positive advocate, focusing on morality is of Party members and Party leading cadres can see, enough to get a high standard; < rule > around the party discipline, disciplinary ruler requirements, listed as "negative list, focusing on vertical gauge, draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the" bottom line ". Here, the main from four square face two party rules of interpretation: the first part introduces two party Revised regulations the necessity and the revision process; the second part is the interpretation of the two fundamental principles of the revision of laws and regulations in the party; the third part introduces two party regulations modified the main changes and needs to grasp several key problems; the fourth part on how to grasp the implementation of the two regulations of the party. < code > and < Regulations > revised the necessity and revised history of the CPC Central Committee the amendment to the Chinese Communist
Party members and leading cadres honest politics several guidelines > and < Chinese Communist Party discipline and Punishment Regulations > column 1 by 2015 to strengthen party laws and regulations focus. Two party regulations revision work lasted a Years, pooling the wisdom of the whole party, ideological consensus, draw historical experience, respect for the wisdom of our predecessors, which reflects the unity of inheritance and innovation; follow the correct direction, grasp the limited goals, adhere to the party's leadership, to solve the masses of the people reflect a focus on the problem. The new revision of the < code > and < rule >, reflects the party's 18 and the eighth session of the third, the spirit of the fourth plenary session, reflecting the experience of studying and implementing the General Secretary Xi Jinping series of important speech, reflects the party's eighteen years comprehensive strictly practice. (a) revised two regulations of the party need of < the ICAC guidelines > in < in 1997 Leaders as members of the Communist Party of China clean politics certain criteria (Trial) > based on revised, the promulgation and implementation of January 2010, to strengthen the construction of the contingent of leading cadres play an important role. But with the party to manage the party strictly administering the deepening, has not been able to fully meet the actual needs. Content is too
complicated, "eight prohibition, 52 are not allowed to" hard to remember, and also difficult to put into practice; the second is concisely positive advocated by the lack of prohibited provisions excessive, no autonomy requirements; the third is banned terms and discipline law, both with the party discipline, disciplinary regulations repeat and Criminal law and other laws and regulations repeat; the fourth is to "clean" the theme is not prominent, not for the existing problems, and is narrow, only needle of county-level leading cadres above. < rule > is in 1997 < Chinese Communist Party disciplinary cases (Trial) > based on revision, in December 2003 the promulgation and implementation, to strengthen the construction of the party play very important role. Along with the development of the situation, which many provisions have been unable to fully meet the comprehensive strictly administering the practice needs. One is Ji law, more than half of the provisions and criminal law and other countries laws and regulations Repetition; two is the political discipline regulations is not prominent, not specific, for violation of the party constitution, damage the authority of Party Constitution of misconduct lack necessary and serious responsibility to pursue; third is the main discipline for the leading cadres, does not cover all Party members. Based on the above situation, need to < the criterion of a clean and honest
administration > and < rule > the two is likely to be more relevant regulations first amendment. By revising, really put the authority of Party discipline, the seriousness in the party tree and call up the majority of Party members and cadres of the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness. (II) two party regulations revision process the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China attaches great importance to two regulations revision . Xi Jinping, general books recorded in the Fifth Plenary Session of the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, on the revised regulations < > made clear instructions. According to the central deployment, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection from 2014 under six months begin study two regulations revision. The Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection 4 review revised. Comrade Wang Qishan 14 times held a special meeting to study two regulations revision, amendment clarifies the direction, major issues of principle, path and target, respectively held a forum will listen to part of the province (area) secretary of the Party committee, Secretary of the Discipline Inspection Commission, part of the central ministries and state organs Department
The first party committee is mainly responsible for people, views of experts and scholars and grassroots party organizations and
Party members. Approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, on 7 September 2015, the general office of the Central Committee of the Party issued a notice to solicit the provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) Party, the central ministries and commissions, state ministries and commissions of the Party (party), the General Political Department of the military, every 3 people organization of Party of two regulations revision opinion. Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of extensive solicitation of opinions, careful study, attracting, formed a revised sent reviewers. In October 8 and October 12, Central Committee Political Bureau Standing Committee and the Political Bureau of the Central Committee After consideration of the two regulations revised draft. On October 18, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China formally issued two regulations. Can say, two laws amendment concentrated the wisdom of the whole party, embodies the party. Second, < code > and < Regulations > revision of the basic principles of two party regulations revision work and implement the party's eighteen, ten eight plenary, the spirit of the Fourth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee and General Secretary Xi Jinping important instructions on the revised < low political criterion > and < Regulations >, highlighting the ruling party
characteristics, serious discipline, the discipline quite in front of the law, based on the current, a long-term, advance as a whole, with Bu Xiuding independent < rule > and < rule >. Main principle is: first, adhere to the party constitution to follow. The constitution about discipline and self-discipline required specific, awaken the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness, maintaining the authority of the constitution. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that "no rules, no side round. Party constitution is the fundamental law, the party must follow the general rules. In early 2015 held the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Fifth Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee, Xi Jinping again pointed out that constitution is the party must follow the general rules, but also the general rules." the revision of the < code > and < rule > is Method in adhere to the regulations established for the purpose of combining rule of virtue is to adhere to the party constitution as a fundamental to follow, the constitution authority set up, wake up the party constitution and party rules the sense of discipline, the party constitution about discipline and self-discipline specific requirements. 4 second is to adhere to in accordance with the regulations governing the party and the party. The Party of rule of virtue "de", mainly refers to the party's ideals and beliefs, excellent traditional style. The revised the
< code > closely linked to the "self-discipline", insisting on the positive initiative, for all members, highlight the "vital few", emphasized self-discipline, focusing on the morality, and the majority of Party members and the ideological and moral standards. The revised < > Ji method separately, Ji, Ji Yan to Method, as a "negative list", emphasizing the heteronomy, focusing on vertical gauge. Is this one high and one low, a positive reaction, the strict party discipline and practice results transformation for the integration of the whole party to observe moral and discipline requirements, for the majority of Party members and cadres provides benchmarking and ruler. Third, insist on to. In view of the problems existing in the party at the present stage, the main problems of Party members and cadres in the aspect of self-discipline and abide by the discipline to make clearly defined, especially the party's eighteen years strict political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline and to implement the central eight provisions of the spirit against the four winds and other requirements into Disciplinary provisions. Not one pace reachs the designated position, focusing on in line with reality, pragmatic and effective. After the revision of major changes, major changes in the < code > and < rule > modified and needs to grasp several key problems (a) < code > < code > adhere to according to regulations
governing the party and party with morals in combination, for at the present stage, the leadership of the party members and cadres and Party members in existing main problems of self-discipline, put forward principles, requirements and specifications, showing Communists noble moral pursuit, reflected at all times and in all over the world ethics from high from low 5 common requirements. One is closely linked to the "self-discipline", removal and no direct relation to the provisions of . the second is adhere to a positive advocate, "eight prohibition" 52 are not allowed to "about the content of the" negative list moved into synchronization amendment < cases >. Three is for all the party members, will apply object from the leadership of the party members and cadres to expand to all Party members, fully embodies the comprehensive strictly required. The fourth is prominent key minority, seize the leadership of the party members and cadres is the key, and put forward higher requirements than the ordinary Party members. Five is to simplify, and strive to achieve concise, easy to understand, easy to remember. The revised < code > is the ruling Party since the first insists on a positive advocate forAll Party members and the self-discipline norms, moral declaration issued to all members of the party and the National People's solemn commitment. > < criterion of a clean and honest administration consists of 4 parts, 18,
more than 3600 words. After the revision of the < code >, a total of eight, 281 words, including lead, specification and Party member cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms, etc. Part 3 members low-cost clean and self-discipline, the main contents can be summarized as "four must" "eight code". Lead part, reiterated on ideal and faith, fundamental purpose, the fine traditions and work style, noble sentiments, such as "four must" the principle of requirements, strong tone of self-discipline, The higher request for 6 and supervised tenet, the foothold in permanent Bao the party's advanced nature and purity, to reflect the revised standards requirements. Members of self-discipline norms around the party members how to correctly treat and deal with the "public and private", "cheap and rot" thrifty and extravagance "bitter music", put forward the "four norms". Party leader cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms for the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "vital few", around the "clean politics", from civil servant of the color, the exercise of power, moral integrity, a good family tradition and other aspects of the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "four norms" < > < norm norm. "The Party member's self-discipline norms" and "party members and leading cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms," a total of eight, collectively referred to as the "eight". "Four must" and "eight" of the。