Lecture 8约翰。穆勒的综合
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第八讲
约翰·穆勒的综合经济
思想体系
Main Topics
¾穆勒的生平与著作
¾穆勒学说产生的背景
¾穆勒关于政治经济学的对象和方法¾穆勒的价值理论和利润理论
¾“工资基金说”
¾改良主义经济思想
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was the remarkable son of a remarkable father. All through the second half of the 19th century, the seventh edition of Mill’s Principles of Political Economy was the undisputed bible of economists.
与马尔萨斯、李嘉图不同,穆勒在经济学、哲学及政治学等广泛的领域里均享有盛名。
他的经济学著作中带有一种新的视角,几乎没有任何19世纪的其他经济学家能有这一角度,即,对身处宇宙和社会中的人的处境的更广泛关怀,以及对于人类思想和行动法则的关注,这些给予穆勒对经济学的贡献以新的方向和重点。
在穆勒思想的更广泛的视野中,纯粹地强调产量增长和效率提高的经济检验让位于新的和更具综合性的标准,其中,生活质量和个人的充分发展突出出来。
8.1约翰·穆勒的生平与著作
8.1.1 穆勒的生平与著作
John Stuart Mill(1806-1873)哲学家、逻辑学家、经济学家,著名的社会活动家和社会改良主义者
《略论政治经济学中某些有待解决的问题》(1848年)
《政治经济学原理》(1848年)
约翰·斯图亚特·穆勒1806年出生于英国伦敦,当他严格的教育开始时,他仍然在品尝着母乳的味道。
詹姆斯在他3岁时教他希腊文。
8岁时,这个男孩读希腊文的柏拉图、色诺芬和第欧根尼的著作,并开始学习拉丁文。
在8岁和12岁之间,穆勒泡在藏书丰富的图书馆里,阅读亚里斯多德和阿里斯托芬的著作,并掌握了微积分学和几何学。
在业余时间里,他被迫教他的兄弟和姐妹学习拉丁文。
他有任何业余爱好吗?他阅读历史。
有朋友吗?一个都没有。
在14岁时,他的父亲开始与约翰·斯图亚特在森林里漫步,一边讲述李嘉图的经济学讲义:“他每天详细讲解该学科的一部分,第二天我给他一个书面的叙述,他一再要我重写,直到这部分内容清楚、准确、以及还算完善为止。
”
——《已故西方经济学家思想的新解读》
John Stuart Mill was taught Greek at age three and Latin at age eight. By the time he reached young adulthood, John Stuart Mill was a formidable intellectual, albeit an emotionally depressed one. After recovering from a nervous breakdown, he departed from his Benthamite teachings to shape his own view of political economy. He wrote Principles of Political Economy,which became the leading economics textbook for forty years after it was written. ……due to the influence of his wife, Harriet Taylor, whom he idolized, that women were the equals of men. ……Mill was not a consistent advocate of laissez-faire.
在1848年,穆勒出版了他的主要经济学著作《政治经济学原理》。
像穆勒在几页的内容里所讨论的垄断那样,该书支配了书市几十年。
直到1919年,牛津还依赖《原理》一书,可能因为它的后续事物是由一个剑桥人马歇尔所写。
确实,所有伟大经济学家的著作都阐明了长期路径。
从1776年到1976年,只有5本书几乎不间断地、连续地支配了经济学:斯密的《国富论》、李嘉图的《原理》、穆勒的《原理》、马歇尔《原理》,以及萨缪尔森的《经济学》。
他们都缺乏富有想象力的标题,但他们在持久力方面给予了弥补。
——《已故西方经济学家思想的新解读》
穆勒《政治经济学原理》的编辑者Ashley撰写的1909年“导言”:穆勒童年在老穆勒的指导下三次系统地学习了政治经济学。
第一次,他13岁,“李嘉图笔记”。
第二次,他15岁,“老穆勒笔记”,精神崩溃。
第三次,1825年,19岁,开始为《威斯敏斯特评论》写文章。
1825年,初步恢复之后,小穆勒周围聚集了一些青年朋友。
他们打算仔细学习和系统勘探社会科学各领域,仍然从老穆勒的《Elements of Political Economy》出发。
对穆勒产生影响的人物
从这一回忆可以判断,早在1828年,小穆勒22岁,初次读到孔德的《实证哲学》,便决心脱离边沁的功利主义学派,转而寻求孔德主义的实证社会科学和柯尔律治的历史哲学。
孔德的生物科学优于边沁的效用主义,不过,小穆勒认为孔德体系尚待确立的实证基础对他最富魅力。
Samuel Taylor Coleridge(1772-1834,与边沁同时代):Where true Love burns Desire is Love's pure flame; it is the reflex of our earthly frame,That takes its meaning from the nobler part, And but translates the language of the heart.
对穆勒早期思想影响最大的作者是李嘉图、边沁、老穆勒。
对他中期思想影响最大的作者是柯尔律治(穆勒认为其思想与边沁思想构成互补的科学系统)、孔德、以及后来与他结婚的Harriet Hardy(1807-1858)。
Harriet Taylor (1807 -1858):……an early advocate for women‘s rights and a philosopher, one of seven children of a surgeon, is not often given her own biography. More often than not, she’s tucked into a biography of her famous philosopher husband, John Stuart Mill. Educated at home, she enjoyed writing poetry.
Her first marriage was to a well-to-do merchant. It was around this time that she met the man she would have an affair with for 20 years before marrying him. Their affair was not as one might expect——Platonic in nature. Their meetings would be over dinner, often two times a week. ……in an age when divorce was almost impossible, ……
Exactly how Taylor met John Stuart Mill is open to question, but the leading theory is that a woman suffrage advocate, introduced them at a dinner party at his home in 1830. By the summer of 1831 when Helen, Harriet's final child, was born, Harriet and John Mill were involved in an emotionally and intellectually passionate and intimate relationship that thrived for the remainder of their lives. Whether or not Taylor and Mill ever engaged in sexual intercourse while John Taylor was alive or while Taylor was a widow is not open to question –they did not. ……The Taylor marriage came to a crisis in 1833 and they agreed to a six-month trial separation.
Whether or not they engaged in sexual intercourse after their marriage is open to question. Some scholars believe that they never consummated their relationship. Some claim that Mill was impotent, others that John Taylor had passed syphilis to Harriet Taylor during the early years of their marriage accounting for the rapid cooling of their relationship, Harriet Taylor's later health problems, and John Taylor's high tolerance for their unconventional relationship. For the two years following Helen's birth, Mill would regularly visit the Taylor household for dinner while John Taylor absented himself at his local club.
“Harriet Taylor Mill wrote like Henri Matisse painted--with large, passionate strokes.”1851年丈夫去世,她发表了The Enfranchisement of Women:……The unfettered power of men over the women in their lives leads both men and women to intellectual laziness. 德里达:“我希望像女性那样写作。
”In such a case, women have no motivation for learning and every motivation for not learning. Men can dictate an opinion instead of debating an opinion and arriving at a conclusion by an intellectual examination of the issue. This intellectual laziness corrupts men, and this corruption spreads throughout society, eventually corrupting all men and women.
Harriet would spend summer weekends along the English coast and Mill would find a place nearby so that they could be together. This routine lasted until 1851, two years after John Taylor's death, ……Both John Mill and Harriet Taylor suffered from tuberculosis in the 1830s and 1840s. Harriet took frequent trips to southern France and Italy in search of a warm climate, ……Mill and Taylor wrote each other daily when they were separated ……they would exchange drafts of articles, each adding, deleting, rephrasing, and editing the words of the other and adding new ideas and insights as the work progressed. Mill wanted to dedicate his Principles of Political Economy to Harriet, but ……
After Harriet's death, Mill turned his adulation onto her daughter, his stepdaughter Helen 1831-1907 who he acclaimed as another brilliant inspiration. Helen Taylor, et. al., 1867, “The Ladies' Petition”signed by fifteen hundred ladies, which was presented to the House of Commons by Mr. J. Stuart Mill, and sets forth that the possession of property in this country carries with it the right to vote in the election of representatives in Parliament, without distinction of sex. ……and that they conceive themselves to be asking only for the recognition of rights which flow naturally from the existing laws and institutions of the country. ---Sexual Equality, 1994, pp. 216-233.
8.1.2 穆勒学说的特点和产生的背景 综合与协调
产生的背景
穆勒不仅相信个人的充分发展是头等重要的,而且还在这—发展中看到了人类惟一的希望。
尽管穆勒总体上坚持马尔萨斯的人口论和李嘉图的分配理论,但人类改革和新生的可能性在穆勒的著作中始终得到了强调。
这使人口的两难困境等特征不再那么令人刺痛。
不同于马尔萨斯、李嘉图的经济学所传播的忧郁,穆勒带来了谨慎乐观广义的希望。
在他的《功利主义》中他写到:“其意见应该立刻得到考虑的人中没人会怀疑世上多行不义必自毙,并且,如果人类事务能够持续改进,那么,人口最终将会减少到—定限度之内。
”
(1)19世纪中叶英国的经济处在繁荣发展时期;(2)国内阶级矛盾和斗争日益尖锐化和表面化,学说上反映为空想社会主义、李嘉图社会主义、劳动价值学说;
(3)作为当时主流思想的资产阶级思想必须考虑各阶级的思想和内部的各种争吵,需要对各种对立或矛盾的学说进行调和与综合;
(4)在经济比较繁荣、危机尚未出现,而各阶级的利益又没有冲突的情况下,容易出现调和、综合的学说。
8.2 关于政治经济学的对象和方法 研究对象:“财富的性质及其生产与分配的规律”
生产规律不会改变:
(1)三要素
(2)生产的规模和效率受一定条件的限制
(3)土地收益递减规律
(4)个人支出方式影响社会财富的分配状况 分配规律可以改变,因为它纯粹是社会制度的问题
分配规律生产物的分配(收入的分配)
所有权的分配(土地、资本) 抽象演绎法和经验归纳法相结合
8.3 价值理论与利润
8.3.1 价值理论
事物在交换中的价值形成需具备的两项必要
条件:
(1)事物对人的“有用性”;
(2)落实有用性所必须克服的“困难”。
小穆勒《政治经济原理》第三册第2章,“of demand and supply,in their relation to value”,第一段第1句:that a thing may have any value in exchange, two conditions are necessary. It must be of some use; ……But, secondly, the thing must not only have some utility, there must also be some difficulty in its attainment. (英文版第442页,纽约1965年,Ashley版本)。
这一定义最为清晰,它刻画了事物在交换中的价值形成的两项必要条件:(1)事物对人的“有用性”,(2)落实有用性所必须克服的“困难”。
这两项必要条件的合取式决定了事物的交换价值。
第1版1848年问世,第2版1849年,第3版1852年,……从小穆勒撰写的各版序言判断,欧洲1848年革命显然影响了他关于“产权”的论述。
Book III Chapter 1: ……Adam Smith, in a passage often quoted, has touched upon the most obvious ambiguity of the word value; which, in one of its senses, signifies usefulness, in another, power of purchasing; in his own language, value in use and value in exchange. But (as Mr. De Quincey has remarked) in illustrating this double meaning Adam Smith has himself fallen into another ambiguity. ……The use of a thing, in political economy, means its capacity to satisfy a
desire, ……The word Value, when used without adjunct, always means, in political economy, value in exchange;使用价值提供快乐,交换即放弃一些快乐。
价值不同于制度。
后者制约着人与人之间的关系。
前者,如小穆勒所论,可以发生在鲁滨逊一个人的荒岛上。
有用性及落实有用性的困难,前者意味着主观价值判断,后者意味着生产及客观技术制约。
从人类演化角度审视,越是演化的初期,人类越可能受到客观技术的制约,故价值的客观尺度就越占主导位置。
当人类逐渐摆脱初期的物质约束,走向有意识的精神演化阶段时,价值的主观尺度就将日益占据主导位置。
换句话说,“长期”而言,人类活动所遵循的价值原则,是从客观价值论逐渐转变为主观价值论的演化过程。
在这样的视角下,奥地利学派的“成本”概念就显出极大的长期的理论优势了。
也因此,一个长期的理论课题是:怎样在不同个人的主观世界之间建构具有某种“主体间客观性”的经济活动的一般均衡或博弈均衡模型。
8.3.2 利润理论
资本家从总收入中扣除各种支出的余额,亦纯收入
利润来源于(1)劳动生产物的扣除
(2)忍欲的结果
(3)资本家服务的合理报酬
总利润:利息、保险费和管理工资
利润理论----“扣除说”、“忍欲说”、“服务报酬说”的综合
8.4 “工资基金说”(Wage fund doctrine)
工资----使用劳动的代价,劳动的报酬
工资水平的决定
a. 短期内,决定于劳动的供求,即被雇佣的工人人数和用于购买劳动的那部分资本的比例
b. 在长期,决定于工人的人数
“工资基金说”的撤回
8.5 穆勒的政策主张
穆勒赞成较大的政府支出,他建议政府为储蓄导流,从而避免过多的积累给土地稀缺增加压力,避免资本收益的下降和由此产生的包括资本浪费在内的周期影响。
穆勒一方面强调促进经济增长的一般原则是自由放任,另一方面又反对放任学派过分限制政府职能的见解。
他所提出的适度干涉理论为凯恩斯主张政府扩大开支刺激需求的投资政策提供了思想基础。
改良主义思想
承认现有资本主义制度的巨大优越性
指出资本主义社会并非一个完美的世界
确认存在的缺陷和弊端:
分配不均、两极分化;男女在经济生活方面的不平等;种族歧视;性别歧视等
主张对资本主义社会进行改良,而不是革命 提出改良的建议
①限制人口
②在未实现大生产的地方维持小生产
③限制财产继承权
④征收土地增值税,减少地租
⑤改善劳工和雇主之间的关系
Reading Materials
1.晏智杰著:《古典经济学》,202-231。
2.亨利·威廉·斯皮格尔著,晏智杰等译,
《经济思想的成长》,第318-342页。
3.斯坦利. L. 布鲁著,焦国华等译,《经
济思想史》(中译本),101-110.
4.Mark Blaug Economic Theory in
Retrospect, pp187-235.
Problem Sets
1. 约翰·穆勒如何修改了马尔萨斯的人口理论?
2.请将穆勒的经济思想与斯密、马尔萨斯和李嘉图的经济思想做一比较。
3.简述穆勒的生产理论和分配理论。
4.谈谈你对穆勒经济改良主义思想的看法.。