Chapter1I讲义nvitations to Linguistics _英语语言学概论
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
1. Why Study Language?
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Spanish Arabic Korean Germany French …
• How many languages? • As of 1997, at least a portion of the Bible had been translated into 2,197 different languages, • Ethnologue: 6,809, 230 are spoken in Europe, while 2,197 are spoken in Asia. • There are about 6900 known languages worldwide. Many of these are variations of one another and some are only spoken by a handful of people.
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Chapter 6 Pragmatics (4 periods) 6．1 Speech Act Theory 6．2 The Cooperative Principle 6．3 The Politeness Principle Chapter 7 Text Analysis (2 periods) • 7．1 Information Structure • 7．2 Cohesion and coherence • 7．3 Conversational analysis
1.2 Some fundamental views about L
• Language is human-specific. • Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction. • Language operates by rules. • All languages have three major components: a system of sound, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics. • Everyone speaks a dialect. • Language slowly changes.
第一章语言学导论解析
第一章语言学导论Chapter1 Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as well as linguistics and other disciplines.Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself.Definition of LinguisticsHow do you define linguistics? What is linguistics?——Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language. What are we going to learn about linguistics?1. It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics.语音学(phonetics);音系学(phonology);形态学(morphology);句法学(syntax) —Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学(semantics) ; 语用学(pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics——interdisciplinary learningSaussure, father of modern linguistics(现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast.尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的依赖中解放出来。
英语课件Chapter1-1 Invitations to linguistics
--Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory Linguistics (1964)
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(7) “Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”
--Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)
• 2. Discourse analysis (DA) is a newly branch of ls in the 1950s with the ls turn. (CDA, MDA and PDA)
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1.3 Design features of language: features that define our human lgs
--From our course book (2009)
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1.2.2 Multimodal discourses
• Reflections on the videos:
• 1. MD: >=5 modes of meaning-making: linguistic, visual, gestural, spatial and audio to create texts (words, images, gestures, sounds…)
Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics
A warm smile is the universal language of kindness. William Arthur Ward
1. Why Study Language?
Language is essential. Language is marvelous. a slim chance and a fat chance, a wise man and a wise guy I think that that that that that student wrote on the blackboard was wrong. Was it a bar or a bat I saw?
Phatic Directive Informative Interrogative Expressive Evocative Performative
Interpersonal
Recreational Metalingual
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3. Linguistics
3.1 What is linguistics ?
2. Language
2.4 What can we do with/by language?
1. Hello! 2. Get out of my way! 3. The earth revolves around the sun. 4. Do you know his hobby? 5. I hate her. 6. How do you like Jack? 7. I hereby declare the meeting open. 8. Tommy, Dear Friend 9. Humor, chanting, puns 10. Generally speaking, in other words
语言学导论 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
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Descriptive（描写式）vs. Prescriptive（规定式） ♦ Descriptive:a lingustics study that aims to describe and analyze the language ople actually use.
♦ Prescriptive:a linguistics study that aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language.i.e.,to tell people what they should say or what they should not say.
Example
▪ Jack said I love you to Rose in the street.
The relationship between langue and parole ● The parole must depend on langue, and without parole, there would not be any existing significance for langue. Langue and parole are interdependent. They together constitute language.
C ha pte r 1 Invita tions to Linguistics
1.9 Im porta nt D istinctions in Linguistics
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contents
• Descriptive vs. Prescriptive • Synchronic vs. Diachronic • Langue vs. Parole • Competence vs. Performance
语言学教程英汉对照[整理版]
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LinguisticsChapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. What is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.nguage is a systemA basic observation is that each language contains two systems, a system of sound and a system of meaning.B. Language is arbitraryThe relation between expression and content is not natural but conventional. And this conventional relation varies from language to language.e.g.It is called a “老鼠”in Chinese,while a “rat”or “mouse”in EnglishC. Language is vocalThe primary medium of language is sound rather than word. written forms came much later than the spoken forms; we speak more everyday; we learn to speak first.D. Language is symbolic 象征性的Language is symbolic in the sense that all the sounds people produce and the ideas, concepts, objects, etc. that these sounds can refer to are bounded up by convention. 惯例Linguistic units are conventional signs.E. Language is human-specificLanguage is possessed only by human beings, other communication systems as possessed by animals or many other life forms are not languages, i.e. they do not manifest such features as the so-called design features as possessed by human language.F. Language is for communicationThe main and primary function of language is to communicate. People say things to each other to express their communicational needs, and language functions to communicate general attitudes toward life and others.2. Design features of language(1) Arbitrariness:任意性there is no logical connection between meaning and sound.(2) Duality：双重性language is a system, which consists of two levels of structures, at the lower level there is the structure of sounds; at the higher level there is the structure of words.(3) Creativity：创造性Language is creative in the sense that users can understand and create sentences they have never heard before.(4) Displacement：移位性language can be used to communicate about things that are not present in our immediate communicational context.（5）Cultural transmission:文化传播the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.（6）Interchangeability交换性any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.3. Functions of language（1）Informative信息功能The use of language to record facts, to state what things are like, and to exchange information.（2）Interpersonal 人际功能The most important sociological use of language, which serves to establish and maintain people’s status in a society.（3）Performative施为功能Language can be used to do things, (Austin and Searl)to change the social status or the immediate state of affairs of people.（4）Emotive情感功能Language can be used to express the emotional state of the speaker.（5）Phatic communion寒暄功能Ritual exchanges, exchanges that have little meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.（6）Recreational 娱乐功能the use of language to have fun.（7）Metalingual元功能Language can be used to explain or describe itself or other languages.4. four principles for studying linguistics:（1）Exhaustiveness穷尽性（2）Consistency一致性（3）Economy经济性（4）Objectiveness客观性5. Main branches of linguisticssound:phonetics语音学phonology音系学form:morphology形态学syntax句法学meaning：semantics语义学pragmatics语用学Macrolinguistics宏观语言学Applied linguistics应用语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Computational linguistics计算机语言学6. Important distinctions（1）Descriptive 描述性If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use（2）prescriptive规定性If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using languageModern linguistics is mostly descriptive（3）Synchronic共时性It refers to the description of a language at some point of time in history（4）Diachronic 共时性It refers to the description of a language as it changes through time .（5）Langue言语It refers to the speaker’s understanding and knowledge of the language that he speaks.（6）Parole语言It refers to the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.Langue is abstract, parole is concreteLangue is relatively stable, while parole varies from person to person, from situation to situation.（7）competence 能力It refers to an ideal speaker’s knowledge of the underlying 潜在的system of rules in a language.（8）performance 实行It refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker in a real communicational context.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. Speech communication involves three steps:speech production 产出speech transmission 传播speech perception 感知(1) Segment语段a linguistic unit in any sequence 顺序which may be isolated from the rest of the sequence no direct correspondence can be established between spelling and pronunciation.(2)Divergence分化the process of two or more languages or language varieties becoming less like each other.2. IPA: the International Phonetic Association3.Consonants辅音28The sounds in the production 生成of which there is an obstruction阻碍of the air-stream气流at some point of the vocal tract 声道Manners of articulation: 发音方式(1)Stop 爆破音：[p, b, k, g, t, d](2)Nasal 鼻音:[m, n, ŋ](3)Fricative摩擦音：[f, v] [θ, ð] [s, z] [ʃ, Ʒ] [ h](4)Approximant 浊音：[r, j, w](5)Lateral 无擦通音：[ l ](6)Affricate 塞擦音：4.Place of articulation:发音部位(1)Bilabial双唇音：[p, b, m, w] (2)Labiodental唇齿音：[f, v](3)Dental齿音：[θ, ð] (4)Alveolar齿龈音：[t, d, n, s, z, l, r] (5)Post alveolar齿槽音：[ʃ, Ʒ] (6)Retroflex卷舌音：[ r ](7)Palatal上颚音: [ j ] (8)V elar:软腭音：[k, g, ŋ](9)Uvular小舌音(10)pharyngeal喉音(11)glottal声门音Consonants can be described by the following three criteria: voicing (whether a consonant is voiceless or voiced), place of articulation, manner of articulation.e.g.[ p ] voiceless bilabial stop[ b ] voiced bilabial stop[ f ] voiceless labiodental fricative5.vowels元音the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstructionThe vowels are usually described with reference to the following four criteria:height; position raised; tenseness (length); lip-roundinge.g. [ i: ] high front tense unrounded vowel[ u ] high back lax rounded vowel[ ə] mid central lax unrounded vowel6. Coarticulation协同发音overlapping of adjacent articulations(1)anticipatory coarticulation:预期协同发音 e.g. team lamb(2)persevarative coarticulation:持续协同发音e.g. map meatthe sound displaying theinfluence of the preceding sound7. Nasalization鼻音化the vowel acquiring some quality of the of the following nasal sound8. Phoneme:音素the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.9. Allophones音位变体Coarticulation is the phonetic term for the phonological term assimilation.10. The main suprasegmental features 超音特征Syllable音节, tone音调, intonation语调, stress重读.Intonation :It refers to the change of pitch at sentence level.Tone:It refers to the Change of pitch of individual syllables.Chinese is a typical tone language.11. The syllable structure(((C)C)C) V ((((C)C)C)C)A syllable usually consists of three part: onset, the peak or rhyme and the coda. The vowels within the rime is the nucleus.12. Morpheme:词素the smallest meaningful unit in a language.Chapter 4 From word to text1. Syntactic relations句法关系language as “a system of signs”, each of which consists of two indispensable 不可缺少的parts: signifier (sound image) and signified (concept).Syntagmatic relation: 组合关系relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc.(also called horizontal or chain relation)3. Paradigmatic relation聚合关系specifically between an individual unit and others that can replace it in a given sequence. (also called vertical or choice relation)Grammatical constructions refer to any syntactic constructs that have certain syntactic functions.4. Immediate constituentsa term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.Immediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly below the level of a construction.5. IC Analysis: the way of analyzing a construction into its immediate constituents.6. Other shortened form of different phrases or words are as follows:N = noun A = adjectiveP = preposition AP = adjective phraseV = verb PP = preposition phraseDet = determiner 限定词art. S = clauseadv = adverb conj = conjuction7. Three ways of IC Analysis:(a) bracketing (b) labeled tree diagram(c) Tree diagram8. the substitutability: 替代性whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure still remains the same.9. Endocentric and exocentric constructions（1）Endocentric construction 向心结构It is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence相等, to one of its constituents, which servers as the centre, or head, of the whole.e.g. poor boythe little match girlwill have finishedthe book on the shelfreally very lateTypical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. The endocentric constructions can be further divided into two subtypes: subordinate construction 主从结构and coordinate construction 并列结构.Subordinate construction:It is one in which only one head is dominant and the other constituents dependent. Coordinate construction:It refers to be all equal in syntactic status, they are independent of each other（2）Exocentric construction:离心结构a group of syntactically related words where none of them is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head inside the groupThe exocentric constructions are usually basic sentences, prepositional phrases, predicate (predicate + object)动宾关系and connective(be + complement) constructions.10. The phrase structure component has phrase structure rules as follows：S: NP + VPVP: V + NPNP: Det + NDet: the, a, etc.N: man, ball, etc.V: hit, take, etcLanguage can be seen as consisting of three parts: syntax句法学, semantics语义学and phonology 音系学.11. Recursiveness:递归性It is a phenomenon in which there is no limit to the number of embedding or conjoining one linguistic unit to another unit.ex:Xiao Lin’s teacherXiao Lin’s teacher’s husbandXiao Lin’s teacher’s husband’s parentsXiao Lin’s teacher’s husband’s parents’friend ...12. Conjoining: 连接It refers to a construction where one clause is conjoined with another. 并列句Ex:a. John bought a hat.b. John’s wife bought a bag.c. John bought a hat and his wife bought a bag.13. Embedding: 嵌入It refers to the process in which a clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination. 从句Ex: a. I saw the man.b. The man visited you last year.c. I saw the man who had visited you last year.The sentences can be linked either hypotactically or paratactically.Chapter 5 Meaning1.What is semantics?语义学Specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.2.Meanings of MEANINGone difficulty in the study of MEANING is that the term “meaning”itself has different meanings.--- intention--- inference--- a translation3.Kinds of meaning（1）The traditional approach 通用方法（2）The pragmatic approach 务实方法（3）The functional approach: 功能法4.Seven types of meaning by Leech(1)Conceptual meaning 概念A word or phrase can be used to express or evoke a state of mind which is cognitive, in this case the word or phrase expresses conceptual meaning.Conceptual meaning is central.5.Distinctions between denotation and connotation:(1)denotation: 外延It concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes(2)connotation: 内涵It refers to the properties of the entity a word denotesEx:human statesman politiciandenotation any person person who takes uppoliticsconnotation biped, commendatory derogatoryfeatherless, rationalAssociative meaning 联想(2) Connotative meaning 内涵What is implied apart from what is explicitly named or described. It is the subsidiary meaning of a word, usually associated with the nature or properties the word denotes.e.g.politician and statesman have different connotative meanings.(3) Social meaning 社会What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.E.g.Good morning, sir, and Y our honor.(4) Affective meaning 情感refers to the emotional connotation attached to utterancesE.g.vagrant vs. homeless.(5) Reflected meaning 反映What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.e.g.The woods are lovely, dark, and deep,But I have promises to keep,And miles to go before I sleep,And miles to go before I sleep.(6)Collocative meaning 搭配What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.e.g.black tea vs. black coffee;a strong horse vs. a strong nation.(7)Thematic meaning 主题What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.e.g.Authority I respect, but authoritarianism I deplore.Sense refers to the complex system of relationships that hold between linguistic elements themselves, it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.6. Word sense relations(1)Synonymy同义词It refers to the sameness sense relations between words.Some semanticians maintain that there are no real synonyms, that is, no two words have exactly the same meaning.7. Five types of synonyms:i. Dialectal synonyms 方言同义词---- synonyms used in different regional dialects British English American Englishlift elevatorluggage baggagelorry truckpetrol gasolineflat apartmentwindscreen windshieldtorch flashlightii. Stylistic synonyms 文体同义词--- synonyms differing in styleEx:Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parentStart, begin, commenceKid, child, offspringKick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decreaseiii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 不同的同义词在感情或评价的意义Ex:collaborator: a person who helps another（劳经）合作者accomplice: a person who helps another （法律）共犯iv. Collocational synonyms 搭配同义词Ex:Accuse of sb. , charge sb. , rebukerotten tomatoesaddled eggsrancid bacon or buttersour milk.v. Semantically different synonyms 语义上不同的同义词程度amaze: to surprise(suggesting confusion and bewilderment )astound: to surprise(suggesting difficulty in believing )8. Antonymy 反义词It refers to the oppositeness sense relations between words, and three types of antonymy can be classified:(1) gradable antonymy 分级Cold, cool, lukewarm, warm, hot(2) complementary antonymy 补充Alive- dead(3) converse antonymy 相反e.g. husband / wife, borrow / lend.9.Hyponymy上下义关系Hyponymy indicates sense inclusiveness. The upper term in this sense relation is called superordinate, and the lower terms, hyponyms, members of the same class are calledco-hyponyms.Eg:In contrast to Chinese, there is only one word in English for thedifferent kinds of uncles: 伯父、叔叔、舅舅、姑父、姨父。
英语语言学讲义Chapter1
2006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章Chapter one本章共 5 页Introduction to linguistics1. What is linguistics? ( definition of linguistics) Linguistics: is generally defined as the scientific study of (human) language. 1. The word language preceded by zero article in English implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g. English , Chinese , French and Japanese, but languages in general. 2. The word study does not mean “learn” but “investigate”. 3. The word scientific refers to the way in which language is studied. 2. Why study linguistics ? 1. Linguistics takes an analytical approach to the study of language, and focus on developing skills in data analysis, problem solving, and logical thinking that can be applied to many fields. 2. It is a interdisciplinary subject. 3. Linguistics is a science that is still in its infancy but undergoing rapid development, and it is “a pilot science” 3. What and how linguists study language? 1. nature of language (focus on language itself) 2. nature of acquisition (focus on learners) 3. nature of teaching (focus on teachers) The process of linguistic study can be summarized as follows: .First, certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them; .Next, based on these generalizations, hypotheses are tested by further observations; .And finally a linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.4.Scope of linguistics 1. General linguistics: The study of language as a whole, it deal with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 2. Micro-linguistics includes 6 parameters, namely, phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. It studies language itself. 3. Marco-linguistics conclude other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, and artificial intelligence. It studies language in use--- practical usage.12006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页5Micro- linguistics 1. Phonetics: The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds. 2. Phonology: The description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. 3 Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words. 4. Syntax: The study of those rules that govern the combination of words to from permissible sentences. 5. Semantics: The study of meaning in abstraction. 6. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use. Micro- linguistics61. Sociolinguistics: It studies the relations between language and society. 2. Psycholinguistics: The study of language and mind.– the mental structures and processes. 3. Stylistics: The study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features. ( Written language) 4. Text linguistics: The study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used. 5. Computational linguistics: 6. Cognitive linguistics: 7. Applied linguistics:Most linguistics, however, would agree on a tentative definition like this: 7 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition is widely accepted because it includes some of the important characteristics of human language. The design features of language The following 7 design features of human language have been identified by C.F.Hockett(1958): 1.productivity, 2. arbitrariness, 3. duality, 4. displacement, 5.interchangeability, 6.specialization, 7.cultural transmission. The characteristics of language 1. Language as system ---The key word in the definition is "system". Language is systematic. Otherwise we would not be able to learn or use it consistently. Each language system contains two subsystems: a system of sound and a system of meaning. 2. Language as arbitrary ---There is no natural relationship between the sound and what it means in a certain22006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页language. we cannot predicate exactly what specific features we will find in a particular language if we are not familiar with it. 3. Language as vocal ---By "vocal" we mean that the primary medium of all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing system might be.The Elements of Language8Origin of language 1. The evolution of man’s social life paved the way for the evolution of language. Society is both the creator and the container of language.. 2. And various theories are proposed to account for or speculate about its origin, such as the bow-wow theory, the pooh-pooh theory, and the yo-he-ho theory, etc.The functions of language 1. Phatic( ) By phatic we mean that language can be used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells, and comments on weather serve this function. 2. Informative( ): Language severs an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts or to reason things out. Informative function is met through declarative sentences. Such informative statements are either true or false. 3. Expressive( ) : Language severs an expressive function when it is used to reveal the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Ejaculations like: "Good heavens!"寒暄信息表达The functions of language 4. Directive ( ): Language serves a directive function when it is used to get the hearer do something. Most imperative sentences have this function. "Get out!" "Close the window, please.", "Walk slowly" are a few examples.指令5. Interrogative(疑问) :Language severs an informative function when it is used to get information from32006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页others. All questions that expect answers have this function, such as: "When will the meeting begin?" 6. Evocative( ) :The evocative function is the use of language to arouse certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry or please. 7. Performative ( ): Language is used to do things or to perform acts. Some Major Concepts in Linguistics Descriptive and prescriptive grammars Synchronic and diachronic linguistics Langue and parole Competence and performance Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation Functionalism and formalism情感施为9 Some Major Concepts in Linguistics 1. Most modern linguistics is descriptive. It attempts to describe what people actually say. As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language. The functions of language 2. When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. SL focuses on the state of language at any point in history while DL focuses on the differences in two or more than 2 states of language over decades or centuries.3LangueParoleThe functions of language42006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页4. Competence and performance American linguist Noam Chomsky distinguishes competence and performance so as to idealize language data and to define the scope of linguistic study. Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations. Performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is ,the actual use of this knowledge.The functions of language 5. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations Saussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Syntagmatic relations refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements,which form linear sequences. Paradigmatic relations means the vertical relationship between forms,which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.→6. Functionalism and formalism Generally speaking, schools of linguistics can be divided into 2 major camps: functionalism and formalism. Functionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.5。
《语言学教程》Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsTeaching procedures1. Language1.1 Why study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanity人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.1.2 What is language? 什么是语言1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义1. What a person says (concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.1.2.2 definitions1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features------ refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, and displacement.1.3.1 What is arbitrariness? 任意性a. arbitrariness---- arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language, which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is n o logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。
Chapter 1--Introduction to Linguistics
Differences: (Choose the correct answers to fill in each bracket) 1. Linguistics ( ) 2. Traditional Grammar ( ) A. laying down rules of correctness B. descriptive C. prescriptive D. based on earlier grammars of Latin / Greek E. more focus on the spoken language F. with emphasis on correctness, literary excellence G. with emphasis on the priority of the written language
Linguistics vs. Traditional Grammar: (Modern) Linguistics emerged as a discipline at the beginning of 20th century. Course in General Linguistics in 1916 marked the beginning of modern linguistics. It is developed by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” and “a master of a discipline which he made modern.” Traditional Grammar is a pre-20th century language description based on earlier grammars of Greek or Latin.
语言学Chapter 1 invitations to linguistics
Sounds > syllables > morphemes > words > phrases > clauses > sentences/utterances > texts/discourses
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2.3 Creativity
Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings. Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.
It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and sociocultural roles.
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The recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences. For instance:
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has revealed five essential factors of language: systematic系统性, arbitrary任意性, vocal口头, symbolic 符号性and most importantly human specific.To give the briefest definition, language is a means of verbal communication.Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.II. The Design features of language (语言的区别性特征)Design features refer to the defining properties of human languages that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.A framework was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett.1.Arbitrariness (任意性)The widely accepted meaning of this feature which was discussed by Saussure（索绪尔）first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.It is the core feature(核心特征) of language, which refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. It is not entirely arbitrary atall levels. Some words, such as the ones created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree.其他书表述：Language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical relationship between meanings and sounds. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2. Duality (二重性)Duality refers to the property of having twolevels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of two levels has its own principles of organization. The property of duality only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements (e.g. sounds, letters) and units (e.g. words).其他书表述：Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which is meaningless.Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sounds and a system of meanings. This is called the duality of language.3.Creativity (创造性)Creativity, sometimes also “productivity”, means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.Also called design features (C. F.Hockett, A Course in Modern Linguistics, 1958)4.Displacement（移位性）Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.5.Cultural Transmission (文化传递性)Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity(遗传).While human capacity of language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.6.Interchangeability (互换性)Interchangeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive message, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.III. Origin of language1.Bilical account (圣经记载)Language was God’s gift to human beings.2.The bow-wow theory (“汪汪”理论) Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack,cuckoo.3.The pooh-pooh theory (“噗噗”理论) Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expression of pain or joy. Oh, Ah, Aiyo4.The ye-he-ho theory (“哟-嘿-吼”理论)Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour oreffort-lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.5.The evolution theory (进化理论)Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.IV. Functions of languageJakobson (雅格布逊) established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely: referential(conveymessage and information), poetic (indulge in language for its own sake), emotive(to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative(to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic(to establish communion with others) and metalingual function (to clear up intensions and meaning).Halliday(韩礼德) proposes a theory of metafuncions of language, that is, language has IDEATIONAL（意念）, INTERPERSONAL（人际） and TEXTUAL （语篇）functions. Ideational function constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context.rmative function （信息功能）Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. The informative function is regarded as the most important function. Declarative sentences(陈述句) serve this function.It is the major role of language. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite (先决条件) of social development.It is also called the ideational function (意念功能) in the framework of functional grammar(功能语法).2.Interpersonal function (人际功能)The interpersonal function is considered asthe most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.In the framework of function grammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. For example, the ways in which people address others andrefer to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.3.Performative function (施为功能)The performative function of language is primarily used to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quiet formal and even ritualized(仪式化).（the Royal Wedding）4.Emotive function (感情功能)The emotive function of language is oneof the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Son of Bitch他妈的，他姥姥的5.Phatic function (寒暄功能)The term PHATIC COMMUNION originates from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. （a Polish anthropoligist）This function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social andregional dialects.おはようございます。
英语课件Chapter1-1 Invitations to linguistics
(8) “…some general theories of lg and lings analysis.”
--R. H. Robins (1921-2000): General Linguistics (1989)
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(9) “Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”
--Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)
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(10) Lg is a means of verbal communication.
a. It is an instrumental communicative act. (purpose)
2
1.1
•Why study language?
3
1.1.1 Traditional myths of lg:
(1) Language is only a means of communication. (2) Language has a form-meaning
correspondence. (3) The function of language is to exchange
• 1. It is taken for granted that lg is a tool and means for knowledge, information, and communications in life and society.
• 2. Those myths are only one-sided but not thorough, truthful, or comprehensive.
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. T he “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAccording to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launchingceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English us ed in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language us er’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believe s that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations,just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone. Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.。
Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics
III. Design Features of Language
1. Arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, but it is not completely arbitrary. word Form ≠ Meaning word
The two tasks of linguistics [Crystal 1968: 26] The study of particular languages to produce complete and accurate descriptions of them. The study of language in order to be able to obtain information about the nature of language in general. (GL)
耶和华神用土所造成 的野地各样走兽和空 中各样飞鸟都带到那 人面前，看他叫什 么。那人怎样叫各样 的活物，那就是它的 名字。
And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not found an help meet for him.
1.
The divine source
Adam’s naming
And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof.
Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics
(3) Arbitrariness and convention
--What is the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning? --It is a matter of Convention.
to understand the nature and functions of
language; to understand what all languages have in common, and what may differ from one language to another; to understand how languages evolve through time; to understand how a child develops language, and how language may have evolved in the human species; to understand literary and poetic texts, and the nature of verbal art;
(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level
Syntax is less arbitrary than words. (1) She got married and became pregnant. (2) She became pregnant and got married.
DF 6: Cultural Transmission
Language is the main medium through
which a people’s culture is passed on from generation to generation. There is a close relationship between language and culture.
Chapter 1 Invitation to linguistics - 副本
Invitations to Linguistics
The definition:
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
It is based on systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with the underlying language system. To discover the rules and nature of the language system, the linguists have to collect and observe language facts he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to prove their validity.
based on chance rather than being planned or based on reason
e.g. house (English) 住まい(Japanese) mansion (French) 房子(Chinese)
1. Parrot: talking birds
Chomsky‟s definition (1957)
“From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Linguistics精品PPT课件
applied in social situations in different cultures (sociolinguistics).
• Students are expected to attend lectures faithfully. There will be home assignments, a midterm paper, and a final examination.
---“It’s cold in here.”
• Why and how do people use language in different ways?
• How do people comprehend, produce and acquire language?
• How do we use the knowledge to facilitate our English learning?
• the properties of human language that make it unique; • the properties of speech sounds (phonetics), • the systematic sound patterns of language (phonology), • the grammatical structure of words (morphology), • the structure of sentences (syntax), • thห้องสมุดไป่ตู้ meaning and use of words and sentences
linguistics chapter 1 invitations to linguistics
Language is arbitrary
1).Informative (ideational function): to give information about facts.. 2).Interpersonal: to establish and maintain social status in a society (sociological use). 3).Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions (pragmatics). 4).Emotive /Expressive: emotional status, express feelings and attitudes of the speaker 5).Phatic communication: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact. 6).Recreational function: use of language for the sheer joy of using it (chanting, verbal dueling, song dueling). 7).Metalingual function: self—reflective and talk about talk.
Question
Does the traffic light system have duality? Why?