美国文学史梗概

一、殖民地时代和美国建国初期最早来自这片新大陆的欧洲移民主要是定居在新英格兰的清教徒和马萨诸塞的罗马天主教徒，二者虽然在教义上有很多不同之处，但他们都信奉加尔文主义：人生在世只是为了受苦受难，而他们唯一的希望是争做上帝的“选民”，死后进天国，相信“原罪”。

这时的文学作品也主要反映了这些思想，和欧洲文学一脉相承。

代表作家：考顿·马瑟，乔纳森·爱德华兹，安妮·布拉兹特里特，爱德华·泰勒。

二、18世纪独立战争胜利后，美国经济社会进入稳步发展时期这一时期是启蒙主义文学运动的时期，主要文学指导思想是“自然神论”（Deism），强调理性，认为“宇宙的运动始于上帝”；自然万物是“神的体现”，人生在世，不再是受苦受难以换取来世的新生，而是要消灭种族、性别和信仰的不平等，建立自己的“人间乐园”。

主要特点：作家多是美国独立战争的积极拥护者和参加者；文学指导思想除了自然神论之外还有“唯理主义”和“新古典主义”，18世纪末还开始萌发了“早期浪漫主义”；文学种类主要有历史、日记和政论，也有诗歌，讽刺小品和劝人向善的故事，18世纪末还产生了话剧。

启蒙运动中出现大量优秀的散文作品，并多出自开国元勋之手，如本杰明·富兰克林，托马斯·潘恩，以及托马斯·杰斐逊。

三、19世纪南北战争时期这一时期的文学先后发展了浪漫主义，现实主义和自然主义。

浪漫主义：18世纪70年代－19世纪30年代是浪漫主义发展的初期，南北战争前30年（1830－1860）为极盛时期，南北战争后10年逐渐衰微并向现实主义过度。

浪漫主义注重“想象”、“激情”和“个性解放”，认为人本质是善良的，铲除邪恶和拯救人类的手段是抛弃一切传统束缚，摧毁一切陈规陋习而回归到“自然的原始状态中去。

超验主义是其一分支，强调“天人合一”，认为上帝、人类和自然都是“超灵”的组成部分。

代表作家及作品：爱默生《自然》，索罗《瓦尔登湖》，霍桑《红字》，麦尔维尔《白鲸》，惠特曼《草叶集》。

现实主义：是美国政治、经济发展的必然产物，西部开拓运动、工业化、科学技术的进步都促进了其发展。

现实主义的作家一般为实用主义和民主主义的信徒，他们追求和反映的是具有具有显而易见效果并被经验证实了的相对真理，他们创作题材的是普通人平常事，是中产阶级艺术的最高表现。

豪威尔斯是现实主义的奠基人，他发现了马克·吐温，鼓励和帮助了亨利·詹姆斯，影响了自然主义作家弗兰·克诺里斯和斯蒂芬·克莱恩。

自然主义：是现实主义的发展和继续，是现实主义与19世纪科学所强调的“分析法”和“因果律”互相结合的产物，有时被称为“悲观的现实主义”，认为人是一种软弱无能的动物，被置于机械化的世界汇总而成为这一世界中难以驾御的几种势力（包括环境、自然、遗传等）的牺牲品其里程碑是：19世纪70、80年代左拉的小说的出版，90年代克莱恩的《红色英勇徽章》，1900年德莱塞《嘉莉妹妹》，1912年《金融家》，1925年《美国的悲剧》。

四、20世纪美国文学经历了两次世界大战，跨越了三个时代a) 斯文时代（1880－1914，The Genteel Age）：这是一个跨世纪的，美国经济繁荣的时代。

此时的美国文学与欧洲文学之间有着某种暧昧关系，本质上是欧洲式的和美国的小欧洲新英格兰式的。

此时以西奥多·罗斯福为代表的民族主义在文学上有着强烈的反映，人们还念念不忘美国与欧洲的文化联系与差异。

b) 爵士时代（1918－1929, The Jazz Age）：一战后，产生了一代不受约束，幻想破灭了和玩世不恭的年青人，被格特鲁德·斯坦因称为“迷惘的一代”。

c) 经济萧条时代（1929－1941，The Depression Era）：20年代的玩世不恭的态度在此时转化为一种愤愤不平的悲观主义，30年代美国文学转向了“社会抗议文学”，“心理之学”和追求人的精神世界。

美国文学先后经历了现代主义，和后现代主义思潮：现代主义：一战后到50年代，是一场自觉地反传统的文学艺术运动，表现无意识的荒谬心态，如斯坦因，乔伊斯的小说，运用意识流的手法，如福克纳的《喧哗与骚动》和《我弥留之际》；在组织构架上偏爱用神话，如艾略特的《荒原》，庞德的《诗章》，乔伊斯的《尤利西斯》；风格上以“意象”为主，语言上主张简洁、准确；题材上主要反映一战参与者的生活、思想、感情和前途命运，如多斯珀索斯的《三个士兵》，海明威的《太阳照样升起》，《永别了，武器》，描写了精神崩溃与幻想破灭的一代人。

邪恶是这是文学的主要题材之一，艾略特、弗罗斯特、奥尼尔、卡明斯、埃利森的作品中都有体现。

后现代主义：在二战后，纳粹极权主义大屠杀、原子弹、自然环境的破坏、世界人口过剩和饥荒造成西方人的精神摧残与危机，作家继续进行现代主义反传统的文艺实验，而且企图与当时业已形成规范的现代主义文艺形式决裂。

后现代主义主张否定社会秩序，表现支离破碎的世界，认为文艺批评就是现象学形式的理论。

此时，美国黑人文学，犹太文学，南方文学，反战文学和女权主义文学竞相发展。

小说家托马斯·品钦，诗人西尔维亚·普莱斯，戏剧家艾玛穆·阿米里·巴拉卡为典型的后现代主义作家。

索尔·贝娄，艾伦·金斯伯格，拉尔夫·埃里森，田纳西·威廉斯，阿瑟·密勒和爱德华·阿尔比是从现代主义向后现代主义过渡的著名作家。

20世纪美国文学的两个特征：1. 现代主义作家一般是反对传统观念而提倡“个人主义”的或者说他们打破了美国社会、道德和文学的常规。

2. 现代作家潜心探索一种真正属于美国人民的写作手法和语言风格，他们试图以纯美国的方式进行创作。

英国的是我的笔记英国文学史笔记英国文学史笔记1. Childe Harold’s Pilipimagethe poem tells of Childe Harold’s (A youth of noble birth) travels in Europe. Harold is young aristocrat whose “world-weariness” be speaks his loathing fo r English high society ,He leaves him country to escape from the society he hears and hates being solitary and melancholy he seek the company ship of mountains and seas .But beneath this melancholia(精神忧郁症) is a sad earnest a suffering young man of ardent feelings with a keen understanding and a strong love of freedom .Besides Harold’s impressions of the countries he visits. The poem in interspersed with a lyrical out bursts representing Byron’s own philosophical and political views .At First the views are express through the mouth of Hreold ,but by and by the creator and the creation become one the poet steps from the backstage to the fore and speaks directory to the audience himself.2. The cricissitudes of his life and his adventures in many countries are described against caries social backgrounds and he is seen to take part indifferent historical events this giving amid panorama of contemporary life (ababcc )3. Don JuanDon Juan is Byron’s masterpiece writer in the prime of his creative pow er .His aim was to remove the choak which the manners and max of high society throw over their secret signs and show that to the world as they are .He called this poem an epic satire .A satire on abuse of the present state of society almost all Don Juan is real life .Either my own of from people I know. In Don Juan Byron displayed his genius as romanticist and a realist simultaneously4. OzymandiasThe author shows his strong love behavior and his consistent hatred for tyranny. In this poem he also expresses his long for the nevenage of a once tyrannical King.5. Ode to the West WindThe west wind is considered a “destroyer” because it drive the last sign of life from trees, it’s is also considered the “preserver” because it scatters the seas which was come to life in spring.6. To a Sky-LarkThe author portrays the softy flight of the sky-lark, the west wind and thesky-lark are symbols of freedom spiritual vitality that the poet want to possess desperate his bitter criticism of the harsh society. The poet fuses in both poems a note of optimism of promising for humanity.7. John KeatsAbout poem: To Keats poetry exist for it’s own sake if preoccupy with philosophy or politic or any course at all, it will lose it’s own identity or quality Aim: Keats was not only the last but the most perfect of Romanticist the only artistic aim in this poetry was to create a beautiful world imagination as apposed to the Sophie realistic of his days创作原则: "beauty is truth, truth beauty " at the bottom of his poem lies his this satisfaction with the society in which he lied and experienced great miseries and sufferings8. On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer韵律韵脚：ABBA，ABBA，CDCD，CD（意大利）9. Ode to a NightingaleIn this poem the author express his wishes to free himself form the burden of human cares and anxieties and to moaners himself in a world of beauty together with the bird10. What is the genre of English literature in the 19th centurySo far as the literary form for genre is concerned, the main contribution made by the 19th century critical realists lies in their perfection of the novel. Like the realists of 18th century, the 19th century critical realists made use of the broad canvas of novel for full and detailed representations of social and political events, and of the fate of individuals and of hole social classes. However, the realistic novels of 19th century went further than those of 18th century in fact they not only pictured the conflicts between separate individuals who stood for definite social strata(circle), but also showed the broad social conflicts over and above the fate of the mere individual11. The 19th century realists’ strength.The English realists of the 19th century not only give a satiric portal of a bourgeois and all the classes, but also showed the profound sympathy for the common people classes, but also showed the profound sympathy for the common people. In their best works the greed and hypocrisy of upper classes are contrasted with the onshest and good heartedness of the sympathy men of the lower classes. Hence humor and satire are used; humor is tinged with lyricism and servers to stress the human qualities of positive characters. However, bitter satire is used to expose the seamy side of rural society, through the stretches of various negative characters given birth to by the capitalist system, critical realism reveals the corrupting influence of rule of cosy upon human nature. Here lies in the democratic and humanistic character of critical realism and … in the 19th century12. The 19th century realists’ weaknessThe critical realists of the 19th century did not, and, due to their world outlook, could, not, find a way to eradicate social evils. They did not realize the massive of changing bourgeoisie society, they were unable to find a good solution to the social contradictions, the chief tendency in their works is not a revolution but rather a reformism: they often start with a powerful exposure of the ugliness of the bourgeoisie world, merely to close in a much too co-incidental happy ending or an impotent compromise(So we can see at once the …)13. Characteristics of critical realismIn general the critical realists described with much vivid and great artistic skill. The chief traits of the English society and criticized the capitalized system. from a democratic view point:1Critical realism is reflection of the reality with objectivity specificity and facility 2It is an intense exposure and criticism of greed and hypocrisy of ruling class 3The representative characters depicted within the prevented surrounding unfair both to the summit14. Analysis of Oliver twistOliver Twist tells the story of an orphan boy, whose adventures provide a description of the lower depths of London.† In the preface to the novel, Dickens proclaims himself a realist:He makes his readers aware of the inhumanity of city life under capitalism. The first eleven chapters provide a most bitter and thoroughgoing exposure of the terrible conditions in the English workhouse of the time and the cruel treatment of a poor orphan by all sorts of “philanthropists” 慈善家.The famous scene in Chapter II, in which Oliver was beaten up and punished merely because he ventured to ask for an extra portion of gruel to alleviate his intolerable hunger, is only one of the many details to show the extreme brutality and corruption of the oppressors and their agents.It is in scenes like this we see the great critical realist voicing the helpless sufferings of the poor and the oppressed.† Dickens succeeds in calling forth the reader’s sympathy for the lower classes:In the vivid description of the thieves’ den and of the under-world of London, Dickens succeeds in calling forth the reader’s sympathy for the down-trodden people of the lower classes, who, degraded and corrupted by the social environment of the time, either climb up to be parasites 寄生虫of oppressors or fall to be victims of society or even criminals. Among the characters of the lower strata, Oliver is the only one who emerges happy and successful in the end.This happy issue/ending which Dickens’ nov els usually end in comes about as a result of his optimistic belief in the inevitable triumph of good over evil.Defects of the novel:1. The improbability of the plot:Toward the end of the novel, the plot gets to be very intricate and the reader is simply mystified, and when the mystery is finally revealed to him, he is faced with impossible coincidences which lead to the happy ending.At critical moments Oliver has been once and again saved by “kindly” gentlefolk, who happen to be his parents’ k ith and kin. 亲属2. The unconvincingness of some characters.Oliver himself is a pale figure who seems to be the helpless victim of fate. Fagin and Bill Sikes are too inhuman to be true, while the rich Mr. Brownlow and Miss Maylie are vaguely pictured as benevolent and good.Here we may see that—Dickens, while sympathizing with the miseries of the people, did not know what or who was responsible for such miseries and even cherished some illusion about rich and idle people like Mr. Brownlow and Miss Maylie. The whole social question, in Dickens’ opinion, would be settled if only every employer followed the example set by “good gentlemen” like Brownlow.15. Women’s novelists in 19th centuryWomen novelists began to appear in England during the second half of the18th century, but some gifted women of the 19th century made such contributions to the English novel that they have justifiably won their places in the front ranks of the brilliant realists headed by Dickens and Thackeray. These remarkable women novelists are Jane Austen, George Eliot and the Bronte sisters.I .Jane AustenFounder of the novel which deals with unimportant middle class people.Her works:Northanger Abbey, Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park, PersuasionII. George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans)Novels:Adam Bede (first)《亚当贝德》The Mill on the Floss 《弗洛斯河上的磨坊》Silas Marner 《织工马南》Adam Bede is a novel of moral conflicts, showing the contest of personal desires, passions, temperament, human weakness and the claims of moral duty. In the novel, the two pairs of lovers, Arthur and Hetty, and Adam and Dinah are described in contrast to each other. The former are shown to be always thinking of their own interests without any consideration of others, while the latter pair are endowed with high moral principles which guide their conduct for the good of others and themselves.According to Eliot, the moral principles of man are closely connected with the “religion of heart”. This shows the influence of the bourgeois positive philosophy which seeks to reconcile science with religion and to prove the possibility of social harmony and concord in the capitalist society.Analysis to George Eliot and her works: the novels of George Eliot mark the beginning of a new stage in the development of English critical realism following that of Dickens and Thackeray. Her characters were not grotesque types, but real, common men and women, but in other aspects her work marks retrogression. She shifted the centre of gravity in the novel from the social problems to the problems of religion and morality. While being aware of the evils of bourgeois society, she did not attack the social system. She believed in the sentimental “religion of humanity”, and cherished the illusion that humanity and love could do away with the evilsof capitalism.III The Bronte SistersI. Charlotte Brontea. The Lowood school is the embodiment of the bourgeois principles of education, the aim of which is to bring up obedient slaves for the rich.b. Another problem raised in the novel is the position of women in society. Jane Eyre maintains that women should have equal rights with men.c. Charlotte Bronte attacked the greed, petty tyranny and lack of cul-ture among the bourgeoisie and sympathized with the sufferings of the poor people. Her realism was colored by petty-bourgeois philanthropy. Like Dickens, she believed that education was the key to all social problems, and that by the improvement of the school system and teaching, most of the evils of capitalism could be removed.16. A brief review of historical backgrounds of 20th centuryIn the period of the transition between the 19th and 20th century the British Empire in the reign of Queen Victoria fell into a decline from the summit of its worldwide supremacy.In the mean time, capitalistic Europe was divided into hostile camps for the colonial division of the world.In 1917 the October Revolution broke out in Russia and a socialist state emerged.1929 a great economic crisis in the capitalist world caused an unprecedented economic depression in Britain.17. The definition of Stream of ConsciousnessStream of Consciousness is a narrative technique that presents as if they were coming directly from a character’s mind. Lacking chronological order, the events in a stream of consciousness narrative are presented from the character’s point of view, mixed in with the characters’ ongoing feelings and memories.Developed by writers as James Joyce and Virginia Woolf,stream-of-consciousness writing is used to reveal a character’s complex psychology and to present it in realist detail. The novelists demonstrated an awareness of the inner workings of the mind. One’s present was believed to be the sum of his past. Time was no longer a series of chronological moments to be presented by the novelists in sequence, but as a continuous flow in the consciousness of the individual18. Thomas Hardy1). representative works.Tess of the d’Urbervilles, far from the Madding Crowd, under the Greenwood, the Reture of the Native, the Mayor of Casterbridge, Jude the Obscure.2). Hardy’s position in English literature.The last and one of the greatest Victorian novelists.3). theme.Tess of the d’Urbervilles tells the tragic life story of a beautiful country girl. It is a fierce attack on the hypocritical morality of the society and the political status quo in England. The misery and tragedy of Tess rise to a bitter cry of protest and denunciation of the society.Hardy became more and more convinced that mankind is subjected to the rule of some hostile mysterious fate, which brings misfortune to human life. So, there is a strong naturalistic tendency in the novel.“Justice was done, and the Precedence of the Immortals had ended his sport with Tess.”I. Consolidation and practiceCompare the two main figures: Tess and AngelTess: pure, simpleAngel: hypocritical and selfishAngel is no angel at all, but an ordinary man. Tess has forgiven him, but he cannot forgive Tess.II. SummaryThe dominance of the novel which began in the Victorian Age, continued and increased during the。