生物专业英语 Photosynthesis
生物专业英语第二章光合作用与“植物”有关的文档
第五页，共六十八页。
What is photosynthesis ?
光合作用的意义:
①提供了物质来源和能量来源 ②维持大气中氧和二氧化碳含量的相对稳定
第十四页，共六十八页。
1864年(Nian)，萨克斯实验
淀(Dian)粉
与光合
第十五页，共六十八页。
黑暗处理 让一(Yi)张叶片一(Yi)半
一昼夜
曝光一半遮光
用碘蒸气处理 这片叶，发现 曝光的一半呈 深蓝(Lan)色， 遮光的一半则 没有颜色变化。
绿叶在光下制造淀粉
光合作用释放的O2来自CO2还是H2O？
and carnivores eat the herbivores. And these interactions form
food chains.
herbivore [ˈhɜ:bɪvɔ:(r)] carnivore[ˈkɑ:nɪvɔ:(r)]
光合作用是绿色植物将来自太阳的能量转化为化学能(糖)的过程。生态系统的“燃料”来 自太阳能。
第七页，共六十八页。
内(Nei)膜
外(Wai) 膜
光反(Fan)应 light reaction 暗反应 Dark reaction
类囊体(Ti)膜
第八页，共六十八页。
基质
Discovery
水 与(Yu)植物生长
第九页，共六十八页。
1771 普利斯特(Te)利（Pristly）实验
1771 年英国的普利斯特莱 （J.Pristly）通过植物和 动物之间进行气体交换的实 验，第一次成功地应用化学 的方法研究植物的生长，得 知 吸收二氧化碳、 同时放出氧气 与植物生长相关
植物的光合作用Photosynthesis
第三章植物的光合作用Photosynthesis in Plant一、名词解释：1.光合作用（photosynthesis） 2 .光合膜（photosynthetic membrane）3.量子效率(quantum efficiency) 4.荧光现象与磷光现象（Fluorecence and phosphorecence）5.反应中心色素reaction centre pigment 6.聚光色素light-harvesting pigment或antenna pigment（天线色素) 7 Primary reaction 原初反应8.光合反应中心(Photochemical reaction centre) 9.红降(red drop) 10.爱默生效应（Emerson effect）11.光系统（photosystem）12.光合链（photosynthetic reaction）13.PQ循环（PQ cycle） 14.光合磷酸化photosynthetic phosphorylation or photophosphorylation 15. 希尔反应16. 磷酸运转器17.同化能力（assimilatory power）18.碳同化CO2 assimilation in photosynthesis 19.卡尔文循环（C3途径，还原戊糖途径）C3 photosynthetic pathway (Calvin cycle, RPPP) 20.C4途径C4 photosynthetic pathway 21.景天科酸代谢Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathway22.光呼吸（photorespiration） 23.光补偿点light compensation point(LCP) 24. light saturation point(LSP) 25.光合作用的光抑制Photoinhibition 26.二氧化碳补偿点CO2 compensation point27.二氧化碳饱和点CO2saturation point28.光合“午休现象”(midday depression of photosynthesis) 29.光能利用率Efficiency for solar energy utilization30.光合速率(photosynthetic rate)31.净光合速率(net photosynthetic rate，Pn)二、写出下列符号的中文名称PQ PC Fd NADP +RuBP PGAGAP DHAP FBP F6P G6P Ru5P PEPCAM TP HP OAA CF 1 - CF 0 PS ⅠPS ⅡBSC Mal FNR Rubico三、填空题1. 光合作用是一种氧化还原反应，在反应中被还原，被氧化。
Lesson-2-Photosynthesis 生物专业英语
Photosynthesis
Contents
• Warming–up • Words and phrases • Text Analysis • Simple exercise • Further references
Warming–up
人类对光合作用的科学研究至少已经进 行了300多年，最近100年来与光合作用有关 的研究已经获得了6次诺贝尔奖。时至今日， 仍有许多问题需要探索。
环式光合磷酸化：
从PSⅠ产生的电子，经过Fd和细胞色素b6/f
等后，引起了ATP的形成，降低能位，又经PC
回到原来的起点P700，形成tophosphorylation
n. 非环形光合磷酸化[作用]
Noncyclic photophosphorylation is coupled to noncyclic electron flow, the electrons being used to reduce NADP+ as well as to make ATP.
叶绿体中叶绿素的分布
5. Chloroplast [ 'klɔ(:)rəplɑ:st ]
n.叶绿体
A plastid in which photosynthesis is carried out. Chloroplasts occur in all photosynthetic organisms except photosynthetic bacteria and blue-green algae.
叶绿体的形态与分布
叶绿体的结构
1 双层膜：内膜为选择 性屏障。
2 基质：CO2同化；淀 粉形成
3 基粒：由类囊体垛叠 而成的绿色颗粒。
生物工程专业英语翻译(第二章)
Lesson TwoPhotosynthesis内容：Photosynthesis occurs only in the chlorophyllchlorophyll叶绿素-containing cells of green plants, algae藻, and certain protists 原生生物and bacteria. Overall, it is a process that converts light energy into chemical energy that is stored in the molecular bonds. From the point of view of chemistry and energetics, it is the opposite of cellular respiration. Whereas 然而 cellular细胞的 respiration 呼吸is highly exergonic吸收能量的and releases energy, photosynthesis光合作用requires energy and is highly endergonic.光合作用只发生在含有叶绿素的绿色植物细胞，海藻，某些原生动物和细菌之中。
总体来说，这是一个将光能转化成化学能，并将能量贮存在分子键中，从化学和动能学角度来看，它是细胞呼吸作用的对立面。
细胞呼吸作用是高度放能的，光合作用是需要能量并高吸能的过程。
Photosynthesis starts with CO2 and H2O as raw materials and proceeds through two sets of partial reactions. In the first set, called the light-dependent reactions, water molecules are split裂开 (oxidized), 02 is released, and ATP and NADPH are formed. These reactions must take place in the presence of 在面前 light energy. In the second set, called light-independent reactions, CO2 is reduced (via the addition of H atoms) to carbohydrate. These chemical events rely on the electron carrier NADPH and ATP generated by the first set of reactions.光合作用以二氧化碳和水为原材料并经历两步化学反应。
七年级生物知识点语音
七年级生物知识点语音生物是一门研究生命现象的学科，是自然科学的重要组成部分。
在学习生物的过程中，除了掌握各种概念和知识点，还要重视语音的学习。
本文将为大家介绍七年级生物知识点语音。
一、生物词汇语音生物学中的词汇很多都是由希腊和拉丁文词根组成的。
了解这些词汇的语音，可以更好地理解生物知识。
下面列举几个常见的例子：1. Photosynthesis（光合作用）：fəʊtəʊsɪnθəsɪs2. Chloroplast（叶绿体）：klɔːrəplæst3. Mitochondria（线粒体）：maɪtəʊkɒndrɪə4. Ecosystem（生态系统）：iːkəʊsɪstəm二、生物单位语音在生物学中，有很多单位名称需要掌握。
下面是几个常见的生物单位，它们的语音也需要掌握：1. Cell（细胞）：sel2. Chromosome（染色体）：krəʊməsəʊm3. Gene（基因）：dʒiːn4. DNA（脱氧核糖核酸）：diː en eɪ三、生物概念语音除了生物词汇和生物单位，还有很多生物概念需要学生掌握。
下面列举几个重要的生物概念，它们的语音也需要注意：1. Biodiversity（生物多样性）：baɪəʊdaɪvɜːrsɪti2. Adaptation（适应）：ədæpˈteɪʃən3. Evolution（进化）：ˌiːvəˈluːʃn4. Mutation（突变）：mjuːˈteɪʃən四、生物名词复数语音在生物学中，有很多名词需要掌握它们的复数形式，下面是一些重要的名词复数形式，它们的语音也需要掌握：1. Nucleus（核）：ˈnjuːklɪəs，nuclei（词尾-i，发音为aɪ）2. Bacterium（细菌）：bækˈtɪəriə，bacteria（词尾-a，发音为eɪ）3. Fungus（真菌）：ˈfʌŋɡəs，fungi（词尾-i，发音为aɪ）4. Vertebra（脊椎骨）：vɜːtɪbrə，vertebrae（词尾-e，发音为iː）结语：生物是一门不可或缺的自然科学，语音的掌握对于学生理解和记忆生物知识都有一定的帮助，希望本文能帮助大家更好地掌握生物知识。
光合作用名词解释英语
Photosynthesis: Explanation and Process In the field of biology, photosynthesis refers to the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy. This vital process allows organisms to produce glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis is essential for the existence of life on Earth, as it sustains the intricate food webs and maintains the overall balance of atmospheric gases.The Process of PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis can be divided into two stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (also known as the Calvin cycle).Light-Dependent ReactionsThe first stage of photosynthesis, the light-dependent reactions, occurs in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts. These reactions rely on the presence of light and primarily involve the following steps:1.Absorption of Light: Chlorophyll and other pigments in chloroplastscapture photons from sunlight.2.Electron Transport Chain: The energy from absorbed light isharnessed to generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), which are energy-richmolecules.3.Splitting of Water: Water molecules are split, releasing oxygen as abyproduct and providing electrons for the next step.4.Electron Flow: High-energy electrons, derived from water, flowthrough an electron transport chain, ultimately leading to the synthesis of ATP.Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle)The light-independent reactions, also known as the Calvin cycle, take place in the stroma of chloroplasts. These reactions utilize the ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent reactions to convert carbon dioxide into glucose. The main steps of the Calvin cycle are as follows:1.Carbon Fixation: Carbon dioxide (CO2) combines with a five-carboncompound called RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate) to form an unstable six-carbon compound. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme called RuBisCO (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase).2.Reduction: The unstable compound formed in the previous step isconverted into two molecules of a three-carbon compound called PGA (3-phosphoglycerate). ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions are used in this process.3.Regeneration of RuBP: Some PGA molecules are converted back intoRuBP using additional ATP, while others continue in the cycle.4.Glucose Formation: After several rounds of the Calvin cycle, thethree-carbon molecules are rearranged and combined to form glucose, which can be stored or used for energy by the organism.Significance of PhotosynthesisOxygen ProductionPhotosynthesis is responsible for the continuous supply of oxygen to the Earth’s atmosphere. During the light-dependent reactions, water molecules are split, releasing oxygen as a byproduct. This oxygen sustains aerobic respiration in organisms, enabling them to derive energy from glucose through the process of cellular respiration.Carbon Dioxide ReductionPhotosynthesis plays a crucial role in reducing the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. Through the Calvin cycle, plants and other photosynthetic organisms utilize CO2 to produce glucose. This process helps in maintaining the balance of greenhouse gases, mitigating the impact of global climate change.Food ProductionPhotosynthesis is the primary source of energy for most ecosystems on Earth. Plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria serve as producers, converting light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. This glucose provides the foundation of the food chain, as it is consumed by herbivores and subsequently transferred to carnivores and other higher trophic levels.Pharmaceutical and Industrial ApplicationsSeveral products obtained from photosynthetic organisms have significant pharmaceutical and industrial applications. Medicines, biofuels, and various natural products, such as rubber and dyes, are derived from plant or algal sources. Harnessing the processes and products of photosynthesis has the potential to contribute to sustainable development and the advancement of various industries.In conclusion, photosynthesis is a vital biological process that enables organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy, producing glucose and oxygen. Its role in oxygen production, carbon dioxide reduction, food production, and various applications underscores its significance in sustaining life on Earth.。
常用生物学专业英语词汇同名
常用生物学专业英语词汇(同名19427)1.Biology - 生物学2.Cell - 细胞3.DNA - 脱氧核糖核酸4.RNA - 核糖核酸5.Gene - 基因6.Chromosome - 染色体7.Protein - 蛋白质8.Enzyme - 酶9.Mitosis - 有丝分裂10.Meiosis - 减数分裂11.Photosynthesis - 光合作用12.Respiration - 呼吸作用13.Evolution - 进化14.Adaptation - 适应15.Mutation - 突变16.Genetics - 遗传学17.Genotype - 基因型18.Phenotype - 表型19.Natural selection - 自然选择20.Ecology - 生态学21.Ecosystem - 生态系统22.Biodiversity - 生物多样性23.Conservation - 保护24.Endangered species - 濒危物种25.Extinction - 灭绝26.Classification - 分类27.Taxonomy - 分类学28.Kingdom - 界29.Phylum - 门30.Class - 纲31.Order - 目32.Family - 科33.Genus - 属34.Species - 种35.Anatomy - 解剖学36.Physiology - 生理学37.Microbiology - 微生物学38.Virology - 病毒学39.Immunology - 免疫学40.Biotechnology - 生物技术41.Genetic engineering - 基因工程42.Cloning - 克隆43.Stem cells - 干细胞44.Embryology - 胚胎学45.Developmental biology - 发育生物学46.Neurobiology - 神经生物学47.Botany - 植物学48.Zoology - 动物学49.Entomology - 昆虫学50.Marine biology - 海洋生物学51.Ornithology - 鸟类学52.Herpetology - 爬行动物学53.Mammalogy - 哺乳动物学54.Ecology - 生态学55.Population - 种群munity - 群落57.Ecosystem - 生态系统58.Habitat - 栖息地59.Food chain - 食物链60.Food web - 食物网61.Trophic level - 营养级62.Producer - 生产者63.Consumer - 消费者64.Decomposer - 分解者65.Mutualism - 互利共生66.Parasitism - 寄生mensalism - 共生68.Biome - 生物群落69.Tundra - 苔原70.Desert - 沙漠71.Grassland - 草原72.Forest - 森林73.Rainforest - 热带雨林74.Freshwater - 淡水75.Marine - 海洋76.Estuary - 河口77.Wetland - 湿地78.Adaptation - 适应79.Migration - 迁徙80.Hibernation - 冬眠81.Camouflage - 伪装82.Mimicry - 拟态83.Symbiosis - 共生84.Reproduction - 繁殖85.Asexual reproduction - 无性繁殖86.Sexual reproduction - 有性繁殖87.Fertilization - 受精88.Gamete - 配子89.Ovum - 卵子90.Sperm - 精子91.Pollination - 授粉92.Seed dispersal - 种子传播93.Germination - 发芽94.Growth - 生长95.Development - 发育96.Metabolism - 新陈代谢97.Homeostasis - 动态平衡98.Nervous system - 神经系统99.Digestive system - 消化系统100.Respiratory system - 呼吸系统。
生物专业英语(3)
• Light-dependent reactions 光反应 • Light-independent reactions 暗反应 • Noncyclic photophosphorylation 非环形光 合磷酸化 • Photon 光子
• • tion 光合磷酸化 Photorespiration 光呼吸 Photosynthesis 光合作用 Photosystem 光系统 Ribulose biphosphate 核酮糖二磷酸
Photophosphorylation
• The production of ATP using the energy of su n light is called phot ophosp ho ry la tion . • Only two sources of energy are available to living organisms: sunlight and reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions. All organisms produce ATP, which is the universal energy currency of life. • In photophosphorylation, light energy is used to create a high-energy electron donor and a lowerenergy electron acceptor. Electrons then move spontaneously from donor to acceptor through an electron transport chain.
4.Photosynthesis 生物光合作用
Biology 9/10
Photosynthesis
What is photosynthesis?
• the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize nutrients from carbon dioxide and water.
of ATP in total but we use about 70 or 80Kg of it per day (about our own body weight)
Chloroplasts
Photosynthesis – the basic reactions in a chloroplast
In the thylakoids, which are in the chloroplasts, 3 main chemical reactions of photosynthesis take place.
1. Photosystem II – where light is used to break up water molecules into H+ and O2
• Photosynthesis in plants generally involves the green pigment chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a by-product.
Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is the green substance found in the chloroplasts of cells used to absorb the energy from light
13photosynthesis2010
Cytochrome BF Contribution to Proton Gradient. The cytochrome bf complex oxidizes QH2 to Q through the Q cycle. Four protons are released into the thylakoid lumen in each cycle.
2.化学渗透学说 chemiosmotic theory 英国的米切尔(Mitchell，1961)提出 ①由磷脂和蛋白多肽构成的膜对离子和质子的透过具有选择 ②具有氧化还原电位的电子传递体不匀称地嵌合在膜内 ③膜上有偶联电子传递的质子转移系统
④膜上有转移质子的ATP酶
光合电子传递链的电子传递会伴随膜内外两侧产生质子动力 (proton motive force, pmf)，并由质子动力推动ATP的合成
3.ATP合成的部位——ATP酶
质子反向转移, 合成ATP
CF1-CFo复合体
突出于膜表面的亲水性的“CF1” 埋置于膜中的疏水性的“CFo”
CFo是质子的“通道”，供应质子给CF1去合成ATP CF1利用H＋越膜所释放的能量来合成ATP
美国的鲍易尔（Boyer 1993）认为，是H＋ 浓度递度引 起CF1上亚基的转动变构而催化ATP合成的。
模拟光合作用储存太阳能 2008年8月22日，美国麻省理工学院化学家丹尼尔· 诺切拉（Daniel Nocera ）和马修· 卡纳安 （Matthew Kanan）在《科学》上撰文宣布，他们发明 了一种制作简单、价格低廉的催化剂，能将水分子分解为氢气和氧气。
其实在很早以前，科学家就 想利用阳光分解水分子，将太阳能转化为氢燃 料储存起来，但由于催化剂价格高昂，分解水分子需要消耗太多能量，一 直没能实现。现在，有了新发明的廉价催化 剂，太阳能便可以作为动力实 现氢燃料的大规模生产，整个过程与植物的光合作用非常相似。模仿自然 界的光合作用，使太阳能更容易储存和使用，也为新能源的发 展指出了一 个新的方向。
Photosynthesis
10PhotosynthesisConcept Outline10.1What is photosynthesis?The Chloroplast as a Photosynthetic Machine.Thehighly organized system of membranes in chloroplasts isessential to the functioning of photosynthesis.10.2Learning about photosynthesis: An experimentaljourney.The Role of Soil and Water.The added mass of agrowing plant comes mostly from photosynthesis. In plants, water supplies the electrons used to reduce carbon dioxide.Discovery of the Light-Independent Reactions.Photosynthesis is a two-stage process. Only the first stagedirectly requires light.The Role of Light.The oxygen released during greenplant photosynthesis comes from water, and carbon atomsfrom carbon dioxide are incorporated into organic molecules.The Role of Reducing Power.Electrons released fromthe splitting of water reduce NADP+; ATP and NADPHare then used to reduce CO2and form simple sugars. 10.3Pigments capture energy from sunlight.The Biophysics of Light.The energy in sunlight occursin “packets” called photons, which are absorbed by pigments.Chlorophylls and Carotenoids.Photosyntheticpigments absorb light and harvest its energy.Organizing Pigments into Photosystems.Aphotosystem uses light energy to eject an energized electron.How Photosystems Convert Light to Chemical Energy.Some bacteria rely on a single photosystem to produceATP. Plants use two photosystems in series to generateenough energy to reduce NADP+and generate ATP.How the Two Photosystems of Plants Work Together.Photosystems II and I drive the synthesis of the ATP andNADPH needed to form organic molecules.10.4Cells use the energy and reducing power capturedby the light reactions to make organic molecules.The Calvin Cycle.ATP and NADPH are used to buildorganic molecules, a process reversed in mitochondria.Reactions of the Calvin Cycle.Ribulose bisphosphatebinds CO2in the process of carbon fixation.Photorespiration.The enzyme that catalyzes carbonfixation also affects CO2release.L ife on earth would be impossible without photosyn-thesis. Every oxygen atom in the air we breathe was once part of a water molecule, liberated by photosynthesis. The energy released by the burning of coal, firewood, gasoline, and natural gas, and by our bodies’ burning of all the food we eat—all, directly or indirectly, has been cap-tured from sunlight by photosynthesis. It is vitally impor-tant that we understand photosynthesis. Research may en-able us to improve crop yields and land use, important goals in an increasingly crowded world. In the previous chapter we described how cells extract chemical energy from food molecules and use that energy to power their activities. In this chapter, we will examine photosynthesis, the process by which organisms capture energy from sun-light and use it to build food molecules rich in chemicalenergy (figure 10.1).FIGURE 10.1Capturing energy.These sunflower plants, growing vigorously in the August sun, are capturing light energy for conversion into chemical energy through photosynthesis.18310.1What is photosynthesis?Stoma Bundle sheathChloroplastsInnermembraneGranumFIGURE 10.2Journey into a leaf.A plant leaf possesses a thick layer of cells (the mesophyll) rich in chloroplasts. The flattened thylakoids in the chloroplast are stacked into columns called grana (singular, granum). The light reactions take place on the thylakoid184Part III Energeticssis takes place in three stages: (1) capturing energy from sunlight; (2) using the energy to make ATP and reducing power in the form of a compound called NADPH; and (3)using the ATP and NADPH to power the synthesis of organic molecules from CO2in the air (carbon fixation).The first two stages take place in the presence of light and are commonly called the light reactions.The third stage, the formation of organic molecules from atmos-pheric CO2, is called the Calvin cycle.As long as ATP and NADPH are available, the Calvin cycle may occur in the absence of light.The following simple equation summarizes the overall process of photosynthesis:6 CO2+ 12 H2O + light —→C6H12O6+ 6 H2O + 6 O2 carbon water glucose water oxygen dioxideInside the ChloroplastThe internal membranes of chloroplasts are organized into sacs called thylakoids,and often numerous thylakoids are stacked on one another in columns called grana.The thy-lakoid membranes house the photosynthetic pigments for capturing light energy and the machinery to make ATP. Surrounding the thylakoid membrane system is a semiliq-uid substance called stroma.The stroma houses the en-zymes needed to assemble carbon molecules. In the mem-branes of thylakoids, photosynthetic pigments are clustered together to form a photosystem.Each pigment molecule within the photosystem is capa-ble of capturing photons,which are packets of energy. A lat-tice of proteins holds the pigments in close contact with one another. When light of a proper wavelength strikes a pigment molecule in the photosystem, the resulting excita-tion passes from one chlorophyll molecule to another. The excited electron is not transferred physically—it is the en-ergy that passes from one molecule to another. A crude analogy to this form of energy transfer is the initial “break”in a game of pool. If the cue ball squarely hits the point of the triangular array of 15 pool balls, the two balls at the far corners of the triangle fly off, but none of the central balls move. The energy passes through the central balls to the most distant ones.Eventually the energy arrives at a key chlorophyll mole-cule that is touching a membrane-bound protein. The en-ergy is transferred as an excited electron to that protein, which passes it on to a series of other membrane proteins that put the energy to work making ATP and NADPH and building organic molecules. The photosystem thus acts as a large antenna, gathering the light harvested by many indi-vidual pigment molecules.The reactions of photosynthesis take place withinthylakoid membranes within chloroplasts in leaf cells.Chapter 10Photosynthesis185 SunlightLight reactionsH2OPhotosystemThylakoidFIGURE 10.2 (continued)membrane and generate the ATP and NADPH that fuel the Calvin cycle. The fluid interior matrix of a chloroplast, the stroma, contains the enzymes that carry out the Calvin cycle.The Role of Soil and WaterThe story of how we learned about photosynthesis is one of the most interesting in science and serves as a good intro-duction to this complex process. The story starts over 300 years ago, with a simple but carefully designed experiment by a Belgian doctor, Jan Baptista van Helmont (1577–1644). From the time of the Greeks, plants were thought to obtain their food from the soil, literally sucking it up with their roots; van Helmont thought of a simple way to test the idea. He planted a small willow tree in a pot of soil after weighing the tree and the soil. The tree grew in the pot for several years, during which time van Helmont added only water. At the end of five years, the tree was much larger: its weight had increased by 74.4 kilograms. However, all of this added mass could not have come from the soil,because the soil in the pot weighed only 57 grams less than it had five years earlier! With this experiment, van Helmont demonstrated that the substance of the plant was not produced only from the soil. He incorrectly concluded that mainly the water he had been adding accounted for the plant’s increased mass.A hundred years passed before the story became clearer. The key clue was provided by the English scientist Joseph Priestly, in his pioneering studies of the properties of air. On the 17th of August, 1771, Priestly “accidentally hit upon a method of restoring air that had been injured by the burning of candles.” He “put a [living] sprig of mint into air in which a wax candle had burnt out and found that, on the 27th of the same month, another candle could be burned in this same air.” Somehow, the vegetation seemed to have restored the air! Priestly found that while a mouse could not breathe candle-exhausted air, air “restored” by vegetation was not “at all inconvenient to a mouse.” The key clue was that living vegetation adds something to the air.How does vegetation “restore” air? Twenty-five years later, Dutch physician Jan Ingenhousz solved the puzzle. Working over several years, Ingenhousz reproduced and significantly extended Priestly’s results, demonstrating that air was restored only in the presence of sunlight, and only by a plant’s green leaves, not by its roots. He proposed that the green parts of the plant carry out a process (which we now call photosynthesis) that uses sunlight to split carbon dioxide (CO2) into carbon and oxygen. He suggested that the oxygen was released as O2gas into the air, while the carbon atom combined with water to form carbohydrates. His proposal was a good guess, even though the later step was subsequently modified. Chemists later found that the proportions of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms in car-bohydrates are indeed about one atom of carbon per mole-cule of water (as the term carbohydrate indicates). A Swiss botanist found in 1804 that water was a necessary reactant. By the end of that century the overall reaction for photo-synthesis could be written as:CO2+ H2O + light energy —→(CH2O) + O2 It turns out, however, that there’s more to it than that. When researchers began to examine the process in more detail in the last century, the role of light proved to be un-expectedly complex.Van Helmont showed that soil did not add mass to agrowing plant. Priestly and Ingenhousz and others then worked out the basic chemical reaction. Discovery of the Light-Independent ReactionsIngenhousz’s early equation for photosynthesis includes one factor we have not discussed: light energy. What role does light play in photosynthesis? At the beginning of the previous century, the English plant physiologist F. F. Blackman began to address the question of the role of light in photosynthesis. In 1905, he came to the startling conclu-sion that photosynthesis is in fact a two-stage process, only one of which uses light directly.Blackman measured the effects of different light inten-sities, CO2concentrations, and temperatures on photo-synthesis. As long as light intensity was relatively low, he found photosynthesis could be accelerated by increasing the amount of light, but not by increasing the tempera-ture or CO2concentration (figure 10.3). At high light in-tensities, however, an increase in temperature or CO2 concentration greatly accelerated photosynthesis. Black-man concluded that photosynthesis consists of an initial set of what he called “light” reactions, that are largely in-dependent of temperature, and a second set of “dark” re-actions, that seemed to be independent of light but lim-ited by CO2. Do not be confused by Blackman’s labels—the so-called “dark” reactions occur in the light (in fact, they require the products of the light reactions); their name simply indicates that light is not directly in-volved in those reactions.Blackman found that increased temperature increases the rate of the dark carbon-reducing reactions, but only up to about 35°C. Higher temperatures caused the rate to fall off rapidly. Because 35°C is the temperature at which many plant enzymes begin to be denatured (the hydrogen bonds that hold an enzyme in its particular catalytic shape begin to be disrupted), Blackman concluded that enzymes must carry out the dark reactions.Blackman showed that capturing photosynthetic energy requires sunlight, while building organic moleculesdoes not.186Part III Energetics10.2Learning about photosynthesis: An experimental journey.The Role of LightThe role of light in the so-called light and dark reactions was worked out in the 1930s by C. B. van Niel, then a graduate student at Stanford University studying photosynthesis in bacteria. One of the types of bacteria he was studying, the purple sulfur bacteria, does not release oxygen during photosynthesis; instead, they convert hydrogen sulfide (H2S) into globules of pure elemental sulfur that accumulate inside themselves. The process that van Niel observed wasCO2+ 2 H2S + light energy →(CH2O) + H2O + 2 S The striking parallel between this equation and Ingenhousz’s equation led van Niel to propose that the generalized process of photosynthesis is in factCO2+ 2 H2A + light energy →(CH2O) + H2O + 2 A In this equation, the substance H2A serves as an electron donor. In photosynthesis performed by green plants, H2A is water, while among purple sulfur bacteria, H2A is hydrogen sulfide. The product, A, comes from the splitting of H2A. Therefore, the O2produced during green plant photosyn-thesis results from splitting water, not car-bon dioxide.When isotopes came into common use in biology in the early 1950s, it became possible to test van Niel’s revolu-tionary proposal. Investigators examined photosynthesis in green plants supplied with 18O water; they found that the 18O label ended up in oxygen gas rather than in carbohy-drate, just as van Niel had predicted:CO2+ 2 H218O + light energy —→(CH2O) + H2O + 18O2In algae and green plants, the carbohydrate typically pro-duced by photosynthesis is the sugar glucose, which has six carbons. The complete balanced equation for photosynthe-sis in these organisms thus becomes6 CO2+ 12 H2O + light energy —→C6H12O6+ 6 O2+ 6 H2O.We now know that the first stage of photosynthesis, the light reactions, uses the energy of light to reduce NADP (an electron carrier molecule) to NADPH and to manufac-ture ATP. The NADPH and ATP from the first stage of photosynthesis are then used in the second stage, the Calvin cycle, to reduce the carbon in carbon dioxide and form a simple sugar whose carbon skeleton can be used to synthesize other organic molecules.Van Niel discovered that photosynthesis splits watermolecules, incorporating the carbon atoms of carbondioxide gas and the hydrogen atoms of water intoorganic molecules and leaving oxygen gas. The Role of Reducing PowerIn his pioneering work on the light reactions, van Niel had further proposed that the reducing power (H+) generated by the splitting of water was used to convert CO2into organic matter in a process he called carbon fixation. Was he right?In the 1950s Robin Hill demonstrated that van Niel was indeed right, and that light energy could be used to generate reducing power. Chloroplasts isolated from leaf cells were able to reduce a dye and release oxygen in response to light. Later experiments showed that the electrons released from water were transferred to NADP+. Arnon and coworkers showed that illuminated chloroplasts deprived of CO2accu-mulate ATP. If CO2is then introduced, neither ATP nor NADPH accumulate, and the CO2is assimilated into organic molecules. These experiments are important for three rea-sons. First, they firmly demonstrate that photosynthesis oc-curs only within chloroplasts. Second, they show that the light-dependent reactions use light energy to reduce NADP+ and to manufacture ATP. Thirdly, they confirm that the ATP and NADPH from this early stage of photosynthesis are then used in the later light-independent reactions to reduce carbon dioxide, forming simple sugars.Hill showed that plants can use light energy to generate reducing power. The incorporation of carbon dioxideinto organic molecules in the light-independentreactions is called carbon fixation.Chapter 10Photosynthesis187 sFIGURE 10.3Discovery of the dark reactions. (a) Blackman measured photosynthesis rates under differing light intensities, CO2concentrations, and temperatures. (b) As this graph shows, light is the limiting factor at low light intensities, while temperature and CO2 concentration are the limiting factors at higher light intensities.The Biophysics of LightWhere is the energy in light? What is there in sunlight that a plant can use toreduce carbon dioxide? This is themystery of photosynthesis, the one fac-tor fundamentally different fromprocesses such as respiration. To an-swer these questions, we will need toconsider the physical nature of light it-self. James Clerk Maxwell had theo-rized that light was an electromagnetic wave—that is, that light movedthrough the air as oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Proof of this camein a curious experiment carried out in alaboratory in Germany in 1887. A young physicist, Heinrich Hertz, was attempting to verify a highly mathe-matical theory that predicted the exis-tence of electromagnetic waves. To see whether such waves existed, Hertz de-signed a clever experiment. On oneside of a room he constructed a powerful spark generatorthat consisted of two large, shiny metal spheres standingnear each other on tall, slender rods. When a very high sta-tic electrical charge was built up on one sphere, sparkswould jump across to the other sphere.After constructing this device, Hertz set out to investigate whether the sparking would create invisible electromagneticwaves, so-called radio waves, as predicted by the mathemati-cal theory. On the other side of the room, he placed theworld’s first radio receiver, a thin metal hoop on an insulat-ing stand. There was a small gap at the bottom of the hoop,so that the hoop did not quite form a complete circle. WhenHertz turned on the spark generator across the room, he sawtiny sparks passing across the gap in the hoop! This was thefirst demonstration of radio waves. But Hertz noted anothercurious phenomenon. When UV light was shining acrossthe gap on the hoop, the sparks were produced more readily.This unexpected facilitation, called the photoelectric effect,puzzled investigators for many years.The photoelectric effect was finally explained using aconcept proposed by Max Planck in 1901. Planck devel-oped an equation that predicted the blackbody radiationcurve based upon the assumption that light and other formsof radiation behaved as units of energy called photons. In1905 Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect uti-lizing the photon concept. Ultraviolet light has photons ofsufficient energy that when they fell on the loop, electronswere ejected from the metal surface. The photons hadtransferred their energy to the electrons, literally blastingthem from the ends of the hoop and thus facilitating the passage of the electric spark induced by the radio waves.Visible wavelengths of light were unable to remove the electrons because their photons did not have enough en-ergy to free the electrons from the metal surface at the ends of the hoop.The Energy in PhotonsPhotons do not all possess the same amount of energy (fig-ure 10.4). Instead, the energy content of a photon is in-versely proportional to the wavelength of the light: short-wavelength light contains photons of higher energy than long-wavelength light. X rays, which contain a great deal of energy, have very short wavelengths—much shorter than visi-ble light, making them ideal for high-resolution microscopes.Hertz had noted that the strength of the photoelectric effect depends on the wavelength of light; short wave-lengths are much more effective than long ones in produc-ing the photoelectric effect. Einstein’s theory of the photo-electric effect provides an explanation: sunlight contains photons of many different energy levels, only some of which our eyes perceive as visible light. The highest energy photons, at the short-wavelength end of the electromag-netic spectrum (see figure 10.4), are gamma rays, with wavelengths of less than 1 nanometer; the lowest energy photons, with wavelengths of up to thousands of meters,are radio waves. Within the visible portion of the spectrum,violet light has the shortest wavelength and the most ener-getic photons, and red light has the longest wavelength and the least energetic photons.188Part IIIEnergetics10.3Pigments capture energy from sunlight.FIGURE 10.4The electromagnetic spectrum.Light is a form of electromagnetic energy convenientlythought of as a wave. The shorter the wavelength of light, the greater its energy. Visible light represents only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum between 400 and 740nanometers.Ultraviolet LightThe sunlight that reaches the earth’s surface contains a significant amount of ultraviolet (UV) light, which, because of its shorter wavelength, possesses considerably more en-ergy than visible light. UV light is thought to have been an important source of energy on the primitive earth when life originated. To-day’s atmosphere contains ozone (derived from oxygen gas), which absorbs most of the UV photons in sunlight, but a considerable amount of UV light still manages to pene-trate the atmosphere. This UV light is a po-tent force in disrupting the bonds of DNA, causing mutations that can lead to skin can-cer. As we will describe in a later chapter, loss of atmospheric ozone due to human ac-tivities threatens to cause an enormous jump in the incidence of human skin cancers throughout the world.Absorption Spectra and Pigments How does a molecule “capture” the energy of light? A photon can be envisioned as a very fast-moving packet of energy. When it strikes a molecule, its energy is either lost as heat or absorbed by the electrons of the mol-ecule, boosting those electrons into higher energy levels. Whether or not the photon’s energy is absorbed depends on how much energy it carries (defined by its wavelength) and on the chemical nature of the molecule it hits. As we saw in chapter 2, electrons occupy discrete energy levels in their orbits aroundatomic nuclei. To boost an electron into a different energy level requires just the right amount of energy, just as reach-ing the next rung on a ladder requires you to raise your foot just the right distance. A specific atom can, therefore, absorb only certain photons of light—namely, those that correspond to the atom’s available electron energy levels. As a result, each molecule has a characteristic absorption spectrum,the range and efficiency of photons it is capable of absorbing.Molecules that are good absorbers of light in the visible range are called anisms have evolved a vari-ety of different pigments, but there are only two general types used in green plant photosynthesis: carotenoids and chlorophylls. Chlorophylls absorb photons within narrow energy ranges. Two kinds of chlorophyll in plants, chloro-phylls a and b,preferentially absorb violet-blue and red light (figure 10.5). Neither of these pigments absorbs pho-tons with wavelengths between about 500 and 600 nanometers, and light of these wavelengths is, therefore, reflected by plants. When these photons are subsequently absorbed by the pigment in our eyes, we perceive them as green.Chlorophyll a is the main photosynthetic pigment and is the only pigment that can act directly to convert light en-ergy to chemical energy. However, chlorophyll b,acting as an accessory or secondary light-absorbing pigment, com-plements and adds to the light absorption of chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll b has an absorption spectrum shifted toward the green wavelengths. Therefore, chlorophyll b can absorb photons chlorophyll a cannot. Chlorophyll b therefore greatly increases the proportion of the photons in sunlight that plants can harvest. An important group of accessory pigments, the carotenoids, assist in photosynthesis by cap-turing energy from light of wavelengths that are not effi-ciently absorbed by either chlorophyll.In photosynthesis, photons of light are absorbed bypigments; the wavelength of light absorbed dependsupon the specific pigment.Chapter 10Photosynthesis189FIGURE 10.5The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll.The peaks represent wavelengths of sunlight that the two common forms of photosynthetic pigment, chlorophyll a(solid line) and chlorophyll b(dashed line), strongly absorb. These pigments absorb predominately violet-blue and red light in two narrow bands of the spectrum and reflect the green light in the middle of the spectrum. Carotenoids (not shown here) absorb mostly blue and green light and reflect orange and yellow light.Chlorophylls and CarotenoidsChlorophylls absorb photons by means of an excitation process analogous to the photoelectric effect. These pigments contain a complex ring structure, called a porphyrin ring,with alternating single and double bonds. At the center of the ring is a magnesium atom. Photons absorbed by the pigment molecule excite electrons in the ring, which are then chan-neled away through the alternating carbon-bond system. Sev-eral small side groups attached to the outside of the ring alter the absorption properties of the molecule in different kinds of chlorophyll (figure 10.6). The precise absorption spectrum is also influenced by the local microenvironment created by the association of chlorophyll with specific proteins.Once Ingenhousz demonstrated that only the green parts of plants can “restore” air, researchers suspected chlorophyll was the primary pigment that plants employ to absorb light in photosynthesis. Experiments conducted in the 1800s clearly verified this suspicion. One such experiment, per-formed by T. W. Englemann in 1882 (figure 10.7), serves as a particularly elegant example, simple in design and clear in outcome. Englemann set out to characterize the action spectrum of photosynthesis, that is, the relative effective-ness of different wavelengths of light in promoting photo-synthesis. He carried out the entire experiment utilizing a single slide mounted on a microscope. To obtain different wavelengths of light, he placed a prism under his micro-scope, splitting the light that illuminated the slide into a spectrum of colors. He then arranged a filament of green algal cells across the spectrum, so that different parts of the filament were illuminated with different wavelengths, and allowed the algae to carry out photosynthesis. To assess how fast photosynthesis was proceeding, Englemann chose to monitor the rate of oxygen production. Lacking a mass spectrometer and other modern instruments, he added aerotactic (oxygen-seeking) bacteria to the slide; he knew they would gather along the filament at locations where oxygen was being produced. He found that the bacteria ac-cumulated in areas illuminated by red and violet light, the two colors most strongly absorbed by chlorophyll.All plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use chlorophyll a as their primary pigments. It is reasonable to ask why these photosynthetic organisms do not use a pigment like retinal (the pigment in our eyes), which has a broad absorption spectrum that covers the range of 500 to 600 nanometers.The most likely hypothesis involves photoefficiency.Al-though retinal absorbs a broad range of wavelengths, it does so with relatively low efficiency. Chlorophyll, in con-trast, absorbs in only two narrow bands, but does so with high efficiency. Therefore, plants and most other photo-synthetic organisms achieve far higher overall photon cap-ture rates with chlorophyll than with other pigments.190Part III EnergeticsmembraneThylakoidGranumChlorophyll molecules embedded in a protein complex in the thylakoid FIGURE 10.6Chlorophyll.Chlorophyllmolecules consist of a porphyrin head and ahydrocarbon tail that anchors the pigment molecule to hydrophobic regions of proteins embedded within the membranes of thylakoids. The only difference between the two chlorophyll molecules is the substitution of a —CHO(aldehyde) group in chlorophyll b for a —CH 3(methyl) group in chlorophyll a.。
植物的生物学英文名词解释
植物的生物学英文名词解释植物是地球上最为丰富和多样化的生物群体之一，其对人类和整个生态系统具有重要的影响。
在植物的生物学领域中，存在许多重要的英文名词，这些名词有助于我们更好地了解植物的特征和功能。
接下来，我们将对一些常见的植物生物学名词进行解释。
1. Photosynthesis（光合作用）Photosynthesis is a vital biological process that occurs in green plants, algae, and some bacteria. It involves the conversion of sunlight into chemical energy, which is used to synthesize organic compounds, such as glucose, from carbon dioxide and water. This process is facilitated by the pigment chlorophyll and occurs in specialized organelles called chloroplasts.2. Transpiration（蒸腾作用）Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water vapor through the stomata on their leaves. It plays a crucial role in plant physiology as it helps to transport water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plant. Transpiration also cools the plant and contributes to the upward movement of water in the xylem vessels.3. Pollination（授粉）Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organs (anthers) to the female reproductive organs (stigma) in flowering plants. This process is essential for fertilization and subsequent seed production. Pollination can occur through various mechanisms, such as wind, water, insects, birds, or mammals.4. Germination（发芽）Germination refers to the process by which a seed begins to grow into a new plant. It involves the activation of dormant plant embryos and the emergence of the embryonicroot (radicle) and shoot (plumule). Germination requires the right combination of factors, including water, oxygen, and favorable temperature conditions.5. Xylem（木质部）Xylem is a vascular tissue in plants that transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the shoots. It consists of specialized cells called tracheids and vessel elements. Xylem also provides structural support to the plant.6. Phloem（韧皮部）Phloem is another vascular tissue in plants that transports sugars, amino acids, and other organic compounds from the leaves to other parts of the plant. It consists of sieve tubes and companion cells. Phloem plays a crucial role in nutrient distribution and is responsible for the movement of sap.7. Stomata（气孔）Stomata are tiny openings on the surface of leaves and stems that allow gas exchange between the plant and its environment. They regulate the entry of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and the release of oxygen and water vapor. Stomata can open and close to prevent excessive water loss or prevent the entry of harmful substances.8. Hormones（激素）Hormones are chemical messengers in plants that regulate various physiological processes, such as growth, development, and responses to environmental stimuli. Examples of plant hormones include auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and ethylene. These hormones control cell elongation, flowering, fruit ripening, and other important plant functions.这些名词只是植物生物学领域中的冰山一角，而植物的复杂性则远远超出这个范围。
光合作用
·英文描述
Photosynthesis is the conversion of energy from the Sun to chemical energy (sugars) by green plants. The "fuel" for ecosystems is energy from the Sun. Sunlight is captured by green plants during photosynthesis and stored as chemical energy in carbohydrate molecules. The energy then passes through the ecosystem from species to species when herbivores eat plants and carnivores eat the herbivores. And these interactions form food chains．
其叶肉细胞中，含有独特的酶，即磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸碳氧化酶，使得二氧化碳先被一种三碳化合物--磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸同化，形成四碳化合物草酰乙酸，这也是该暗反应类型名称的由来。这草酰乙酸在转变为苹果酸盐后,进入维管束鞘，就会分解释放二氧化碳和一分子丙酮酸。二氧化碳进入卡尔文循环，后同C3进程。而丙酮酸则会被再次合成磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸,此过程消耗ATP。
1897年，首次在教科书中称它为光合作用。
20世纪30年代，美国科学家鲁宾和卡门采用同位素标记法研究了“光合作用中释放出的氧到底来自水，还是来自二氧化碳”这个问题，得到了氧气全部来自于水的结论。
【现象起源】
光合作用不是起源于植物和海藻，而是起源于细菌
生物常见词根词缀总结
生物常见词根词缀总结1. 单词概述- 单词：photosynthesis（光合作用）- 含义：指植物、藻类和某些细菌利用光能将二氧化碳和水转化为有机物并释放出氧气的过程。
在生物学中广泛使用，尤其是在讨论植物生理和生态系统的能量流动时。
2. 词根词缀解析- 词根：photo-：来源于希腊语，意为“光”。
- 词缀：synthesis：表示“合成”。
- 合成逻辑：“photo-（光）+synthesis（合成）=photosynthesis（光合作用，即利用光进行合成的过程）”。
3. 应用短文与场景- 应用短文1：- 英文：Hey there! Imagine this – the sun is shiningbright like a superstar on stage. And what are the plants doing? They're busy with photosynthesis! Just like we need food to keep going, plants need photosynthesis. It's like their superpower. You know what's amazing? It's like they have a tiny factory inside them, taking in sunlight and turning it into energy. Isn't thatmind-blowing? Think about it. Without photosynthesis, our world would be a very different place. There'd be no fresh air to breathe, no beautiful greenery to look at. So next time you see a plant, give it a little nod of appreciation for all the hard work it's doing through photosynthesis.- 中文翻译：嘿！想象一下，太阳像舞台上的超级巨星一样闪耀着光芒。
生物专业英语翻译
第一课Cytoplasm: The Dynamic, Mobile Factory细胞质：动力工厂Most of the properties we associate with life are properties of the cytoplasm. Much of the mass of a cell consists of this semifluid substance, which is bounded on the outside by the plasma membrane. Organelles are suspended within it, supported by the filamentous network of the cytoskeleton. Dissolved in the cytoplasmic fluid are nutrients, ions, soluble proteins, and other materials needed for cell functioning.生命的大部分特征表现在细胞质的特征上。
细胞质大部分由半流体物质组成，并由细胞膜（原生质膜）包被。
细胞器悬浮在其中，并由丝状的细胞骨架支撑。
细胞质中溶解了大量的营养物质，离子，可溶蛋白以及维持细胞生理需求的其它物质。
The Nucleus: Information Central（细胞核：信息中心）The eukaryotic cell nucleus is the largest organelle and houses the genetic material (DNA) on chromosomes. (In prokaryotes the hereditary material is found in the nucleoid.) The nucleus also contains one or two organelles-the nucleoli-that play a role in cell division. A pore-perforated sac called the nuclear envelope separates the nucleus and its contents from the cytoplasm. Small molecules can pass through the nuclear envelope, but larger molecules such as mRNA and ribosomes must enter and exit via the pores.真核细胞的细胞核是最大的细胞器，细胞核对染色体组有保护作用（原核细胞的遗传物质存在于拟核中）。
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Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
• It is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy；
但是细胞呼吸作用是高度放能，释放能量的过程，而光合 作用需要能量, 并且是高度吸能的过程。
Cellular respiration
2019/6/3
9
Introduction
Photosynthesis occurs only in the chlorophyll-containing cells of green plants, algae, and certain protists and bacteria.
光合作用只发生在含有叶绿素的绿色植物细胞、藻类、某 些原生生物和细菌之中。
From the point of view of chemistry and energetics, it is the opposite of cellular respiration.
从化学和能量学角度来看，它是细胞呼吸作用的逆反应。
Whereas cellular respiration is highly exergonic and releases energy, photosynthesis requires energy and is highly endergonic.
Jan van Helmont (mid-17th century)
Discovery— 1771 Important year
• The air that had been "injured" by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant.
Discovery— 1782 & 1804
• 1782, Jean Senebier demonstrated that green plants consume CO2 and release O2 under the influence of light.
• 1804, Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure showed that the increase in mass of the plant as it grows could not be due only to uptake of CO2 but also to the incorporation of H2O.
Overall, it is a process that converts light energy into chemical energy that is stored in the form of molecular bonds.
总体来说，这是一个将光能转化成化学能的过程，其能量 以分子键形式贮存。
• Photosynthesis maintains atmospheric oxygen levels and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.
Photosynthesis [,fəʊtə(ʊ)'sɪnθɪsɪs] = φῶς (phōs, light) + σύνθεσις (synthesis, putting together)
Discovery— 1864
• J.V. Sachs demonstrated that the photosynthesis produce organism.
与光合作用相关的诺贝尔奖
Wilstatter(1915) 纯化叶绿素并阐明其结构； Fischer(1930s Emerson-光合单位) 叶绿素化学； Calvin等(1962) 阐明光合碳循环； Woodward(1965) 合成叶绿素分子； Mitchell(1978) ATP合成——化学渗透学说； Deisenhofer等(1988) 阐明光合细菌反应中心结构； Marcus(1992) 生命体系（包括光合作用）的电子传递 体系； Walker等(1997)ATP合酶的动态结构和反应机理；
…光…合作用是地球上最重要的化学反应！
Glossary
Photosynthesis [,fəʊtə(ʊ)'sinθisis] n.光合作用 Chlorophyll ['klɔːrəfil] n.叶绿素 Protist ['prəʊtist] n.原生生物 Exergonic [,ɛksɚ'gɑnik] a.放能的 Endergonic [,ɛndɚ'gɑnik] a.吸能的 Chloroplast ['klɔrəplæst] n.叶绿体 Thylakoid ['θailəkɒid] n.类囊体
Josminister)
Discovery— 1779
• Repeated Priestley's experiments and discovered that it was the influence of sunlight.
Jan Ingenhousz
Discovery— mid-17th century
• Measured the mass of the soil used by a plant and the mass of the plant as it grew.
• After noticing that the soil mass changed very little, he hypothesized that the mass of the growing plant must come from the water.