(完整word版)Peter_Newmark_与“文本翻译理论”与不同的翻译方法
Peter Newmark
TL oriented
Readership level
Interprets More economical Faithful-more literal Informative
Detailed,more complex but briefer
Explains Less economical Faithful-freer Effective
Functional Translation
smantic and Communicative Translation
I am no Hamlet.
Formal equivalence： 我不是哈姆雷特。
Dynamic equivalence：我不会犹豫。
Word for word translation
Informative is to do with the external situation, the facts
of a topic including reported ideas or theories. They're considered with ay topic of konwledge and often have standard formats such as: textbooks, textbooks, technical reports, scientific papers or agenda of meeting. Informative texts convey information.
He is widely read through a series of accessible and occasionally polemical works: A Textbook of Translation (1988), Paragraphs on Translation (1989), About Translation (1991), More Paragraphs on Translation (1998)
简析彼得·纽马克的语义翻译与交际翻译
简析彼得·纽马克的语义翻译与交际翻译作者：宋丽显来源：《校园英语·下旬》2016年第07期【摘要】纽马克（Peter Newmark）是盛名的翻译理论家，他对翻译理论最突出的贡献是语义翻译和交际翻译。
语义翻译要求译文接近原文的形式，尤其在结构和词序安排上；交际翻译则注重译文读者的理解和反应。
【关键词】彼得 ·纽马克语义翻译交际翻译纽马克的翻译理论产生于直译和转译两家争鸣的大背景下，纽马克将翻译分成了语义翻译和交际翻译两大类，他还认为不论语义翻译还是交际翻译，片面强调其中一种都是不可取的，翻译应当因时制宜，因势制宜。
本文首先分别介绍语义翻译和交际翻译，其次对其异同点进行比较分析。
一、语义翻译与交际翻译简介语义翻译侧重点在语义二字，以翻译出原文文义为主要目标，最大可能忠实于原文，表达出原文语义与结构并体现出原文语境。
纽马克对语义翻译的定义是“在目的语言结构和语义许可的范围内，把原作者在原文中表达的意思准确的再现出来”。
采用语义翻译译出来的作品总是要逊色于原著，因为语义翻译既然想要保持原著的一切东西，就难免顾此失彼。
交际翻译是把语言作为交际工具的一种翻译方式，它深入地发掘了语言的交际价值，为译者进行翻译工作提供了全新视角。
纽马克认为交际翻译是“努力使译文对目的语读者所产生的效果与原文对源语读者所产生的效果相同”的翻译方法。
交际翻译理论的最大突破之处就在于它首次突出了语言交际价值的作用。
虽然交际翻译强调从读者的理解和反应出发，使译文趋于流畅，更符合译文语言习惯，但并不意味着译者可以随意发挥。
二、语义翻译与交际翻译比较区别交际翻译和语义翻译本质的区别在于二者强调的重点不同。
交际翻译中翻译的基本单位是句子，不拘泥于源语言文化背景，具有主观性；语义翻译中翻译的基本单位是词，以源语文化为基础的，具有客观性。
交际翻译的关注点是目的语读者，为他们排除阅读或交际上的困难与障碍，使交际顺利进行，其译文通常是通顺易懂，规范自然，符合特定的语域范畴。
PeterNewmark西方翻译理论
B. 在表达形式上，语义翻译是译文与原文 的形式更为接近，并尽量保留原文的声 畅地道， 简明易懂。
C.当信息的内容与效果发生矛盾时，语 义翻译重内容而不重效果，交际翻译则 重效果轻内容。
e.g.
Wet Paint! 湿油漆！ 油漆未干，请勿触摸！
the letter --- the spirit
the words --- the sense
form --- message 他认为直译和意译都忽视了翻译应当 考虑翻译目的、读者的特点和文本的类 型。
各种翻译方法的差异：
SL emphasis
TL emphasis
Word-for-word translation
直译 原文语言形式
意译 译文语言形式
语义翻译法集逐字翻译、直译和忠实 翻译的优势
交际翻译集归化、意译和地道翻译的优 势
理论基础
理论论述 以德国心理学家、功能语言学家布勒
和雅各布森论述的三大语言功能为依据， 即表情功能、信息功能、感染功能。还 采用了弗哥茨基（Vygotsky）关于思维 的本质的观点来区分两种翻译：
“内心言语本身就是一种功能，而不是外在言语
的内在表现。在很大程度上，内心言语才是纯 粹意义上的思维。”
据此，纽马克认为成年人运用语言的目 的和运用语言进行的最基本的活动是思 维，而不是说话或写作、交际或（自我） 表达。
A.每个人在思考的时候，总会有单词或句 子出现在脑海里，而不可能只是一片空 白。这说明，语言能表明人在思考，但 语言不等同于思维。
一、生平 二、主要理论
一、生平
彼得·纽马克，生于1916 年，是英国著名的翻译家 和翻译理论家。他从事过 多种欧洲语言的翻译工作， 是出色的译者和编辑。纽 马克同时也是一位语言学 家，并担任英国语言学家 协会会长。他的主要兴趣 就是把语言学的相关理论 应用于翻译实践之中，把 翻译研究和英语语言研究 相结合。
2014_10_8_Peter Newmark
Culture gap
• It is not possible if SL and TL culture are remote from each other, since normally the cultural items have to be explained by culturally neutral or generic terms, the topic content simplified, SL difficulties clarified.(P.85)
• b) if there is a pronounced cultural gap between the SL and the TL text. accuracy(准确) Economy(简洁)
Different purposes
• In the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential; it is the criterion by which the effectiveness, and there fore the value, of the translation of notices, instructions, publicity, propaganda, persuasive or eristic writing, and perhaps popular fiction, it to be assessed.
Translation Methods(1998)
Peter Newmark
Peter Newmark
contents
Peter Newmark
PETER NEWMARK ON COMMUNICATIVE AND SEMANTICTRANSLATION II交际翻译强调信息产生的效果，而语义翻译强调信息的内容。
Chien mechant 交际翻译：Beware of the dogs语义翻译：Dog that bitsSavage dogDefense de marcher sur le gazon交际翻译：Keep off the grass.语义翻译：Walking on the turf is forbidden.交际翻译的语言简洁，流畅，明了，但由于交际翻译中使用常见、通俗的词汇来代替原文中意义复杂的词汇，往往会导致翻译不足（undertranslation）。
语义翻译语言较为复杂、精细、晦涩，注重原作者的思维过程，不过度地考虑原文作者地写作意图。
由于语义翻译过分着眼于细节，在寻找意义的细微差别中，往往增加了原文没有的意义，导致翻译过头（overtranslaion）。
交际翻译与语义翻译的不同主要在表达形式上。
语义翻译使译文与原文的形式更为接近，并尽量保留原文的声音效果，如果原文语言与译文语言的规范相差不大，还要保留原文句子的长短，保留原文用于强调词的位置。
交际翻译则是重新组织句法，运用更常见的搭配和常用词，使译文流畅、地道、简明易懂。
在交际翻译中，译者可以摆脱原文语言结构的束缚，发挥译文语言的优势，译文译者有权调整原文的逻辑关系，使含糊不清的概念明朗起来。
删除重复处，使独特的语言规范化。
译者还有权改正原文的事实错误和笔误。
由此可见，语义翻译力求表现原作者的思维过程，力求保留原作者的语言特色和独特的表达形式，而交际翻译关键使传递信息，让读者去思考与感受。
在交际翻译中，译者首先要要求使译文简洁明了，以突出信息，其次要求了解整个译文读者的普遍知识水平，智力情况和感受力。
最关键的问题是交际翻译的直观性即译文的成功与否要看读者的反应如何。
Peter Newmark 西方翻译理论
（1）理论背景
（2）理论基础
（3）定义 （4）比较 （5）再发展
理论背景
直译 意译
语义翻译 交际翻译
F.语义翻译是一门艺术，只能由一个人单独承 担，不能有不准确的翻译，但由于造成了认知
意义和语用意义的走失，语义翻译译文一般不
及原文。
交际翻译是一门技巧，有时可由多人承担。由
于重效果，简洁明了，弥补了语义翻译中意义
的走失，又经过了适当的润色，交际翻译译文
一般优于原文。
适用文本
语义翻译：表达性文本或是重要的审美 性文本，其表达形式和内容一样重要， 那么不管是文学作品，还是哲学、宗教、 政治、科技作品都用语义翻译。
Bao-yu played “Racing Go”with the other maids. This was a game in which you moved your Gopieces across the board in accordance with the throw of dice, the object being to reach the opposite side before every thing else and pocket all the stakes.（David Hawkes &John Minford)
“内心言语本身就是一种功能，而不是外在言语
的内在表现。在很大程度上，内心言语才是纯
粹意义上的思维。”
据此，纽马克认为成年人运用语言的目 的和运用语言进行的最基本的活动是思
彼得纽马克的语义和交际翻译理论
语义翻译与交际翻译效果的对比
语义翻译的效果
语义翻译显得更复杂、麻烦、详细、具 体, 由于强调语义分析, 力求再现原文词 句结构, 所以容易出现超overtranslation 纽马克列举了不少例子, 指出在语义翻译 中, 译者必须抓住原文的词句、搭配、结 构乃至强调语势, 亦步亦趋地翻译, 这样 才能全面地保持原文的语义及表达形式。
交际翻译
根据纽马克的解释, 交际翻译试图使读者 阅读译文所产生的效果尽可能接近阅读 原作的读者所产生的效果。
交际翻译注重译文读者对象，在进行这 种翻译时, 译者要考虑到, 读者希望读的 是地道的译文, 流畅自然, 易懂而不晦涩, 大量外来的成份都转化入本民族文化和 语言中去。
语义翻译
语义翻译则力争表现原文确切的语义, 译 文应尽可能接近原文的词汇结构和语法 结构。他要求把表达的内容限制在原文 文化范围内, 不允许对原文中富有民族文 化色彩的概念加以改变。
纽马克主张不应把交际翻译和语义翻 译弧立起来看待, 而应结合在一起。在翻 译一篇文章时, 常常是二者并用, 没有绝 对地只用一种, 只是其中一种可能会多用 到或少用到而已。
范例
把as poor as a church mouse。 换译成“ 一贫如洗” , 就是根据交际翻 译原则，否则汉语读者无法理解何以会 “ 穷得象教堂里的老鼠” 。 再比如, 英语的“Wet paint ” 应译成 “ 油漆未干’这才达到语用对等, 才符合 汉语的习惯表达法。如果照字而译成 “ 湿的漆” , 就与原语要表达的要旨相 去甚远。由此看来, 翻译这类文字采用什 么样的译法大有讲究。
有的活生生的修辞给扼杀了。鉴于这种 情况, 纽马克强调了语义翻译的重要性, 指出译文不但要起交际作用, 更重要的是 再现原文的丰富思想, 包括特有的思维过
Peter Newmark 西方翻译理论
（1）理论背景 （2）理论基础 （3）定义 （4）比较 （5）再发展
理论背景
直译
意译
语义翻译 交际翻译
二、主要理论
1.语义翻译(semantic translation) 交际翻译(communicative translation)
2.隐喻翻译(metaphor translation)
文本
抒发功能 信息功能 呼唤功能
审美功能 应酬功能 元语言功能
语义翻译 交际翻译
关联 翻译法
1.语义翻译、交际翻译
有些文本与言语关系较为密切，而言语 的首要目的就是进行交际，那么该文本 的目的就是为了交际，而不在乎其思维 过程，这时候就可以采取交际翻译。可 见，交际翻译与言语有关。
如戏剧翻译，由于要面对观众，与他们 交流，一般就采取交际翻译。
定义
（1）语义翻译 在译入语语义和句法结构允许的前提下， 尽可能准确地再现原文的上下文意义。
the letter --- the spirit
the words --- the sense
form --- message 他认为直译和意译都忽视了翻译应当 考虑翻译目的、读者的特点和文本的类 型。
各种翻译方法的差异：
SL emphasis
TL emphasis
Word-for-word translation
语义翻译比交际翻译复杂精细叫笨拙晦涩重在在现原文作者的思维过程而不是他的意图倾向于过译即选用的词是比原文的词更专的特指词为了表现意义的细微差别译文词汇往往增添了原文没有的意交际翻译则更通顺简朴清晰直接更合乎译语习惯采用与原文的语域一致的语域倾向于欠译即遇到难译的词便使用保罗万象的泛26egspeakprayyouyoumouthyourplayersdotowncrierspokemylines
纽马克
二、语言意义
纽马克从语言意义入手把翻译定义为“把 一种语言中某一语言单位或片断，即文本或 文本的一部分的意义用另一种语言表达出来 的行为”。他比较关注如何用意义理论来解 决翻译中的实际问题。
（1）语言学意义（linguistic meaning），包括 同义词、阐释意义，翻译最能体现该意义；
（2）所指意义（referential meaning）；
（3）语用意义（pragmatic meaning）；
（4）音美意义（phonaesthetic meaning），包 括原文中的节奏、声音等产生的意义，如象声词、 半韵、头韵、文字游戏、节奏等直接或间接表达的 意义。
虽然文本的意思都能翻译出来，但由于多种因
素的影响，意思的走失就更多，主要表现在四个方 面：
（1）原文内容涉及到本国特有的自然环境、社 会制度、文化习俗，译文意思就必然走失。译者可 采用音译、意译、译借或在译语中采用一个意义类 似的名称，或借译与音译相结合，以及采用释义的 方法，把意思在括号或注释里说明。但无论如何， 译文都很难和原文意义完全吻合。
在纽马克看来，每一种意义变体都是可译的，换 句话说，“一切都是可译的”，这同奈达的观点非 常一致。但译者在翻译中无须反映所有的意义层面。
纽马克进而认为，这些还不是文本的全部 意义。既然翻译是信息转换和信息传递的过 程，文本的意义还必须受到其他多种因素的 影响和制约。纽马克用下图表现影响语义的 诸多因素：
纽马克把意义归纳为三种类型：
（1）认知意义（cognitive meaning）；
Peter_Newmark 彼得·纽马克
► 交际翻译（communicative
translation）
1.语义翻译和交际翻译的定义
为了避免直译和意译的冲突，纽马克提出了两个翻译理论，即语 义翻译和交际翻译。“我在翻译方面仅仅提出这两种方法，这两种方 法对任何文本来说都合适。在交际翻译中，翻译者用目标文本来表达 和源语同样的效果；在语义翻译中，翻译者在目标文本句法结构和语 义方面允许的范围内，来表现源语言的真正语境意义（纽马克， 2001）。”也就是说，在交际翻译中，纽马克认为，目标文本所产 生的效果应当力求接近源文本。因为交际翻译重视产生的效果但不注 重表达的内容，所以交际翻译首先要忠实于目标语和目标文本读者， 要求源语符合目标语和文化，不给读者留下疑点和晦涩难懂之处。在 语义翻译中，译者首先必须忠于原作者，符合源语文化，只有对源文 本的内涵意义出现理解困难时才加以解释。
《翻译问题探索》
翻译思想与理论 评价
简介
彼得· 纽马克
彼得· 纽马克（Peter Newmark, 1916-2011），英国翻译理论学家，交际翻译与语义
翻译的创始人。生于1916年，纽马克是英国著 名的翻译家和翻译理论家。他从事过多种欧洲 语言的翻译工作，是出色的译者和编辑。
纽马克同时也是一位语言学家，并担任英
•
也许是由于Newmark教授不服老的性格，也许是因为他的名气太大，年近九十高龄的他现在仍然给 萨里大学的翻译研究生上课，每周一学时。此外，他还经常为英国nslation Now）。笔者问，“您退休多年了还不断地给学生上课，是
因为您喜欢学生？还是因为您喜欢教书？”他回答到：“我喜欢解释事物。”在他看来，分析和解
翻译态度
•
“总的来说，文学作品可归为两类：一类 是对人类行为严肃的道德评价；第二类与 第一类紧紧相连，即为娱人，是一种欢愉， 一种感观之乐。因为前者的原因，我总是 很严肃地对待文学……这种情况和翻译相 同，因为对翻译的态度亦是非常严肃。"
纽马克-文本类型及翻译理论
交际翻译优点
注重读者的理解和反应，使译文更加流畅自然， 易于理解。
ABCD
语义翻译缺点
可能过于直译，导致译文不够流畅自然，有时甚 至出现生硬晦涩的现象。
交际翻译缺点
可能过于依赖译者的主观判断，导致译文信息传 递不准确或偏离原文意图。
语义翻译与交际翻译的适用范围
语义翻译适用范围
适用于文学、诗歌、法律、科技等文本 类型，强调对原文的忠实和准确性。
交际翻译
交际翻译是指译者在翻译过程中注重目标语读者的理解和反应，强调译文的流畅性和易懂 性。这种翻译方法适用于新闻、广告、说明书等以传达信息为主的文本类型。
文化信息的传递
纽马克认为，翻译不仅仅是语言之间的转换，更是文化信息的传递。译者在翻译过程中应 充分考虑原作中的文化背景和内涵，尽可能地将其传递给目标语读者。
纽马克-文本类型及翻译 理论
• 引言 • 文本类型 • 翻译理论 • 纽马克翻译理论的应用 • 结论
01
引言
主题简介
本文将介绍纽马克的文本类型及翻译 理论，探讨其理论背景、主要观点以 及在翻译实践中的应用。
纽马克的文本类型及翻译理论对于翻 译实践具有重要的指导意义，能够帮 助译者更好地理解和处理不同类型的 文本，提高翻译质量。
对翻译实践的启示
01
纽马克的文本类型及翻译理论提醒译者在翻译过程中要充分考虑原文的功能、 文本类型和交际目的，以确保译文的有效性和准确性。
02
针对不同类型的文本，译者应采用不同的翻译方法和策略，例如在翻译信息型 文本时，要注重语义的准确传达；在翻译表达型文本时，要注重原文的艺术性 和审美价值；在翻译号召型文本时，要注重译文的号召力和感染力。
02
文本类型
Peter Newmark 彼得·纽马克
Bissiger Hund or Chien méchant ! ——Dog that bits! /Savage dog! 〔ST〕 ——Beware of the dog! 〔CT〕 (Peter Newmark, 1981:39) (Peter Newmark, 1981:39)
3.2 Theoratical Basis
纽马克语义和交际翻译理论的提出是以德国心理学家 、功能语言学家卡尔 ·布勒 〔Karl Buhler〕和雅各布森〔Roman Jakobson〕论述的三大语言功能为依据，即 表情功能；信息功能；感染功能；他还采纳了弗哥茨基〔Vygotsky〕关于思维本质 的观点来区分两种翻译。纽马克认为早期翻译理论，即语言学时期对翻译的讨论，无 视了翻译与意义、思维和语言普遍性的关系，如何翻译应当视翻译目的、读者特点和 文本类型而定。由此他提出了“语义翻译〞和“交际翻译〞，前者对作者忠实，后者 强调对译文读者忠实。 (张春慧，Peter Newmark 的语义翻译和交际翻译, 2021)
Peter Newmark
Communicative & Semantic Translation
Context 1. A Brief Introducion of Peter Newmark 2. Newmark's Main theories 3. Communicative and Semantic Translation
2. Newmark's Main theories
a. Communicative Translation(CT) & Semantic Translation(ST) 交际翻译 与 语义翻译
翻译的基本概念(revised)
Some Basic Concepts of TranslationI．Some controversial issues：1.literal translation vs. free translation 直译还是意译2.functional equivalence vs. formal correspondence 功能对等还是形式对应3.content vs. form 重内容还是重形式4.source-oriented vs. target-oriented 靠近原语还是靠近译入语5.author-centered vs. reader-centered 以原作者为中心还是以译入语读者为中心6.the purpose of the author vs. the purpose of the translator 原作者写作的目的还是译者翻译的目的II．THE METHODS(Peter Newmark)1. Word-for-word translation （逐字翻译）This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to understand the mechanics of the source language or to construe a difficult text as a pre-translation process.2. Literal translation （直译）The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved.3. Faithful translation （忠实翻译）A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It …transfers‟cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical …abnormality‟ (deviation from SL norms) in the translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realisation of the SL writer.4. Semantic translation （语义翻译）Semantic translation differs from …faithful translation‟only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sound) of the SL text, compromising on …meaning‟where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by cultural equivalents-une nonne repassant un corporal may become …a nun ironing a corporal cloth‟–and it may make other small concessions to the readership. The distinction between …faithful‟and …semantic‟translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible, admits the creative exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the translator‟s intuitive empathy with the original.5. Adaptation （改写）This is the …freest‟ form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL culture and the text rewritten. The deplorable practice of having a play or poem literally translated and then rewritten by an established dramatist or poet has produced many poor adaptations, but other adaptations have …rescued‟ period plays.6. Free translation （自由翻译）Free translation reproduces the mater without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original, a so-called …intralingual translation‟, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all.7. Idiomatic translation （习语翻译）Idiomatic translation reproduces the …message‟of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original. (Authorities as diverse as Seleskovitch and Stuart Gilbert tend to this form of lively, …natural‟translation.8. Communicative translation （交流翻译）Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.III．The nature of translating(Nida)“Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.”1.Reproducing the messageTranslating must aim primarily at “reproducing the message”. To do anything else is essentially false to one‟s task as a translator. But to reproduce the message one must make a good many grammatical and lexical adjustments.2.Equivalence rather than identityThe translator must strive for equivalence rather than identity. In a sense, this is just another way of emphasizing the reproduction of the message rather than the conservation of the form of the utterance.3. A natural equivalentThe best translation does not sound like a translation. That is to say, it should studiously avoid “translationese”—formal fidelity, with resulting unfaithfulness to the contentand the impact of the message.4.The closest equivalentA conscientious translator will want the closest natural equivalent. It has been argued ,for example, that in present-day English a natural equivalent of “demon-possessed”would be “ mentally distressed.” This might be regarded by some as a natural equivalent, but it is certainly not the “closest equivalent”.5.The priority of meaningAs it has already been indicated in the definition of translating, meaning must be given priority, for it is the content of the message which is of prime importance for translating.This means that certain rather radical departures from the formal structure are not only legitimate but may even be highly desirable.6.The significance of styleThough style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. One should not translate poetry as though it were prose, nor expository material as though it were straight narrative. …It is usually quite impossible to represent some of the stylistic subtleties of the original.IV. Language Functions, Text-categories and Text-types(Peter Newmark)Three main functions:1.The expressive function （表达功能）The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his feelings irrespective of any response.The characteristic …expressive‟ text-types are:1)Serious imaginative literature: lyrical poetry, short stories, novels, plays.2)Authoritative statements: political speeches, documents etc; statutes and legaldocuments; scientific, philosophical and …academic‟ works written by acknowledgedauthorities.3)Autobiography, essays, personal correspondence.2.The informative function （信息功能）The core of informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.Typical …informative‟ texts are concerned with any topic of knowledge, but texts about literary subjects, as they often express value-judgments, are apt to lean towards …expressiveness‟. The format of an informative text is often standard: a textbook, atechnical report, an article in a newspaper or a periodical, a scientific paper, a thesis, minutes or agenda of a meeting.3.The vocative function （呼唤功能）The core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee. The term …vocative‟ is used in the sense of …calling upon‟ the readership to act, think or feel, in fact to …react‟ in the way intended by the text.We take notices, instructions, publicity, propaganda, persuasive writing and possibly popular fiction, whose purpose is to sell the book/entertain the reader, as the typical …vocative‟ text.However, few texts are purely expressive, informative or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three.V. Koller (1979) proposes a checklist for translationally relevant text analysis under the headings of:1. language fuction;2. content characteristics;3. language-stylistic characteristics;4. formal-aesthetic characteristics;6. pragmatic characteristisVI. Tytler’s three general ‘laws’ or ‘rules’ for translation(1797)1. The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.2. The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of theoriginal.3. The translation should have all the ease of the original composition.VII. Nida’s ‘four basic requirements of a translation’:1.making sense;2.conveying the spirit and manner of the original;3.having a natural and easy form of expression;4.producing a similar response.Naturalness is a key requirement for Nida.For Nida，the success of a translation depends above all on achieving equivalentresponse.Nida underlines that …correspondence in meaning must have priority overcorrespondence in style‟, if equivalent effect is to be achieved.IIX. Vinary and Darbelnet’s model(2000)The two strategies they identified (literal/free) comprise seven procedures, of which direct translation covers three:1.Borrowing: The SL word is transferred directly to the TL.2.Calque: This is a special kind of borrowing where the SL expression or structure istransferred in a literal translation. Eg. summit meeting <> 峰会3.Literal translation: This is a …word-for-word‟translation, which Vinary and Darbelnetdescribes as being most common between languages of the same family.4.Transposition: This is a change of one part of speech for another without changing thesense. Vinary and Darbelnet see transposition as the most “probably the most common structural change undertaken by translators”. They list at least ten categories, such as: verb to noun; adverb to verb ….5.Modulation: This changes the semantics and point of view of the SL. It can be:1)obligatory: e.g. “the time when”translates as “the moment where”in French (lemoment ou). “You‟ve had a narrow escape.”你真是死里逃生！2)optional: e.g. the reversal of point of view in “it is not difficult to show” translates as“显而易见”6.Equivalence: Vinary and Darbelnet use this term to refer to cases where languages describethe same situation by different stylistic or structural means. Equivalence is particularly useful in translating idioms and proverbs, e.g. as strong as a horse —> 壮如牛.7.Adaptation: This involves changing the cultural reference when a situation in the sourceculture does not exist in the target culture.IX. Polysystem TheoryA theory proposed by Even-Zohar to account for the behavior and evolution of literary SYSTEMS. The term denotes a stratified conglomerate (多层次的聚合) of interconnected elements, which changes and mutates (develop a new form) as these elements interact with each other.X. Other termsPragmatic translationA term used to refer to translation which pays attention not only to denotative meaning but also to “the way utterances are used in communicative situations and the way we interpret them in context.Receptor languageReceptor language is a term defined by Nida & Taber as “the language into which a message is translated from the source language.” It is basically synonymous with the term “target language.”Target languageTarget language is the standard term used to denote the language which is being translated into.Source languageSource language is the standard term describing the language in which the text being translated is written.InterpretingInterpreting is a term used to refer to the oral translation of a spoken message or text. Interpreting differs from translation in a number of important respects.1.The communication skills needed are clearly different. Interpreters need to be expert oralcommunicators.2.Interpreters are required to create a finished product in “real time” without the possibility ofgoing back and making revisions.3.Interpreters must ensure that any background knowledge which they are likely to need hasbeen acquired in advance.4.Interpreters are “performers” who are constantly making split-second decisions and takingcommunicative risks; consequently they typically experience higher stress levels while “on the job” than most translators.Relay interpretingRelay interpreting is a term used to refer to the practice of interpreting between two (usually less widely spoken) languages via a third.ShiftsThe term is originally defined by Catford as “departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL” (1965:73). The shifts described by Catford are therefore purely linguistic, being grammatical or lexical in nature.Toury (1980, 1995) further developed the notion of shifts, distinguishing two varieties, the obligatory (e.g. linguistically motivated) and the non-obligatory (e.g. motivated by literary or cultural considerations); the extent to which a TT contains non-obligatory shifts will determine whether its INITIAL NORM is one of ACCEPYABILITY or ADEQUACY.CompensationCompensation is a term in general use for a number of decades, and defined by Hervey & Higgins as “the technique of making up for the translation loss of important ST features by approximating their effects in the TT through means other than those used in the ST” (1992:248).Corpora (singular Corpus)Corpora is a term traditionally used in translation studies to refer to relatively small–scale collections of texts, (parts of ) which are searched manually for examples of features which are of interest.CorrespondenceCorrespondence is a term used to refer to the relationship which exists between elements of SL and TL that are in some way considered to be counterparts of each other. Correspondence is usually presented as a somewhat weaker notion than the perhaps more frequently encountered concept of EQUIV ALENCE (Hermans 1991:157).。
1彼得·纽马克翻译理论（1PeterNewmark
1彼得·纽马克翻译理论（1 Peter Newmark's translation theory）This paper contributed by annhd.Pdf document may at the WAP end of the browsing experience poor. Suggest you select TXT, or download the source file to the machine view.September 2009Journal of Hubei University of EducationJournal of Hubei University of EducationSep. 2009 Vol 26 No19.Twenty-sixth volume ninthThe ancient poetry appreciation of the aesthetic characteristics of English to Chinese- Peter and Peter Newmark's translation theory? In which the use of a flower(Foreign Language Department of Zhoukou Normal University, Henan Zhoukou 466001)Abstract: poetry is the art of language, is a highly concentrated national spirit civilization. The artistic conception, contains many aesthetic elements. This paper discusses to the aesthetic characteristics of classical Chinese poetry translation and in poetry form, and expoundsPeter? Communicative translation and semantic translation principles of Newmark's translation theory, and the theory of different translated versions, for people to enjoy the beauty and the enlightenment. Key words: poetry translation; aesthetic characteristics; communicative translation; semantic translation classification number: H315. 9 document code: A article number: 16742 344X (2009) 0920128203 Author: Zhang Duo (1980 -), female, Henan, Zhumadian, Ta, postgraduate, research on the theory and practice of translation. One[1 [2]]The English translation of pioneering. But an overview of the poetry translation, we found that this road is still very long. TwoChinese words have a long history of ancient poetry, especially poetry is a bright pearl in the treasure house of Chinese literature. Poetry is an art of language, it not only reflects the people of an era in a society of value and aesthetic taste, etc., and is also a highly concentrated national spiritual civilization; therefore, many translators both at home and abroad and paying attention to the translation of poetry. Poetry is the art, and poetry translation is the art of life new art casting. To write poetry, poetry translation is even more difficult, more difficult to poetry translation. Since the early twentieth Century, English translation of classical Chinese poetry appeared several climax, according to Guo Yanli research, Chinese translation literature is the first published in poetry. However, the translation of poetry has always been regarded as the most difficult, because the poetryas a literary categories in the most beautiful and most sophisticated language concise, elegant, subtle, harmony, and rhythm genre intention is closely together with the aesthetic pursuit of the infinite rich and artistic implication, the poetry translation has doomed out of the ordinary characteristics of poetic form, poetic flavour, rhyme,, everything, everything is worth considering, but it is difficult to. In poetry, the translatability and untranslatability problem also has different viewpoints. Jacob Xun from the semiotic standpoint to discuss the translation of poetry when he said syntactic and lexical categories -- root, prefix, phoneme and its components in poetry are carrying their own meaning, is a part of the art of poetry,Therefore, from the definition of poetry can not be translated, only the creative transformation (Creative transportation). Forest"The art of poetry and literary aesthetics from the perspective of Yuan Wenwen's poetry translation.The (source text) reproduction of aesthetic characteristics and artistic charm of the [4] so in poetry translation. When we should not only solve the general literary translation how to use their own language to convey the foreign literary style, ideas and other issues, but also must solve the problem of how to use the same refined language and poetry, with concise form to convey the original poem aesthetic problems. thisIt is the aesthetic characteristics of artistic conception and charm, poetry is fundamental and vitality. Peking Universityprofessor Gu Zhengkun in the "Chinese and Western poetry appreciation and translation theory" in comparison to the appreciation of poetry made detailed discussion. Poetry as beauty, beauty and Shio"[comparison of poetry meaning like beauty, beauty of things like poetry, poetry creation taste like beauty "5] poetry translationActivities from appreciation, poetry translation requires the translator not only accurately convey the semantic information in the original poems in the process of translation practice, but also to reproduce the aesthetic characteristics of the original poetry and aesthetic charm. Peter Newmark is a British linguist and translation theorist, mainly engaged in the German translation of ScienceThe theory and practice of teaching, has a unique insight and understanding in many translation theory. According to Newmark their knowledge broad, and with some interdisciplinary knowledge such as logic and PhilosophyThree language function theory proposed by cobsen (Exp resive function expressivefunction)Mr. Yutang also said: "all the words sound beauty, meaning beauty, like beauty, is the gas in the form of beauty, the translator or Gu meaning but forget the God, or the gods but forget its body, never put the Italian style and the beauty of God Wenqi sound completely at the same time translate."[3]However, many translators have a problem, take leave of, engaged in the translation of ancient Chinese poetry.Pound) to investigate image as the representative of the party China Imagist Poetry in ancient poetry, and the United KingdomAs for us, left a lot of precious spiritual wealth. Such as Pound (Ezra Giles (H. A. Giles) on Chinese appreciation and translation of ancient poetry, more numerous Chinese translation scholars left many couples of famous quotes in this field. Peking University Professor Xu Yuanchong's masterpiece "Three Hundred Tang Poems" let the readers at home and abroad to see the ancient books of the original, the original drawing of Chinese civilization, and the essence of. Shanghai Univer professor Gu Zhengyang's translation of ancient Chinese poetry "study" from the perspective of aesthetics of ancient Chinese poetry Chinese? 128?Study and put forward his own views on translation theory of linguistics. He according to Buler and Ja2 function (information function) and (vocative function) is proposed toLation view). The largest contribution to Newmark's translation theory is to emphasize the communication over了交际翻译 (translation) 和语义翻译 (semantic trans2 译和语义翻译的区别, 并对两种翻译的本质和适用范围进行了准确的阐释, 这在一定程度上弥补了尤金奈达交际翻译理论的局限. 他对所有的语篇进行分类, 并分析其对翻译者的影响, 任何表达功能型的文本 (诗歌、小说、戏剧等富于想象的文学作品. 权收稿日期: 2009 2 6 15威性的声明、演讲、散文) 其倾向于作者原语言及文化都应侧重于语义翻译, 信息功能型 (科学论文、新闻报道、大多数非文学作品) 和劝说功能型 (广告、政治宣传品、公告说明书) 的文本应侧重于交际翻译.因此, 译者决定采用哪种翻译方法时, 首先应考虑面对的是文学作品还是非文学作品文本, 在翻译语言上是倾向于译文还是原文, 在翻译时重点是放在译文读者身上还是原作者身上, 然后根据文本特点采用适当的翻译方法进行翻译研究. 纽马克在 1981 年出版的论文集《翻译问题的探讨》中的论文《交际翻译和语义翻译》中准确和清晰地论述了语义翻译和交际翻译的意义和适用范围.交际翻译试图使读者阅读译文所产生的效果尽可能地接近原语读者阅读原文所产生的效果.语义翻译则试图在合乎第二语言的语义和句法结构下将原文准确语境意义尽可能贴切地译出. 交际翻译和语义翻译之间的差别从理论上讲是相当多的.语义翻译侧重于表达原来作品的思维过程, 并力求保持原作的语言特点和独特的表达方式, 充分发挥语言的表达功能, 它强调忠实于原语文本作者, 并准确传达原文文本的语义内容.在译语的语义和句法结构允许的情况下, 译文应尽可能准确地、贴切地再现原文的文本意义和语境意义. 交际翻译则将重点放在目的语文本读者, 强调一种特定语言和文化, 将异域元素转化入目的语文化, 它的关键是传达信息让读者去感受去思索, 它为读者量体裁衣, 注重读者的理解和反映. 语义翻译和交际翻译都是以认知翻译为基础, 都是对认知翻译的修正和完善, 都要求在目的语文本中准确传递原语文本的信息.在同一语篇中, 有时要用语义翻译, 有时要采用交际翻译, 有时两者兼而有之, 相辅相成, 互为补充. 在文学作品的翻译中, 纽马克以诗歌翻译为例强调了审美价值或者说语义翻译当中诗意事实的重要性, 他认为 "语义" 翻译者被要求对这些审美元素进行说明, 而不一定要满足这个或者是那个读者[8] [6] [7]D Rive the Orioles away, their music from the trees to ll W Hen she dreamed that she went to l IAO Hsi to join him there, they wakened her. (W Itter bynner译) D Rive Orioles off the tree for their Songs awake me from my dear Dream ING of far off on the Frontier (许渊冲译)[12] 诗歌是语言的艺术, 而一首好诗往往意在言外, 自蕴其味这首诗具有较浓的文化意境, 它取材单纯而含蕴丰富, 意象生动而语言明快, 它以小见大, 语短意长看来只是一首抒写儿女情长的小诗, 却反映了当时兵役制下广大人民所承受的痛苦.在结构上, 这首诗不同于惯常的起承转合的思路, 而是突如其来地先写了一个 "打起黄莺儿" 的动作意象, 然后层层递进地叙明原因, 为何 "打起黄莺儿" 是因为不让黄莺儿在枝间啼叫; 为何 "? 莫教枝上啼 "是因为黄莺的歌声打扰了佳人的好梦; 为何特别恼? 怒黄莺 "惊妾梦" 是因为它把佳人在梦中到辽西与丈夫相会这? 一线可怜的希望也无情地打消了.Bynner的译文中 l iao hsi纯属直译, 它只是传达了字面意思而不能表露出其中暗含的深意.从纽马克的交际翻译的原则来说, bynner的译法是忠实于原文, 不加不减, 只不过是外国读者不了解诗中这一文化背景, 因此不能了解 "辽西" 的文化内涵; 而许的译文采用的是意译, 从原诗的意义上着手进行翻译, 改成了原文没有而意义上等同的内容, 体现了其暗含的荒凉、遥远、艰险之意.不仅如此许的译文还创造性地再现了原诗的语气修辞风格, 沿用了和原文一样的五言绝句, 又采用了韵律 AABB 保持了原文格律的和谐与美, 将诗中 "意美、音美、形美" 再现的淋漓尽致.而且四句翻译句句设疑句句作答, 犹如香蕉剥皮, 剥去一层还有一层.所以它不仅篇法圆静而且在结构上也曲尽其妙. 这正如 "语义翻译" 原则中所提出的结构美比喻美和声音美一样, 其决定了译文的美学价值, 在诗歌翻译中译者不能忽视任何一个因素, 尽管在原则上, 针对不同的文本, 他可以重新安排这[13] 在纽马克的交际翻译与语义翻译些因素, 优先考虑认知意义语义翻译更侧重于保留原作的美学价值.美学价值是由结构美 (Structure) 、比喻美 (metaphor) 和声音美 (Sound) 三种因素决定的, 尤其在诗歌和散文翻译中, 翻译者不可忽视其中任何一种因素.In particular to strengthen the translation aesthetic subject in ancient Chinese poetry English to Chinese subject status. Professor Liu Miqing said: "the translator is the aesthetic subject of translation. On translator ", aesthetic subject, aesthetic attitude to translation problems and its task must be double, the SL (source language) and SL of the understanding and appreciation of the aesthetic information again[present and creation. 10] which we know that the translator must understand and appreciate the beauty of the original [9]Depends on three factors to elaborate the aesthetic value of the paper: the first is the structure of the text is the overall planning and individual sentences and the shape of the balance; the second factor is the metaphor, it refers to the visual image can arouse sound, touch, smell and taste; the third is sound,it includes alliteration, assonance, rhythm well, onomatopoeic words in poetry and rhyme. Bai Juyi's "Pipa" poetry has so few words: large strings hummed like rain, the small chord whispers. Noisy as mixed shells, pearls falling into a jade plate. The two versions are as follows:The larger strings hummed like rain The small whispered like a secret. - Hummed, whispered - and then were interm ingled, L ike a pouring of large and s mall pearls into a p late of jade. (W itter Bynner) The thick strings loud thrummed like the petering rain, The fine strings softly tinkled in a murmur stain. W hen m ingling loud and soft notes were together p layed, You heard large and small pearls cascade on p late of jade.School characteristics, and this function is successfully transferred out. As for poetry translator, he must first understand what the original poem is beautiful, and know how to appreciate from what point of view, what translation methods to reproduce the aesthetic connotation of the original poem creation in translation. As the subject of aesthetic understanding must possess outstanding aesthetic ability and aesthetic experience, such as: aesthetic experience, aesthetic perception, aesthetic imagination, aesthetic emotion and aesthetic mood etc.. As Burton Raffel said: "the translation of literary works, especially in poetry translation, if not fully take into account the aesthetic requirements, the translator did everything else would not have much value.[11]Three we understand the Newmark's translation theory andunderstand the necessity of poetry translation and aesthetic characteristics of the aesthetic subject aesthetic importance, so we from the English translation of the following versions of ancient poetry to explore this theory. Jin Changxu's "strong" in so few lines: playing the Orioles, Mo Jiao branches cry. Cry when startled concubine dream, don't get in. Two kinds of translation:129?(translated by Xu Yuanchong)Reference:[1] Li Yuliang, Liu Zhongde translation of [J]. Journal of University of Jinan, 2001, (4). [2] Guo Yanli. China modern translation literature introduction to [M.Wuhan: Hubei Education Press, 2001: 304. [3] Lin Yutang. Translation [A] Luo Xinzhang. The Analects [C. Beijing: Commercial PressAs the soul of poetry is the artistic beauty, but beauty and beauty is the basic form of phonological properties of poetry, poetry is an important part of integral. Generally speaking, poetry rules including rhythm, rhyme and musical means three parts. Not only is the beauty of sound poetry metrical performance, but also it is different from other literary works.One of the features of the form (cd. Two English translator andpoetry system, two language "of Qian Zhongshu"1984: hall, 426, 430.[4] Lee Chen Jianjing. The image of the English translation of turf, China in classical poetry processing [J] Sichuan DivisionLanguage) Xu is translating "the soundbeautiful" the founder of the theory and practice [14], he believes that even if the one hundred percent to convey the beauty of the original poem, without rhyme, it is impossible to maintain the original poetry style and taste [15] this poem has the obvious characteristics of the beauty of sound. Mr. Zhu Guangqian also said: "the temperament is manufacturing tool to improve the distance, humble things to the ideal realm. This is a beautiful temperament beautification effect. The maximum price "The value is the music of it, is the lifeblood of poetry. 16] in the original, Bai Juyi with "noisy"Fan college journal, 2001, (6).[5] Gu Zhengkun. Comparison of Chinese and Western poems appreciation and translation theory [M. Beijing: Tsinghua UniversityPress, 2003, (6).[6]Newmark, P. App roaches to Translation, Oxford and New York: Pergamon, 1981: 39. [7] Jeremy? Mandil. An introduction to the study of translation [M. Beijing: the Commercial Press, 2007.[8] [13] Xie Tianzhen. Contemporary western translation theories. Tianjin: Nankai University press, [M"As" two reduplicating analog sound, and with "rain", such as "whisper" image two metaphors to make it. "Mixed bomb" reappearance of the big string string of two small melodic mix. There is a "The tune lingered in the room. three days without a break". It will be through the analysis of the two versions, Mr Xu not only follow the original poetry AABB rhythm, but also in structure, sound and meaning aspects are also reproduced the original poetry style and content, but also in line with the principle of Newmark's semantic translation of "three beauty" charm, so be a stroke above. In the Bynner version, he will "string" and "small string" intermingled "were translated as" large strings "small strings in2"""Term ingled have no poetry words accurately reflected. Because of this poem.Agency, 2008: 15, 19.[9] Liu Jinlong, Wang Ying. Discussion on the English translation of ancient poetry appreciation [J]. Journal of Liaocheng University, 2004, (3). [10] Liu Miqing. Translation aesthetics theory [J] foreign language, 1996, (5). [11] Raffel, Burton.诗歌翻译的艺术[M].。
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翻译的种类自汉代佛经翻译开始，我国就有“直译”、“意译”之争，一直持续到现在。
所谓直译，就是在译文语言条件许可时，在译文中既保持原文的内容，又保持原文的形式。
汉语和英语两种语言存在共同之处，所以有些情况下直译是可能的。
但是，由于语言本身以及社会、文化等因素的差异，使用原文的形式无法表达原文的意思，这时就舍弃原文的形式，直接表达原文的意思，即意译。
纽马克(1988)根据译者侧重译出语还是译入语，把翻译方法分为以下几类：侧重译出语(程度由高到低)：·Word-for-word translation(逐字对译)·Literal translation(字面翻译)·Faithful translation(忠实翻译)·Semantic translation(语意翻译)侧重译入语(程度由低到高)：·Communicative translation(传意翻译)·Idiomatic translation(符合语言习惯的翻译)·Free translation(自由翻译)·Adaptation(改写)从逐字对译到改写是一个连续体，逐字对译与原文的形式最为对应，改写最强调译人语的流畅性。
与此类似，周兆祥根据“翻译的自由度”，把翻译分为以下几类：·逐字对译word-for-word translation)·字面翻译(1iteral translation)·语意翻译(semantic translation)·传意翻译(communicative translation)·编译（free translation)·改写(adaptation)可以通过下面一句话的翻译，体会几种翻译方法的区别：原文：Mr. Dewar slipped and fell outside his official Edinburgh residence on Tuesday morning．He picked himself up and went on to carry out two lunchtime engagements．(BBC news 11／10／2000)译文：逐字对译：杜瓦先生滑了和跌倒在外面他的官方爱丁堡居所在星期二早晨。
他拣自己起来和继续去实行两个午餐约定。
字面翻译：星期二早晨杜瓦先生滑倒在他的爱丁堡官邸外面。
他爬起来继续去参加两个午餐约会。
语意翻译：星期二早晨，杜瓦先生在爱丁堡官邸外滑倒了，但他仍爬起来继续去参加两个午餐活动。
传意翻译：杜瓦先生的官邸在爱丁堡。
星期二早晨，他不小心在屋外摔一跤。
不过他仍奋力爬起，去参加了两个午餐活动。
编译：杜瓦先生在爱丁堡有一座官邸。
星期二早晨，他刚出门就摔了一跤。
不过，他觉得没事，就爬起来继续参加当天的活动，午餐时还与两个团体进行了正式会谈。
改写：爱丁堡的早晨空气新鲜。
杜瓦先生喜欢晨练。
那天一大早，他穿着运动装出门，正要开始晨跑，不小心踩到一块香蕉皮上，跌倒在地。
他奋力爬起，打消跑步的念头，出门上班，午餐时还坚持参加了两个见面会。
（强调客观事实的非文学翻译，不宜进行这样的改写，因为有些细节没有事实根据）可以看出，从逐字对译到改写，译者的自由度越来越大，译文在形式上与原文的距离越来越远。
再举几个生活中见到的例子，说明翻译的不同种类：“请勿践踏草地”翻译为Please do not step on the grass!是照顾原文的翻译，翻译为Keep off the grass!是照顾译文的翻译。
“楼前不准停放车辆”翻译为No Parking in Front of the Building．是照顾原文的翻译；翻译为No Parking．是照顾译文的翻译；“妥善保存，遗失不补”翻译为Please safekeeping，lose no reissue．(上海某宾馆)是逐字翻译；翻译为Please keep it safe．No replacement if lost．或者Please keep it safe．Not replaceable if lost．大概属于字面翻译；翻译为Please keep this voucher in a safe place．It will not be replaced if lost．大概属于传意性翻译；而把“歌舞厅”翻译为sinner room(三亚某旅店)(注意不是singer)则是乱译(应为song and dance room) (sinner为“作孽之人”。
到那里唱歌跳舞的人也许真有不少作孽之人)。
虽然在理论上翻译方法可以分得很细，但实践中却不容易做到，或者说过细的区分没有必要。
纽马克在其翻译举例中，就只区分了semantic translation和communicative translation。
翻译方法分为几类并不重要，重要的是要知道，不同情况下可能需要采取不同的翻译方法，有时需要照顾原文，有时要照顾读者；可以是逐字翻译，可以较为自由，还可以对原文作较大幅度的调整。
在实际生活中，可以看到不同翻译方法的实例。
所以，每种方法都有其存在的必要性与合理性。
我认为，直译可以达意的，就直译；直译不能达意的，就意译；遇到特殊情况或委托人有明确要求，可以对原文进行必要的调整、增删，以至于改写。
Peter NewmarkPeter Newmark says in his A TEXTBOOK OF TRANSLATION, “However, the chief difficulties in translating are lexical, not grammatical—i.e. words, collocations and fixed phrased or idioms; these include neologisms and ‘unfindable’ words, which I deal with separately.Difficulties with words are of two kinds: (a)you do not understand them; (b)you find them hard to translate.If you cannot understand a word, it may be because all its possible meanings are not known to you, or because its meaning is determined by its unusual collocation or a reference elsewhere in the text.”彼得·纽马克还在他所著的《翻译探索》(Approach to Translation)中提出了“语义翻译”和“交际翻译”。
将文本按照语言的功能分为表达型文本(expressive text)、信息型文本(informative text)和呼唤型文本(vocative text)，并指出译者应针对不同的文本类型采用不同的翻译方法：以表达功能为主的文本采用语义翻译法，以信息功能或呼唤功能为主的文本采用交际翻译法。
语义翻译强调对原文和原作者的忠实；交际翻译则更重视原文内容的忠实再现，是以读者可接受的方式来实现的。
他还明确指出，语言的主要功能表现为表达型(即主观型或‘我’型)，描述或信息型(‘它’型)以及呼唤、指示或诱劝型(‘你’型)，并且所有文本都具有上述三大主要功能的一些综合特点(The main functions of language are expressive (the subjective or‘I’form)，the descriptive or informative (the‘it’form)，and the vocative or directive or persuasive (the‘you’form)．All texts have aspects of the expressive，the informative and the vocative function．)。
他的理论根据是语言学家布莱尔(Buler)和雅克布森(Jaclbson)的语言三大功能：表情功能(expressive function)信息功能(information function)和呼唤功能(vocative function)。
任何原作都有这三种功能。
不同的文体其侧重点各异，文学作品以表情为主，非文学文体以传递信息为主。
交际翻译侧重信息产生的效果，语义翻译侧重信息的内容。
同时，纽马克还按体裁将严肃文学作品、官方文告、自传文学、私人书信等归结于“表达型文本”；将自然科学、科学技术、工商经济等方面的文本、报告、文件、报刊文章、备忘录、会议记录等归入“信息型文本”；通告、说明书、公共宣传品、通俗作品等归为“呼唤型文本”。
根据Newmark(1988：45)的观点，翻译方法可以分为两大类型：以原语为主的方法和以译语为主的方法。
在这两大类型中，又可以根据不同的语言转换处理一．以原语为主的翻译方法上图中左边的四种翻译方法，从形式上完全一对一地逐字翻译到注重意义的语义翻译，均在不同程度上强调原文内容及其语言表达方式在译文中的再现。
下面我们按照自上而下的顺序，分别简要介绍这四种翻译方法。
1．逐字翻译逐字翻译(word-for-word translation)指译文字词和原文字词一对一对应的翻译，例如：(1)How old are you?A．怎么老是你?B．你多大年纪?(2)橱窗里摆着的是什么东西?A．Shop window in displayed is what thing?B．What’s that in the shop window?(3)好是很好，可是买这么多扇子干什么呀?A．Good is very good, but buy so many fans do what?B．That’s all well and good, but what are you buying so many fans for?(4)回国以后送给朋友。
做得多精细呀!A．Return country after present friends made how delicate!B．I’ll give them to my friends when I go home. Aren’t they delicately made?以上是对外汉语教学课本中的例句(范仲英1994：87)。