曼昆《经济学原理》重点整理
曼昆《经济学原理》重点笔记
曼昆<经济学原理> 重点笔记第一章个人做出决策的四个原理:1) 人们面临权衡取舍(做出决策的时候人们不得不在不同的目标之间做出取舍)2) 某种东西的成本是为了得到它而放弃的东西(比如读大学,要考虑到不能工作带来的工资损失)3) 理性人考虑边际量(比如应该读到什么时候才能拿到最好的工资,博士,硕士呵呵)4) 人们会对激励做出反应(比如去超市买东西很便宜,于是我们去买,结果买了很多的不需要的东西,反倒花了更多的钱)经济相互交易的三个原理:5) 贸易能使每个人的状况更好(想想如果没有贸易,我们还处于自然经济的状况,那么我们需要做所有的事情,需要去做冰箱,彩电……不可能吧。
没有贸易就没有竞争了,那么我们就可能在某一领域被人们垄断,想想封闭的中国,我们可能不能得到很多的先进的科技,但是我们现在和很多的国家贸易,这样我们可以享用更多的先进的技术)6) 市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法(这个东西从我学过的邓小平理论当中可以反复地看到,无形的手,价格!)7) 政府有的时候可以改善市场结果(我们需要政府来维持这个社会的治安……,抄一句:促进效率和促进公平〈尽管很多的时候他们是一对矛盾,有的时候政府也不一定能做到这一点〉市场失灵)整体经济如何运行的三个原理:8) 一国的生活水平取决于它生产的物品与劳务的能力(就是劳动生产率,你工作一个小时,那么你能够创造出多少的财富。
那么我们要提高生活水平,我们就需要去得到良好教育,现在我就在这么做,呵呵,拥有生产工具——我现在需要一台电脑,速度要快些,屏幕要液晶的更好,以及获取最好技术的机会——这我需要向导师和图书馆,师兄多多请教了,还要自己去争取机会!)9) 当政府发行了过多的货币时,物价上升(这个好理解,不就是通货膨胀么)10) 社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍(菲利普斯曲线——增加货币的供应量,可以至少短期的失业率〈其实我还是不懂为什么?〉,但是会造成通货膨胀)第二章像经济学家一样思考第一节作为科学家的经济学家为什么我们会把经济学家作为一个科学家来看待呢?经济学家同样的需要去观察世界,冷静地建立并且检验有关世界如何运行的各种理论。
曼昆《经济学原理》笔记
曼昆《经济学原理》汇总第一章个人做出决策的四个原理:1) 人们面临权衡取舍(做出决策的时候人们不得不在不同的目标之间做出取舍)2) 某种东西的成本是为了得到它而放弃的东西(比如读大学,要考虑到不能工作带来的工资损失)3) 理性人考虑边际量(比如应该读到什么时候才能拿到最好的工资,博士,硕士呵呵)4) 人们会对激励做出反应(比如去超市买东西很便宜,于是我们去买,结果买了很多的不需要的东西,反倒花了更多的钱)经济相互交易的三个原理:5) 贸易能使每个人的状况更好(想想如果没有贸易,我们还处于自然经济的状况,那么我们需要做所有的事情,需要去做冰箱,彩电……不可能吧。
没有贸易就没有竞争了,那么我们就可能在某一领域被人们垄断,想想封闭的中国,我们可能不能得到很多的先进的科技,但是我们现在和很多的国家贸易,这样我们可以享用更多的先进的技术)6) 市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法(这个东西从我学过的邓小平理论当中可以反复地看到,无形的手,价格!)7) 政府有的时候可以改善市场结果(我们需要政府来维持这个社会的治安……,抄一句:促进效率和促进公平〈尽管很多的时候他们是一对矛盾,有的时候政府也不一定能做到这一点〉市场失灵)整体经济如何运行的三个原理:8) 一国的生活水平取决于它生产的物品与劳务的能力(就是劳动生产率,你工作一个小时,那么你能够创造出多少的财富。
那么我们要提高生活水平,我们就需要去得到良好教育,现在我就在这么做,呵呵,拥有生产工具——我现在需要一台电脑,速度要快些,屏幕要液晶的更好,以及获取最好技术的机会——这我需要向导师和图书馆,师兄多多请教了,还要自己去争取机会!)9) 当政府发行了过多的货币时,物价上升(这个好理解,不就是通货膨胀么)10) 社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍(菲利普斯曲线——增加货币的供应量,可以至少短期的失业率〈其实我还是不懂为什么?〉,但是会造成通货膨胀)第二章像经济学家一样思考第一节作为科学家的经济学家为什么我们会把经济学家作为一个科学家来看待呢?经济学家同样的需要去观察世界,冷静地建立并且检验有关世界如何运行的各种理论。
曼昆《经济学原理》宏观部分重点
23一国收入的衡量一、经济的收入和支出·GDP衡量:经济中所有人的总收入和用于经济中物品与劳务产出的总支出。
·对一个整体经济而言,收入必定等于支出。
·GDP衡量货币流量。
·两种计算GDP方法:加总家庭对于物品和劳务的总支出或加总企业支付工资、租金和利润的总收入。
一、国内生产总值的衡量1、国内生产总值:在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与劳务的市场价值。
2、几点说明·GDP使用市场价格。
·GDP不包括非法生产与销售的东西和家庭内的生产和消费。
·GDP只包括最终物品的价值。
·GDP包括有形的物品和无形的劳务。
·GDP不包括过去(一年或一个季度之外)生产的东西的交易。
·用两种算法算出的GDP差额为统计误差。
3、其他收入衡量指标·国民生产总值GNP:一国永久居民所赚到的总收入。
=GDP+本国公民在国外赚到的收入-外国人在本国赚到的收入·国民生产净值NNP:=GNP–折旧(经济中设备和建筑物存量的磨损或消耗)·国民收入:一国居民在物品与劳务生产中赚到的总收入。
=NNP–间接的企业税+企业补贴·个人收入:家庭和非公司制企业得到的收入。
=国民收入–留存收益(公司获得但未支付给其所有者的收入)-公司所得税–对社会保障的支付+家庭从其持有的政府债券中得到的利息收入+家庭从政府转移支付项目中得到的收入三、GDP组成部分·GDP=消费+投资+政府购买+净出口=C+I+G+NX=Y·消费:家庭除购买新住房之外用于物品与劳务的支出。
·投资:用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出,包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出。
·政府购买(政府消费支出和总投资):地方、州和联邦政府用于物品与劳务的支出。
·转移支付:改变家庭收入却没有反映经济的生产,不用于交换现期生产的物品与劳务,不计入政府购买。
曼昆经济学原理考点
曼昆经济学原理考点
曼昆经济学原理是经济学教学的经典教材之一,其中包含了许多重要的经济学概念和理论。
以下是一些曼昆经济学原理的考点,旨在帮助学生更好地理解和掌握这门学科:
1. 稀缺性和选择:经济学的核心问题是资源的稀缺性和人们的选择行为。
人们面临着有限的资源,需要通过做出不同的选择来满足自己的需求和欲望。
2. 机会成本:做出选择意味着放弃其他选择,而放弃的选择所带来的成本被称为机会成本。
学会权衡利弊,考虑机会成本是经济学分析的重要方法。
3. 边际效益和边际成本:边际效益是指增加一单位生产或消费所带来的额外收益,而边际成本则是指增加一单位生产或消费所需的额外成本。
了解边际效益和边际成本对于优化资源配置至关重要。
4. 供求关系和市场均衡:供求关系决定了商品或服务的价格和数量。
当供求相等时,市场达到均衡状态,价格和数量稳定。
5. 市场失灵:尽管市场通常可以有效分配资源,但有时会出现市场失灵的情况,例如垄断、外部性和公共物品等。
了解市场失灵的原因和后果,以及可能采取的政策措施,是经济学的重要内容。
6. 政府干预:政府在市场中扮演着重要的角色。
了解政府如何
通过税收、补贴、管制等手段来影响经济活动,并了解这些干预的经济效果,是经济学的研究内容之一。
7. 经济增长和经济循环:经济增长是衡量一个国家经济发展水平的指标,经济循环则指的是经济活动的周期性波动。
了解经济增长和经济循环的原因和影响因素,对于理解和分析经济现象至关重要。
以上仅是曼昆经济学原理的一些考点,希望能帮助学生更好地学习和应用经济学原理。
曼昆《经济学原理》重点及答案
一、名词解释:(每题3分,共45分)二、简答题:(每题5分,共25分)三、图形题:(每题5分,共15分)四、案例题:(每题15分,共15分)1理性人 : 指系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标的人。
理性人是经济研究中所假设的,在一定条件下具有典型理性行为的经济活动主体,可以是消费者、厂商、也可以是从事任何其他经济活动的人。
2市场失灵:指一些不受管制的市场不能有效地配置资源。
3产权:指个人拥有并控制稀缺资源的能力。
4互补品:一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求减少的两种物品。
5均衡数量:当价格调整到使供给与需求平衡时的供给量与需求量。
6富有弹性:如果一种商品的需求量对价格变动的反应大,可以说这种物品的需求是富有弹性的。
7生产者剩余:指卖者出售一种物品或服务得到的量减去卖者的成本。
8交易成本:各方在协议与遵守协议过程中所发生的成本。
9私人物品:既有排他性又有竞争性的物品。
10搭便车行为:得到一种物品利益但避开为此支付的行为。
11隐性成本:不要求企业支出货币的投入成本。
12经济利润:企业的总收益减去生产所售物品与劳务的所有机会成本(显性的和隐性的)13固定成本:不随产量变动而变动的成本。
14可变成本:随产量变动而变动的成本。
15规模经济:长期平均总成本随产量增加而减少的特性。
16效率:资源配置使社会所有成员得到的总剩余最大化的性质。
17市场势力:一个经济活动者(或经济活动者的一个小集团)对市场价格有显著影响的能力。
18替代品:一种物品的价格上升引起另一种物品需求的增加的两种物品。
19供给量:生产者在一定时期内,在各种可能的价格下愿意而且能够提出出售的该种商品的数量。
20需求的价格弹性:一种物品需求量对其价格变动反应程度的衡量,用需求量变动的百分比除以价格不变动的百分比计算。
21必需品和奢侈品:必需品倾向于需求缺乏弹性,而奢侈品倾向于需求富有弹性。
一种物品是必需品还是奢侈品并不取决于物品本身固有的性质,而取决于买者的偏好。
曼昆十大经济学原理
曼昆十大经济学原理
1.人们面临抉择的权衡原理:人们不得不在有限的资源中进行抉择,迫使他们在不同的选项之间做出权衡,以满足自己的需求和欲望。
2.成本的机会成本原理:做出决策时,人们需要思考所放弃的最佳选择,即机会成本。
每个决策都有机会成本,因为做出某个选择就意味着失去了其他可能的选择。
3.边际思考原理:人们在做决策时通常会考虑边际效益,即目前的决策对于目标的增加情况。
边际效益是指增加或减少一个单位的行动所带来的额外收益或成本。
4.扰动的均衡原理:市场经济中,供求关系在价格波动中不断调整,从而形成市场的均衡。
当供求关系受到扰动时,市场将通过价格调整重新达到均衡。
5.交易的互利原理:人们进行交易是出于互利的动机。
交易可以使参与者都受益,因为他们可以通过交换获得他们更需要的东西,从而提高各自的福利。
6.价格的影响原理:价格是供求关系的反映,供求关系的变化会导致价格的变化。
价格的变动会影响到人们的决策行为,从而影响市场的运作。
7.市场的效率原理:在理想的市场条件下,自由竞争将导致资源的有效配置。
市场能够自主调整供求关系,实现资源的最优
分配。
8.市场失灵原理:尽管市场是有效的资源分配机制,但在某些
情况下,市场可能会出现失灵。
市场失灵可能是由于外部性、公共物品等因素导致的。
9.政府干预原理:政府在市场经济中扮演着监管和干预的角色,以修正市场失灵和促进经济的增长和稳定。
10.经济增长原理:经济增长是国家或地区经济总量的增加,
通过改进劳动生产率、技术进步和资本积累等因素实现。
经济增长对于提高人民生活水平和社会繁荣至关重要。
曼昆经济学十大原理
曼昆经济学十大原理
1.人们面临权衡取舍的原理:由于资源的稀缺性,人们不得不
在不同的选择之间进行权衡取舍。
2.成本的概念:人们为追求某种目标而付出的牺牲被视为成本,并且包括了机会成本和实际成本。
3.边际分析的原则:人们通过比较额外成本和额外收益来做出
决策。
4.人们会对激励做出反应:人们的行为往往会受到经济激励的
影响。
5.市场和交换:市场能够使买卖双方通过交换获得更大的利益。
6.市场的效率:市场机制能够有效地分配资源,以满足人们的
需求。
7.市场失灵的原因:市场并不总是完美无缺,存在导致市场失
灵的原因,如外部性和市场垄断等。
8.政府的作用:政府在修补市场失灵方面扮演着重要角色,例
如通过实施税收和监管等手段来纠正市场失灵。
9.经济增长的重要性:经济增长能够改善人们的生活水平,提
高国家的整体福利。
10.全球化的影响:全球化对国际经济关系产生了深远影响,
包括增加了国际贸易、资本流动和技术转移等。
曼昆《经济学原理》整理
曼昆《经济学原理》整理《经济学原理》是经济学家尼古拉斯·曼昆(N. Gregory Mankiw)的经济学教材,这本教材包含宏观经济学和微观经济学两个分册。
在本文中,我将主要整理《经济学原理》的微观经济学分册。
《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》是一本系统而经典的微观经济学教材。
教材中的内容通俗易懂,生动有趣,深入浅出,非常适合初学者学习和理解。
微观经济学研究个体决策者如何进行决策,以及这些决策如何影响市场的供求关系和资源配置。
教材分为十章,每一章都涉及到微观经济学的重要概念和原理。
以下是每章的主要内容概述:第一章介绍了经济学和经济思维的基本概念。
它解释了经济学的定义、研究方法和一些重要的经济原理,如稀缺性和成本。
第二章介绍了供求关系和市场机制的基本概念。
它解释了需求和供给曲线的性质,以及市场均衡和价格调整的过程。
第三章讨论了价格弹性和收入弹性的概念。
它解释了价格弹性和收入弹性如何衡量市场对价格和收入变化的敏感程度。
第四章讨论了消费者行为的理论和决策过程。
它解释了消费者如何进行最优消费决策,以及如何通过边际效用和限制性预算来衡量消费者福利。
第五章探讨了生产者行为的理论和决策过程。
它解释了生产者如何进行最优生产决策,并介绍了生产函数、边际产出和成本曲线的概念。
第六章介绍了市场失灵的原因和解决办法。
它讨论了市场外部性、公共物品和不完全竞争的问题,以及政府在解决市场失灵方面的角色。
第七章讨论了消费者剩余和生产者剩余的概念。
它解释了消费者剩余和生产者剩余如何衡量买家和卖家对交易的满意程度。
第八章讨论了纳什均衡和博弈理论的概念。
它解释了博弈理论如何帮助我们理解决策者之间的相互作用和策略选择。
第九章介绍了垄断和垄断竞争的市场结构。
它解释了垄断者如何通过价格和产量限制来影响市场,并讨论了垄断竞争下的市场行为。
第十章介绍了资源市场的概念和原理。
它解释了劳动市场和资本市场如何确定工资和利率,并讨论了市场竞争对工资和利率的影响。
经济学原理 曼昆版名词解释及重要知识点
第一章:稀缺性:社会资源的有限性经济学:研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源。
效率:社会能从其稀缺资源中获得最大利益的特性平等:经济成果在社会成员中平均分配机会成本:为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西理性人:系统而有目的地尽其最大努力实现其目标的人(效用最大化)边际变动:对行动计划的微小增量调整激励:引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西市场经济:当许多企业和家庭在物品与劳务市场上相互交易时,通过它们的分散决策配置资源的经济。
产权:个人拥有并配置稀缺资源的能力市场失灵:市场本身不能有效配置资源的情况外部性:一个人的行为对旁观者福利无补偿的影响市场势力:单个经济活动者对市场价格有显著影响生产率:每一单位劳动投入所生产的物品与劳务数量。
通货膨胀:经济中物价总水平的上升。
经济周期:就业和生产等经济活动的波动。
十大原理人们面临取舍——稀缺性某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西——机会成本理性人考虑边际量——比较边际利益与边际成本人们会对激励做出反应贸易可以是每个人的状况变得更好市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法政府有时可以改善市场结果一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与劳务的能力。
政府发行过多货币时,物价上升。
——通货膨胀社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍第二章循环流量图:说明货币如何通过市场在家庭与企业之间流动的直观经济模型。
生产可能性边界:表面在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时,一个经济所能生产的产品数量的各种组合的图形。
微观经济学:研究家庭和企业如何做出决策,以及它们如何在市场上相互交易。
宏观经济学:研究整体经济现象,包括通货膨胀,失业和经济增长。
实证表述:试图描述世界是什么样子的观点。
最低工资引起失业可证实或证伪规范表述:世界应该是什么样子的观点政府应该提高最低工资无法证明第三章绝对优势:用比另一个生产者更少的投入生产某种物品的能力比较优势:一个生产者以低于另一个生产者的机会成本生产一种物品的行为。
进口品:国外生产而在国内销售的物品出口品:在国内生产而在国外销售的物品贸易可以使每个人的状况变好,因为它使人们可以专门从事他们具有比较优势的活动。
曼昆《经济学原理》(微观经济学分册)整理
第1章经济学十大原理1.经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途,以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
稀缺性是指社会拥有的资源是有限的,因此不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与服务。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在,就存在着资源的有限性和人类欲望的无限性之间的矛盾。
因此,经济学家研究人们如何做出决策,如何相互影响以及分析影响整个经济的力量和趋势。
经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
2.人们如何做出决策由于-个经济的行为反映了组成这个经济的个人的行为,所以我们的经济学学习就应该从个人做出决策的四个原理开始:原理一:人们而临权衡取舍为了得到一件喜爱的东西,通常就不得不放弃另一件喜爱的东西。
做出决策要求人们在一个目标与另-个目标之间权衡取舍。
效率(efficient):是指社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最大的利益。
平等(equality):是指将这些利益平均地分配给社会成员。
原理二:某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西在很多情况下,某种行动的成本并不像乍看时那明显。
一种东西的机会成本是为了得到这种东曲所放弃的东西。
机会成本(opportunity):为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。
原理三:理性人考虑边际量经济学家通常假设,人是理性的。
在机会成本为既定的条件下,理性人(rational people)系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标。
边际变动(marginal change):对现有行动计划的微小增量调整。
理性人通常比较边际收益(marginal benefit)与边际成本(marginal cost)来做决策。
当且仅当一种行为的边际收益大于边际成本,一个理性决策者才会采取这种行为。
原理四:人们会对激胁做出反应激励(incentive)是引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西(如惩罚或奖励的预期)。
由于理性人通过比较成本与收益做出决策,所以,他们会对激励做出反应。
当成本或收益变动时,他们的行为也会随之发生改变。
曼昆经济学原理微观经济学笔记
曼昆经济学原理微观经济学笔记曼昆《经济学原理——微观经济学》笔记目录一、经济学的十大原理: (1)二、循环流量图(资本循环、要素循环) (1)三、实证分析与规范分析 (1)四、绝对优势与比较优势 (1)五、几种价格弹性与商品关系 (2)六、需求价格弹性 (2)七、政府限价对市场的影响 (3)八、税收归宿(TAX INCIDENCE) (3)九、曼昆的市场有效(EFFICIENT) (3)十、税收的代价 (4)十一、国际贸易与关税 (4)十二、公共部门——外部性 (5)十三、公共物品和公有资源 (7)十四、市场结构 (7)十五、寡头与古诺模型 (8)十六、生产要素市场(劳动力市场) (8)十七、减少贫困的政策 (8)十八、无差异曲线与收入替代效应(斯勒茨基方程) (9)十九、博弈论 (10)二十、微观经济学前沿 (11)一、经济学的十大原理:①人们面临权衡的取舍。
②某种东西的成本是为了取得它所放弃的东西。
(也就是机会成本)③理性人考虑边际量。
(理性人通过比较边际收益与边际成本来做出选择)④人们会对激励做出反应。
⑤贸易能使每个人都获得好处。
⑥市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法。
⑦政府有时可以改善市场结果。
(市场失灵时存在外部性或市场力量)⑧一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与劳务的能力。
⑨当政府发行了过多的货币时,物价上升。
⑩社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍。
二、循环流量图(资本循环、要素循环)实证分析是描述性的,企图描述世界是什么的观点。
规范分析是命令性的,企业描述世界应该是什么。
例子:(实证分析)最低工资法引起了失业。
(规范分析)政府应提高最低工资。
四、绝对优势与比较优势案例:假设中国工人每小时能生产50个烧饼或4件毛衣;英国工人每小时能生产40个烧饼或2件毛衣。
烧饼毛衣名称产量机会成本产量机会成本中国50 0.08 4 12.5英国40 0.05 2 20数量价格●有弹性无弹性单位弹性从上图可以看出,中国在生产烧饼和毛衣上都有绝对优势。
曼昆经济学原理摘抄笔记
第一篇1) 通过对理论的检验表明,该理论在许多情况下使用(但并不是在一切情况下都适用),由于理论成功解释了人们所观察到的现象,所以仍然有学习的价值。
2) 经济学实验是实验的替代品,是历史所提供的自然试验。
3) 货币量变动的长期效应(假设所有价格完全可变)和短期效应(假设价格完全固定)4) 通过假设撇开与所研究问题无关的许多经济细节,所有模型,都为了加深我们对现实的理解而简化了现实。
5) 循环流量图:说明货币如何通过市场在家庭和企业之间流动的直观经济模型。
6) 生产可能性边界的斜率与工人的熟练程度7) 经济学家的双重身份:实证是科学家,规范是政策顾问。
8) 经济学家主张各异的原因:1、对世界如何运行的不同实证理论的正确性看法不一致;2、不同的价值观。
9) 应该征收收入税还是消费税?10) 当一个未用任何坐标轴表示的变量发生变动时,曲线就会移动。
当图形某个坐标轴上的某个变量变动时,曲线并不移动。
这种变动称为沿着曲线的变动。
11) 一个量对另一个量变动的反应用斜率来表征。
12) 从图形中无法得出因果关系,因为有1忽略的变量(打火机没有引起癌症,因未同时确保其余变量保持不变)2反向因果关系(旅行车没有引起家庭人口增加)13) 生产可能性边界是指在资源与技术给定的情况下,一个社会最多能够生产的产量的各种组合14) 专业化和贸易使人获益的原因是它使人们可以专门从事他们具有比较优势的活动。
15) 如果生产者生产一种物品所需要的投入较少,就可以说该生产者在生产该种物品上具有绝对优势。
16) 一个生产者以低于另一个生产者的机会成本生产一种物品的行为。
第二篇1) 如果你想知道,任何一件事件或政策将如何影响经济,你应该先考虑它将如何影响供求2) 香烟和大麻是替代品还是互补品?3) 供给弹性表明企业对价格变动的反应快慢程度。
4) 丰年谷贱伤农。
农业技术的进步将使农民的收入降低,进而导致农民离开农业5) 立法者可以决定税收来自买者的口袋还是来自卖者的口袋,但他们不能用立法规定税收的真正负担。
曼昆经济学原理重点
曼昆经济学原理重点
曼昆经济学原理重点包括:
1. 人们面临权衡和利益:人们在做决策时,需要考虑不同选择之间的权衡和利益。
他们会根据自己的偏好和目标,选择最有利于自己的方案。
2. 机会成本:做某个选择意味着放弃其他选择。
机会成本是指因选择某个方案而放弃的所有其他可能的收益。
3. 边际分析:人们在做决策时,通常会考虑每个额外单位的收益和成本。
边际分析帮助他们评估做一个决策对整体效果的影响。
4. 市场机制:市场经济通过供求关系和价格机制来分配资源。
价格在市场上起到引导资源配置和决策的作用,供求关系影响价格的形成。
5. 政府干预:有时候市场机制无法有效分配资源,这时政府会进行干预。
政府通过制定法律、实施税收和补贴、监管市场等方式来改善市场效率。
6. 经济增长:经济增长是指国民经济总体规模的扩大。
经济增长可以通过提高劳动生产率、技术创新、资本积累等方式实现。
7. 通货膨胀和失业:通货膨胀是物价普遍上涨的现象,失业是劳动力未能充分就业的状况。
经济学原理研究通货膨胀和失业
之间的关系,以及如何平衡它们。
8. 国际贸易和全球化:国际贸易促进了不同国家之间的资源和产品的交流。
全球化则进一步加强了不同国家之间的联系和依赖。
9. 行为经济学:行为经济学研究人们在经济决策中的行为和心理特征。
它提供了对传统经济理论的补充和改进。
以上是曼昆经济学原理的重点内容,其中没有使用与标题相同的文字。
(完整word版)曼昆经济学原理复习大纲(超全)
宏观经济学:研究整体经济现象,包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。
实证表述:试图描述世界是什么样子的观点(描述性,科学家)。
规范表述:试图描述世界应该是什么样子的观点(规范性,政策顾问)。
科学家试图去解释世界,政策顾问试图去改善世界。
经济学家意见分歧的原因:1.科学判断的不同(征税是根据收入还是消费)
第九章应用:国际贸易(重点)
世界价格:一种物品在世界市场上所通行的价格。
出口国分析:
当一国允许贸易并成为一种物品的出口者时,国内该物品生产者的状况变好了,而国内该物品消费者的状况变坏了。
从赢家收益超过了输家损失的意义上说,贸易使一国的经济福利增加了。
进口国分析:
当一国允许贸易并成为一种物品的进口国时,国内该物品消费者的状况变好了,而国内该物品生产者的状况变坏了。
需求量:买者愿意并且能够购买的一种物品的数量。
需求定理:认为在其他条件不变时,一种物品的价格上升,对该物品的需求量减少的观点。(其他条件:决定需求的非价格因素)
市场需求是个人需求之和。
需求曲线的移动(重点):(需求增加需求减少)
a.收入
正常物品:在其他条件相同时,收入增加引起需求量增加的物品。
低档物品:在其他条件相同时,收入增加引起需求量减少的物品。
富有弹性:价格上升,总收益减少。
单位弹性:价格上升,总收益不变。
尽管线性需求曲线的斜率是不变的,但弹性并不是不变的。这是因为斜率是两个变量变动的比率,而弹性是两个变量变动的百分比的比率。
在价格低而数量高的各点上,需求曲线是缺乏弹性的;在价格高而数量低的各点上,需求曲线是富有弹性的。
需求收入弹性:衡量一种物品需求量对消费者收入变动反应程度的指标。(正常物品是正数,低档物品是负数)
曼昆《经济学原理》基本知识点
曼昆《经济学原理》基本知识点“曼昆《经济学原理》”是由美国著名经济学家凯文曼昆编写的一本经典经济学书籍,也是全球范围内最受欢迎的经济学教科书之一。
凯文曼昆编写的《经济学原理》书籍涵盖了经济学的基本原理,具有非常广大的教育意义。
下面我们将以此书为核心,深入探讨其中包含的基本知识点。
首先,《经济学原理》涵盖了宏观经济学的基本原理,包括以下主要内容:1)宏观经济的定义及其基本理论;2)通货膨胀与通货贬值;3)货币政策;4)财政政策;5)金融体系;6)国际经济。
接下来,我们将细致地介绍这些内容。
1)宏观经济学:宏观经济学是研究一个国家(及其他国家)宏观经济活动的经济理论,它主要研究经济系统中属于政府的活动,其中包括财政政策、货币政策、行政政策等。
宏观经济学的主要内容包括:宏观经济政策的实施;宏观经济指标的分析;经济相关的实验研究;经济发展战略的论证。
2)通货膨胀与通货贬值:通货膨胀是指在一定时间内消费者物价的上涨,利率上涨和货币贬值,通常被认为是经济增长的一种表现。
通货贬值是指在一定时期内货币购买力的下降,通常是由于货币发行量过多而导致的。
3)货币政策:货币政策是政府采取的一种措施,旨在控制货币流通,以实现改善经济结构、稳定物价水平和促进经济增长的目的。
货币政策的主要内容包括:实行扩张性或紧缩性货币政策;实施货币供应管制;改变利率的结构和水平;调整货币供应量;改变货币流通模式;实施汇率改革政策;实施社会货币政策;实施外汇管制政策等。
4)财政政策:财政政策是政府采取的一种措施,旨在与货币政策相结合,以实现改善经济结构、稳定物价水平和促进经济增长的目的。
财政政策的主要内容包括:税收体系改革;改变税率水平;改变税制政策;调整财政支出;创新财政政策;实施政府债务政策;实施经济金融政策等。
5)金融体系:金融体系是指一群个体和组织之间形成的一种金融关系,它能够促进经济发展,为经济活动提供必要的资金。
金融体系的主要内容包括:金融市场的发展形态;金融机构的分工与职能;金融机构的组织结构;金融监管机构的建立;金融创新的推动等。
曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理.
1Q4Why should policy makers think about incentives?Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to the policies they put in place. The text's example of seat belts shows that policy actions can have quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a very different type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knives in steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives.Q6what does the invisible hand of the marketplace do?The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and firms are all acting in their own self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole.2Q1How is economics like a science?Economics is like a science because economists use the scientific method. They devise theories, collect data, and then analyze these data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories about how the world works. Economists use theory and observation like other scientists, but they are limited in their ability to run controlled experiments. Instead, they must rely on natural experiments.Q5 Use a production possibilities frontier to describe the idea of “efficiency”? The idea of efficiency is that an outcome is efficient if the economy is getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available. In terms of the production possibilities frontier, an efficient point is a point on the frontier, such as point A in Figure 4. A point inside the frontier, such as point B, is inefficient since more of one good could be produced without reducing the production of another good.Q7What is the difference between a positive and a normative statement? Give an example of that.Positive statements are descriptive and make a claim about how the world is, while normative statements are prescriptive and make a claim about how the world ought to be. Here is an example. Positive: A rapid growth rate of money is the cause of inflation. Normative: The government should keep the growth rate of money low.3Q1 Explain how absolute advantage and comparative advantage differ.Absolute advantage reflects a comparison of the productivity of one person, firm, or nation to that of another, while comparative advantage is based on the relative opportunity costs of the persons, firms, or nations. While a person, firm, or nation may have an absolute advantage in producing every good, they can't have a comparative advantage in every good.Q4Will a nation tend to export or import goods to Question2.A nation will export goods for which it has a comparative advantage because it has a smaller opportunity cost of producing those goods. As a result, citizens of all nations are able to consume quantities of goods that are outside their production possibilitiesfrontiers.4Q5Propeye’s income declines, and as a result, he buys more spinach. Is spinach an inferior or a normal goods? What happens to Popeye’s demand curve for spinach?Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him. Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the decrease in his income.Q8 Dose a change in producers’ technology lead to a movement along the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the supply curve or a shift in the supply curve?A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads to a movement along the supply curve.Q9 Define the equilibrium of a market. Describe the forces that move a market towards its equilibrium.The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below the equilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can raise their price without losing customers. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.Q11 Describe the role of prices in market economies.Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If the price is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.5Q2 List and explain the four determinants of the price elasticity of demand discussed in the chapter.The determinants of the price elasticity of demand include how available close substitutes are, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, how broadly defined the market is, and the time horizon. Luxury goods have greater price elastic ties than necessities, goods with close substitutes have greater elastic ties, goods in more narrowly defined markets have greater elastic ties, and the elasticity of demand is higher the longer the time horizon.Q4 On a supply-and-demand diagram, show equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers.Figure 1 presents a supply-and-demand diagram, showing equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers. Total revenue equals the equilibrium price times the equilibrium quantity, which is the area of the rectangle shown in the figure.Figure 16Q2Which causes a shortage of a good—a price ceiling or a price floor? Which causes a surplus?A shortage of a good arises when there is a binding price ceiling. A surplus of a good arises when there is a binding price floor.Q6How does a tax on a good affect the price paid by buyers, and the quantity sold?A tax on a good raises the price buyers pay, lowers the price sellers receive, and reduces the quantity sold.Q7What determines how the burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers? Why?The burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers depending on the elasticity of demand and supply. Elasticity represents the willingness of buyers or sellers to leave the market, which in turns depends on their alternatives. When a good is taxed, the side of the market with fewer good alternatives cannot easily leave the market and thus bears more of the burden of the tax.7Q1Explain how buyer’s willingness to pay, consumer’ surplus, and the demand curve are related.Buyers' willingness to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and above the price, which equals each buyer's willingness to pay less the price of the good.Q2 Explain how seller’s costs, producer’s surplus, and the supply curve are related.Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price minus each sellers' costs.Figure 413Q2 Give an example of an opportunity cost that accountant might not count as a cost. Why would the accountant ignore the cost?An accountant would not count the owner’s opportunity cost of alternative employment as an accounting cost. An example is given in the text in which Helen runs a cookie business, but she could instead work as a computer programmer. Because she's working in her cookie factory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour as a computer programmer. The accountant ignores this opportunity cost because no money flow occurs. But the cost is relevant to Helen's decision to run the cookie factory.Q3What is marginal product, and what does it means if it is diminishing? Marginal product is the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input. Diminishing marginal product means that the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.Q8Defind economies of scale and explain why they might arise. Define diseconomies of scale and explain why then might arise.Economies of scale exist when long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies of scale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of coordination problems inherent in a large organization.14Q2Draw the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price, explain how the firm chooses the level of output that maximizes profit. Figure 2 shows the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price (such as P*), the level of output that maximizes profit is the output where marginal cost equals price (Q*), as long as price is greater than average variable cost at that point (in the short run), or greater than average total cost (in the long run).Figure 2Q6 Does a firm’s price equal marginal cost in the short run, in the long run, or both? Explain.The firm's price equals the minimum of average total cost only in the long run. In the short run, price may be greater than average total cost, in which case the firm is making profits, or price may be less than average total cost, in which case the firm is making losses. But the situation is different in the long run. If firms are making profits, other firms will enter the industry, which will lower the price of the good. If firms are making losses, they will exit the industry, which will raise the price of the good. Entry or exit continues until firms are making neither profits nor losses. At that point, price equals average total cost.15Q3Why is monopolist’s marginal revenue less than the price of its goods? Can marginal revenue be negative? Explain.A monopolist's marginal revenue is less than the price of its product because: (1) its demand curve is the market demand curve, so (2) to increase the amount sold, the monopolist must lower the price of its good for every unit it sells. (3) This cut in prices reduces revenue on the units it was already selling.A monopolist's marginal revenue can be negative because to get purchasers to buy an additional unit of the good, the firm must reduce its price on all units of the good. The fact that it sells a greater quantity increases revenue, but the decline in price decreases revenue. The overall effect depends on the elasticity of the demand curve. If the demand curve is inelastic, marginal revenue will be negative.Q4 Draw the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curve for a monopolist. Show the profit-maximizing level of output. Show the profit-maximizing price.Figure 1 shows the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curves for a monopolist. The intersection of the marginal-revenue and marginal-cost curves determines the profit-maximizing level of output, Q m. The demand curve then shows the profit-maximizing price, P m.Figure 116Q1If a group of sellers could form a cartel, what quantity and price would they try to set?If a group of sellers could form a cartel, they would try to set quantity and price like amonopolist. They would set quantity at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and set price at the corresponding point on the demand curve.Q5What is the prisoners’ dilemma and what does it have to do with oligopoly? The prisoners' dilemma is a game between two people or firms that illustrates why it is difficult for opponents to cooperate even when cooperation would make them all better off. Each person or firm has a great incentive to cheat on any cooperative agreement to make himself or itself better off.17Q2 Draw a diagram of the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. How is price related to average total cost? How is price related to marginal cost?In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1 and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is making profits because at quantity Q1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC). Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causing the demand curve to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR2. The result is a decline in quantity to Q2, at which point the price (P2) equals average total cost (ATC), so profits are now zero.Figure 223Q1 Explain why an economy’s income must equal its expenditure.An economy's income must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyer and a seller. Thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers.24Q2 Describe the three problems that make the consumer price index an imperfect measure of the cost of living.The three problems in the consumer price index as a measure of the cost of living are: (1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive; (2) the introduction of new goods, which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.25Q2List and describe four determinants of productivity.The four determinants of productivity are: (1) physical capital, which is the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services; (2) human capital, which consists of the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided by nature; and (4) technological knowledge, which issociety’s understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services.Questions are chosen from problems and applications.Chapter 1: Q9By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores more quickly. If you divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than it would take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores.Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers. Then Spain and France can both benefit if Spanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine, and they exchange some wine for some clothes. Chapter 2: Q2a. Figure 6 shows a production possibilities frontier between guns and butter. It is bowed out because when most of the economy’s resources are being used to produce butter, the frontier is steep and when most of the economy’s resources are being used to produce guns, the frontier is very flat. When the economy is producing a lot of guns, workers and machines best suited to making butter are being used to make guns, so each unit of guns given up yields a large increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is flat. When the economy is producing a lot of butter, workers and machines best suited to making guns are being used to make butter, so each unit of guns given up yields a small increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is steep.b. Point A is impossible for the economy to achieve; it is outside the production possibilities frontier. Point B is feasible but inefficient because it’s inside the production possibilities frontier.Figure 6c. The Hawks might choose a point like H, with many guns and not much butter. The Doves might choose a point like D, with a lot of butter and few guns.d. If both Hawks and Doves reduced their desired quantity of guns by the same amount, the Hawks would get a bigger peace dividend because the production possibilities frontier is much steeper at point H than at point D. As a result, the reduction of a given number of guns, starting at point H, leads to a much larger increase in the quantity of butter produced than when starting at point D.Chapter 3: Q4a. Since a Canadian worker can make either two cars a year or 30 bushels of wheat, the opportunity cost of a car is 15 bushels of wheat. Similarly, the opportunity cost of a bushel of wheat is 1/15 of a car. The opportunity costs are the reciprocals of eachother.b. See Figure 4. If all 10 million workers produce two cars each, they produce a total of 20 million cars, which is the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. If all 10 million workers produce 30 bushels of wheat each, they produce a total of 300 million bushels, which is the horizontal intercept of the production possibilities frontier. Since the tradeoff between cars and wheat is always the same, the production possibilities frontier is a straight line.If Canada chooses to consume 10 million cars, it will need 5 million workers devoted to car production. That leaves 5 million workers to produce wheat, who will produce a total of 150 million bushels (5 million workers times 30 bushels per worker). This is shown as point A on Figure 4.c. If the United States buys 10 million cars from Canada and Canada continues to consume 10 million cars, then Canada will need to produce a total of 20 million cars. So Canada will be producing at the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. But if Canada gets 20 bushels of wheat per car, it will be able to consume 200 million bushels of wheat, along with the 10 million cars. This is shown as point B in the figure. Canada should accept the deal because it gets the same number of cars and 50 million more bushes of wheat.Figure 4Chapter 4: Q1a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. This can be seen in Figure 6 as a shift to the left in the supply curve for oranges. The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.b. People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so demand for Caribbean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer people travel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are more pleasant. The result, as shown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of Caribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figure shows.Figure 6a Figure 7bc. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected. Sincemuch oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8. The result is a rise in the equilibrium price of gasoline. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating a gas-guzzling automobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will not find Cadillacs as attractive. In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them. The result is that the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.Figure 8c Figure 9c Chapter 5: Q2a. For business travelers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(2,000 - 1,900)/1,950]/[(250 - 200)/225] = 0.05/0.22 = 0.23. For vacationers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(800 - 600)/700] / [(250 - 200)/225] = 0.29/0.22 = 1.32.b. The price elasticity of demand for vacationers is higher than the elasticity for business travelers because vacationers can choose more easily a different mode of transportation (like driving or taking the train). Business travelers are less likely to do so since time is more important to them and their schedules are less adaptable. Chapter 6: Q2a. The imposition of a binding price floor in the cheese market is shown in Figure 3. In the absence of the price floor, the price would be P1 and the quantity would be Q1. With the floor set at P f, which is greater than P1, the quantity demanded is Q2, while quantity supplied is Q3, so there is a surplus of cheese in the amount Q3– Q2.b. The farmers’ complaint that their total revenue has declined is correct if demand is elastic. With elastic demand, the percentage decline in quantity would exceed the percentage rise in price, so total revenue would decline.c. If the government purchases all the surplus cheese at the price floor, producers benefit and taxpayers lose. Producers would produce quantity Q3 of cheese, and their total revenue would increase substantially. But consumers would buy only quantity Q2 of cheese, so they are in the same position as before. Taxpayers lose because they would be financing the purchase of the surplus cheese through higher taxes.Figure 3aChapter 7: Q8a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases. The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G – B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Since consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.Figure 14A Figure 15bb. Since adding machines are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that people substitute computers for adding machines, shifting the demand for adding machines to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of adding machines. Consumer surplus in the adding-machine market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Adding machine producers are sad about technological advance in computers because their producer surplus declines.c. Since software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The result is anincrease in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B, a net change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richest men, since his company produces a lot of software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.Figure 16Chapter 13: Q4a. The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:Hours Fish FixedCost VariableCostTotalCostMarginalProduct0 $10$0$10 ---1 10 105 15102 18 10 10 20 83 24 10 15 25 64 28 10 20 30 45 30 10 25 25 2function becomes flatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginal product.Figure 7b Figure 8c c. The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing.Figure 8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It slopes up because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time?each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish.Chapter 14: Q9a. Figure 9 illustrates the situation in the U.S. textile industry. With no international trade, the market is in long-run equilibrium. Supply intersects demand at quantity Q1 and price $30, with a typical firm producing output q1.Figure 9b. The effect of imports at $25 is that the market supply curve follows the old supply curve up to a price of $25, then becomes horizontal at that price. As a result, demand exceeds domestic supply, so the country imports textiles from other countries. The typical domestic firm now reduces its output from q1 to q2, incurring losses, since the large fixed costs imply that average total cost will be much higher than the price.c. In the long run, domestic firms will be unable to compete with foreign firms because their costs are too high. All the domestic firms will exit the industry and other countries will supply enough to satisfy the entire domestic demand.Chapter 15: Q4a. Figure 5 illustrates the market for groceries when there are many competing supermarkets with constant marginal cost. Output is Q C, price is P C, consumer surplus is area A, producer surplus is zero, and total surplus is area A.Figure 5aFigure 6bb. If the supermarkets merge, Figure 6 illustrates the new situation. Quantity declines from Q C to Q M and price rises to P M. Area A in Figure 5 is equal to area B + C + D + E + F in Figure 6. Consumer surplus is now area B + C, producer surplus is area D + E, and total surplus is area B + C + D + E. Consumers transfer the amount of area D + E to producers and the deadweight loss is area F.Chapter 16: Q2a. OPEC members were trying to reach an agreement to cut production so they could raise the price.b. They were unable to agree on cutting production because each country has an incentive to cheat on any agreement. The turmoil is a decline in the price of oil because of increased production.c. OPEC would like Norway and Britain to join their cartel so they could act like a monopoly.Chapter 23: Q1a. Consumption increases because a refrigerator is a good purchased by a household. Investment increases because a house is an investment good.Consumption increases because a car is a good purchased by a household, but investment decreases because the car in Ford’s inventory had been counted as an investment good until it was sold.Consumption increases because pizza is a good purchased by a household. Government purchases increase because the government spent money to provide a good to the public.Consumption increases because the bottle is a good purchased by a household, but net exports decrease because the bottle was imported.Investment increases because new structures and equipment were built.Chapter 24: Q4a. Since the increase in cost was considered a quality improvement, there was no increase registered in the CPI.b. The argument in favor of this is that consumers are getting a better good than before, so the price increase equals the improvement in quality. The problem is that the increased cost might exceed the value of the improvement in air quality, so consumers are worse off. In this case, it would be better for the CPI to at least partially reflect the higher cost.Chapter 25: Q4The opportunity cost of investing in capital is the loss of consumption that results from redirecting resources towards investment. Over-investment in capital is possible because of diminishing marginal returns. A country can "over-invest" in capital if people would prefer to have higher consumption spending and less future growth. The opportunity cost of investing in human capital is also the loss of consumption that is needed to provide the resources for investment. A country could "over-invest" in human capital if people were too highly educated for the jobs they could get?for example, if the best job a Ph.D. in philosophy could find is managing a restaurant.。
曼昆经济学原理 重点总结
微观经济学:第一章经济学导论1.稀缺:①指相对于人们无穷的欲望来讲,物品是稀少短缺的②稀缺性:是经济物品的显著特征之一;并不意味着稀少,而指不可以免费得到;要得到经济物品必须有其他经济物品交换③稀缺规律:商品一般是稀缺的,只能得到有限供应,必须通过价格或其他形式进行分配④稀缺原因:一定时期内(大前提),物品本身是有限的;利用物品进行生产的技术条件是有限的;人的生命是有限的2.选择的机会成本:资源投入某一特定用途后,所放弃的其他用途的最大利益注:理论上讲是资源改做他用的各种可能中最优的选择,但由于信息不完全只能是其它使用中能获得的比较满意的选择3.经济学十大原理:①人们面临选择(人们为得到一样东西,就不得不放弃另一样东西)(效率是社会从稀缺性资源中获得的最多的东西,平等是把这些资源的成果公平的分给社会成员)②机会成本(由于稀缺性,人们就要比较可供选择的方案的成本和收益)③边际量(人们通过比较边际利益和编辑成本而做出抉择)④激励(理性决策者会做出边际利益大于边际成本的决策)⑤贸易会是每个人的状况越来越好(贸易可以使人们做最擅长的事)⑥市场通常是组织经济活动的好方法(家庭和企业→合意的市场结果;价格指引个别决策者在大多数情况下实现了整个社会福利最大化的结果)⑦政府有时可以改善市场结果(市场失灵时即市场本身不能进行资源配置时,政府干预经济,可以促进效率和平等;外部性指一个人的行为对旁观者的影响)⑧一国的生产水平取决于他的生产物品与劳务的能力(生活水平的不同由于生产率不同)⑨政府发行过多货币时,物价水平上升⑩社会面临通货膨胀和短期失业之间的权衡(↓↑)第二章需求和供给1.需求(人们愿意购买的商品数量)①需求表价格—数量组合A B C D E F G价格(元)1234567需求量(单位数)700600500400300200100②需求曲线价格注:当供=需时,有均衡价格③需求定理:需求量与价格呈反向变化④影响需求的因素a商品本身价格;相关商品价格b消费者的收入及社会的公平程度;的偏好;的对未来的期望。
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第1章• 理解稀缺性、经济学、机会成本、边际、激励以及市场失灵、外部性和通货膨胀等术语的含义稀缺性:社会资源的有限性。
社会拥有的资源是有限的,所以不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与劳务。
经济学:研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源
经济学家研究:人们如何作出决策;人们如何与他人相互交易;影响整体经济的力量和趋势
机会成本:为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西
边际变动:对行动变化微小的增量调整
市场失灵:市场本身不能有效配置资源的情况
外部性:一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响
通货膨胀:物价总水平的上升
• 熟悉经济学的十大原理
1、人们面对权衡取舍,有所得必有所失,要兼顾公平与效率。
2、所得的成本就是放弃的东西,真正的成本不是会计成本,而是机会成本。
3、增量大小的比较决定选择,边际分析是经济学分析的关键。
4、人们根据刺激做出决策,并随刺激的变化而进行调整。
5、交换可以使有关各方都得到好处。
6、市场可以最大限度地提高经济效率。
7、政府可以弥补市场的局限,如市场失灵、外部性和垄断等。
8、一国生产能力的大小决定国民生活水平的高低。
9、货币发行过多可能造成通货膨胀。
10、短期中,失业和通胀之间有替代关系。
• 领会“天下没有免费的午餐”这句话的含义
做出决策要求我们在一个目标与另一个目标之间权衡取舍。
(大炮vs黄油;环境vs收益;效率vs公平)
第4章
• 理解四种市场结构的含义
竞争市场:有许多买者与卖者,以至于每个人对市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场
垄断者:一些市场上只有一个卖者,而且这个卖者决定价格
寡头:有几个并不总是主动地进行竞争的卖者
垄断竞争:有许多卖者,每个卖者提供略有差别的产品,有决定价格的能力
• 能够分辨需求与需求量、供给与供给量
需求量:指人们在一定的时期内,在某一个价格水平上,愿意购买和能够购买的商品量
需求:把价格与需求量联系在一起的向右下方倾斜的曲线
影响需求的因素:商品本身的价格、收入、相关物品价格、嗜好、预期、买者数量。
商品本身的价格是影响需求量的因素,引起需求曲线上点的移动;其它都是影响需求的因素,引起需求曲线上点的移动。
供给量:厂商在一定的时间内,在某一个价格水平上,愿意供给和能够供给的商品量
供给:把价格与供给量联系在一起的向右上方倾斜的曲线
影响供给的因素:投入价格、技术、预期、卖者的数量。
商品本身的价格引起供给曲线上点的移动,其他因素引起的都将是供给曲线的移动。
• 理解互补品与替代品的含义
替代品:一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求增加的两种物品
互补品:一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求减少的两种物品
• 熟悉需求定理和供给定理
• 学会利用供求模型分析价格的变动
• 完全竞争市场和垄断竞争市场结构长期和短期均衡的含义
第5章
• 理解弹性的经济学含义及其决定因素
弹性:在经济上是指一个变量对另一个变量变动的反应程度,或者一个变量变动影响另一个变量的程度。
它通常是两个变量变动的百分比,分母是自变量,而分子是因变量。
需求的价格弹性:指需求量变动对价格变动的反应程度,分母是价格变动的百分比,分子是需求量变动的百分比。
影响需求弹性的因素:相近替代品的可获得性、必需品与奢侈品、市场的定义、时间的长短、本身用途的广泛性
• 学会利用弹性的定义计算价格或需求量的变动
• 理解需求曲线形状与弹性的关系,以及弹性与总收入之间的关系
Ep>1 富有弹性曲线平坦降价销售可以增加销售收入
Ep<1 缺乏弹性曲线陡峭提价销售才能增加销售收入
但是,由于同一条直线上弹性值不同,这就决定了在陡峭的曲线的上部,降价也能增加销售收入,反之,在平坦曲线的下部,降价则要减少销售收入。
Ep=1 单位弹性价格变动,总收益不动
Ep=0 完全无弹性一条垂线
Ep=∞ 完全富有弹性一条水平线
• 能够利用弹性概念分析“谷贱伤农”的含义
当粮食供给增加,导致价格下降时,也导致了销售量的增加。
但因为粮食的需求缺乏弹性,所以价格下降的幅度大于销售量增加的幅度,所以总收益下降。
第6章
• 学会利用供求模型分析价格管制造成的经济后果
均衡价格未必是能使人满意的价格,它可能偏高或偏低,偏低则谷贱伤农,偏高则公众消费不起,所以政府要将其控制在适当的位置上,这就产生支持价格和限制价格。
政府决定的实际价格高于均衡价格为支持价格,能在短期中推动政府扶持企业的发展,如稳定农业生产;扩大农业投资;长期中则增加财政负担,农产品供给过多,失业增加。
政府决定的实际价格低于均衡价格为限制价格,在短期中有利于社会的公平和稳定。
但却不利于刺激生产,产品短缺;不利于抑制需求,资源浪费;引发黑市交易、请客送礼,败坏社会气,滋生腐败。
一般来说,行政手段干预的负面效应很大,市场手段改变需求的负面效应较小,但这两个手段仍只能在短期中不得已而为之,而不能作为常规操作手段。
现在发达国家着眼于改变供给,其效果相对要好得多。
• 能够区分稀缺与短缺这两个概念
• 学会利用供求模型分析税收对买方价格和卖方价格的影响
税收抑制了市场活动。
当对一种物品征税时,该物品在新均衡时的销售量减少了。
买者与卖者分摊税收负担。
在新均衡时,买者为该物品支付得多了,而卖者得到的少了。
• 理解供求曲线的弹性与税收负担之间的关系p110
对买者和对卖者征税本质上是相同的,唯一区别是谁把钱交给政府。
税收归宿取决于供给和需求的弹性,税收负担更多得落在缺乏弹性的市场一方身上。
因为,在本质上,弹性衡量当条件变得不利时,买者或卖者离开市场的意愿。
需求弹性小意味着买者对消这某种物品没有适当的替代品。
供给弹性小意味着卖者对生产这某种物品没有适当的替代品。
当对这种物品征税时,市场中其他好的选择少的一方不能轻而易举地离开市场,从而必须承担更多的税收负担。
第7章
• 掌握支付意愿、消费者剩余、生产者剩余以及总剩余等概念
支付意愿:买者愿意为某种物品支付的最高量
消费者剩余:买者的支付意愿减买者的实际支付量(=买者的评价-买者支付的量),衡量了消费者从一种物品中得到的买者自己感觉到的利益,由需求曲线以下和价格以上的面积衡量。
反映了经济福利。
生产者剩余:卖者出售一种物品得到的量减卖者的成本(=卖者得到的量-卖者的成本),衡量卖者参与市场的利益,由价格之下和供给曲线以上的面积衡量。
总剩余:两者之和(=买者的评价-卖者的成本)
• 理解经济效率的含义
效率:资源配置使社会所有成员得到的总剩余最大化的性质
平等:福利在社会成员中分配的公平性
关于市场结果的观点:
1) 自由市场把物品的供给分配給对这些物品评价最高的买者。
2) 自由市场把物品的需求分配給可以以最低成本生产这些物品的卖者。
3) 自由市场生产使消费者和生产者剩余总和最大化的产量,均衡结果是资源的有效配置。
• 学会利用供求曲线衡量消费者剩余与生产者剩余及其变动(比如技术革新的影响)。