语言学复习资料附答案(完整)
(完整版)自考《语言学概论》复习资料汇总
第一章语言和语言学1. 为什么语言和种族没有必然联系？答：语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关，但语言不是一种生理现象，也不是一种心理现象，不是遗传的，而是一种社会现象。
语言完全是在一种语言环境中后天获得的，所以语言和种族没有必然联系。
2. 简答语言符号的特点。
答：（1）符号和语言，“能指”和“所指”。
能指是能够指称某种意义的成分，所指是给符号所指的意义内容创制了一个专门术语。
（2）语言符号的“任意性”。
符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间没有必然的理据关系，语言符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间也没有必然的理据关系，完全是任意的，约定俗成的。
（3）语言符号的强制性和可变性。
在同一社会、同一时代，对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的，而语言又是发展变化着的。
（4）语言符号的离散特性和线性特性。
话只能一个字一个字，一句话一句话地说，因此语言符号是离散的，而且在时间这根轴上是成线性排列的。
3. 组合关系和聚合关系的关系。
答：组合关系体现在一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位，或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系，是横向关系。
聚合关系是在组合的某一个位置上能够相互替换，有共同的特点，故能聚合归类。
组合是横向的结构关系，聚合是归类规则，有了组合、聚合关系，便展现出了整个语言平面，聚合关系是组合关系中体现出来的，或者说是从组合关系中分析出来的，而组合关系又表现为聚合类的线性序列。
所以组合关系和聚合关系是有机地统一，不可分割。
4. 解释“符号”答：符号指根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的实体和意义的结合体。
5. 解释“语言”答：语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的，有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分，语言是均质的，是言语活动中的社会部分。
语言作为一种社会现象具有鲜明的地区性、民族性和历史性。
6. 口语和书面语的关系。
答：语言的客观存在形式首先是口语，第二种客观存在形式，是书面语。
语言学纲要期末复习参考资料
导言一、填空题1.语言学是研究语言的学科，语言是语言学的研究对象。
语言学的基本任务是研究人类语言的规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
2.中国、印度、希腊—罗马是语言学的三大发源地。
3.我国传统语言学包括文字学、音韵学、训诂学等三门分支学科，合称“小学”。
二、判断题1.综合各种语言的基本研究的成果，归纳成语言的一般规律，这是具体语言学的任务。
（错）2.世界上有几千种语言，有些语言的研究已经比较深入，大部分语言的研究还很不够，甚至还没有人去研究。
（对）三、名词解释1.普通语言学以人类一般语言为研究对象，探究人类语言的起源、发展、本质。
探究人类语言内部结构的共性及普遍规律的语言学门类。
2.应用语言学狭义的应用语言学指语言教学、文字的创制和改革、正音正字、词典编纂等，广义的应用语言学还包括与计算机有关的及其翻译、情报检索、语音识别、自然语言处理等。
3.小学在中国古代，小学先从教授字的形、音、义开始，就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。
小学一直是经学的一部分，包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。
第一章一、填空题1.从语言的社会功能上看，语言是人类独有的最重要的交际和思维的工具；从语言的内部结构上看，语言是一套音义结合的符号。
2.文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的辅助交际工具，旗语之类是建立在语言和文字基础上的特殊领域的辅助交际工具。
二、判断1.从理论上来说，句子的长度是可以无限的。
（对）2.语言是文字基础上产生的人类最重要的交际工具。
（错）3.文字始终是从属于语言的。
（错）4.思维离不开语言，语言也离不开思维。
（对）5.语言和思维互相依存共同发展。
（对）6.在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。
（错）7.文字也是人类最重要的交际工具。
（错）8.语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素。
（对）9.会不会说话是人类和动物的根本区别之一。
（对）10．思维能力是全人类共同的，语言是各民族不同的。
（对）11.思维离不开语言，聋哑人不能掌握语言，所以聋哑人不能进行思维。
语言学复习试题及参考答案
语言学复习试题及参考答案I. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement (20 x1)1. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness2. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language3. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying〞a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar4. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called _______.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features5. The morpheme “vision〞in the common word “television〞is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme6. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic7. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional8. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.〞This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviourism10. “Alive〞and “dead〞are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above11. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context12. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act13. Language change is ______________.A. universal, continuous and, to a large extent, regular and systematicB. continuous, regular, systematic, but not universalC. universal, continuous, but not regular and systematicD. always regular and systematic, but not universal and continuous14. In Old and Middle English, both /k/ and /n/ in the word “knight〞were pronounced, but in modern English, /k/ in the sound /kn-/ clusters was not pronounced. This phenomenon is known as ________. A. sound addition B. sound lossC. sound shiftD. sound movement15. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its _____.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes16. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer17. Human linguistic ability largely depends on the structure and dynamics of _________.A. human brainB. human vocal cordsC. human memoryD. human18. The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called _________.A. the neuronsB. nerve pathwaysC. cerebral cortexD. sensory organs19. The development of linguistic skills involves the acquisition of ____ rules rather than the mere memorization of words and sentences.A. culturalB. grammaticalC. behaviorD. pragmatic20. According to the _______, the acquisition of a second language involves, and is dependent on, the acquisition of the culture of the target language community.A. acculturation viewB. mentalist viewC. behaviourist viewD. conceptualist view得分21. People can utter a sentence he has never heard or used before. In this sense, human language is creative.22. In English both aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops occur. The voiceless aspirated stopsand the voiceless unaspirated stops occur in the same phonemic context or environment.23. Parameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among languages.24. Syntactic movement occurs to all sentences, therefore, the deep structure and surface structure of every sentence look different at its two levels of representation.25. The Anglo-Saxons were migrants from the northern parts of Europe, so the words that they originally used and the words that the English vocabulary has later taken in from other languages are regarded as loan words.26. Paul Grice made a distinction between what he called “constatives〞and“performatives〞.27. Most of the languages of Europe, Persia (Iran), and the northern part of India belong to thesame Indo-European language family. The language, which no longer exists, is called Proto-Indo-European, a term reflecting the earlier linguistic distribution of the speakers of this language family from India to Europe.28. In Black English, when the verb is negated, the indefinite pronouns something, somebody, and some become the negative indefinites nothing, nobody, and none, as in :He don’t know nothing.He don’t like n obody.He ain’t got none.29. The cerebral cortex is the decision-making organ of the body, receiving messages from all the sensory organs and initiating all voluntary actions.30.During the two-word stage of language acquisition, two-word expressions are absent of syntactic or morphological markers.III. Define Six of thefollowing ten terms, illustrate them if necessary (6 x 5).31. allomorph32. bound morpheme33. semantics34. reference35. synonymy,36. predication analysis,37. critical period hypothesis38. linguistic competence39. bilingualism4olinguisticsIV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible, giving examples if necessary ( 4x10 ):1. How do you understand that language is arbitrary?2. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other?3. Draw a tree diagram for the following statements:1 ) The people live a peaceful life in the countryside.2) He knows that I will come the day after tomorrow.4. According to the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.参考答案及评分标准I. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement (20 x1) 每题一分1.D2.C3.D4.C5.D6. C7. A8. C9. B 10.C11D 12.C 13.A 14.B 15. C 16.C 17.A 18.C 19.B 20.AII. True or False (10x1) 每题一分21.T 22.F 23.T 24.F 25.F 26.F 27.T 28.T 29.T 30.TIII. Define the following terms, illustrate them if necessary (5x6). 每题五分，能够举例不举例说明的扣二分。
复习题及答案-语言学基本知识与技能
Chapter OneIntroductionI．What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.II．The scope of linguistics1. Phonetics：The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.2. Phonology: deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.3. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.4. Syntax:The combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.5. Semantics: The study of meaning is known as semantics.6. Pragmatics: When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.7. Sociolinguitics: The study of social aspects of languages and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguitics.8. Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology.9. Applied linguistics: Findings in linguistics studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.III. Some important distinctions in linguistics1. Prescriptive vs. descriptiveIf a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behaviour in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.2.Synchronic vs. diachronicThe description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3. Speech and writingSpeech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.4. Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure inthe early 20th century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.petence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6.Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsTraditional grammar refers to the studies of language before the publication of F. de Saussure’s book Course in General Linguistics in 1916. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.First, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary not the written.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.IV. What is language?L anguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.Design features1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.3) DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place. 5) Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis while the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.2.Functions of Language1)InformativeIt is the major role of language. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.2)Interpersonal functionIt is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.Attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of the expression of identity.3)PerformativeThis concept originates from the philosophical study of language presented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the backbone of pragmatics.The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons as in marriage ceremonies, the blessing of children and the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.4)Emotive functionThe emotive function of language is one the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. e.g. God, my, Damn it...5)Phatic communionThe term originates from Malinnowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language.We all use small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day to maintain a comfortable relationship between people.6)Recreational functionNo one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it such as a baby’s babbling.7)Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about itself. For example, we can use the word “book”to talk about the book.Chapter TwoPhonologyI.Speech production and perceptionA speech sound goes through a three step process. Naturally, the study of sounds is dividedinto three areas, each dealing with one part of the progress.1. Articulatory phoneticsIt is the study of the production of speech sounds.2.Acoustic phoneticsIt is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.3.Auditory phoneticsIt is concerned with the perception of the sounds produced in speech.II.Speech organsSpeech organs are also known as vocal organs. They are those parts of the human bodyinvolved in the production of speech.Speech organs mainly consist of the vocal cords and three cavities which are the pharynx, the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.The vocal cords are in the larynx, the front part of which is called “the Adam ’s Apple.” III. ConsonantsClassification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.IV.VowelsClassification of English vowelsV owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. V owels can also be distinguished according to the openness of the mouth: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.• Nouns Adjectives • Lips Labial / Bilabial • Teeth Dental • Alveolar ridge Alveolar • Hard palate Palatal • Soft palate Velar • Uvula Uvular• Pharynx Pharyngeal • Tip Apical • Blade Laminal • Front Dorsal •Back Dorsal• Consonants Place • /p/ /b/ Bilabial • /t/ /d/ Tip-alveolar • /k/ /g/ Back-velar • /t ʃ/ /d ʒ/ Blade/front – palato-alveolar • /m/ Bilabial • /n/ Tip-alveolar • /ŋ / Back-velar • Consonants Place • /p/ /b/ Bilabial • /t/ /d/ Tip-alveolar • /k/ /g/ Back-velar• /t ʃ/ /d ʒ/ Blade/front –palato-alveolar• /m/ Bilabial• /n/ Tip-alveolar •/ŋ / Back-velarV. Phonology and phonetics1. Phonetics is concerned with the general nature of speech sound while phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2. Phone, phoneme, and allophone– A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.– A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented orrealized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.–The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, thephoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark /l/, clear /l/, etc. which areallophones of the phoneme.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairIf the phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in /pit/ and /bit/.If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. For instance, the clear /l/ always occurs before a vowel while the dark /l/ always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. So in English, pill and bill are a minimal pair.4. Some rules in phonologySequential rules, Assimilation rule, Deletion rule5. Supra-segmental features—stress, tone, intonationStress:Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress.The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Sentence stress refers to the relative force given to the component of a sentence. The part of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns; the other categories of words like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are usually not stressed.Tone:Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a supra-segmental feature. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages. E.g. Chinese.Intonation:When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.Chapter ThreeMorphologyI. Open class and closed classIn English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words, since we can regularly add new words to these classes.The other syntactic categories include “grammatical” or “functional” words. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronounces consist of relatively few words and have been referred to as being closed class words since new words are not usually added to them.II. Internal structure of words and rules for word formationMorphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.e.g. like—dislike order—disorder appear—disappear approve-–disapproveagree—disagree“dis-”is a prefix means “not”, and placed before a root-wordIII. Morphemes—the minimal units of meaningSome words are formed by combining a number of distinct units of meaning. The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.The following list shows that in English a single word may consist of one or more morphemes.One morpheme: desireTwo morphemes: desire + ableThree morphemes: desire + able + ityFour morphemes: un + desire + able + ityIn fact every word in every language is composed of one or more morphemes.Prefixes occurs only before other morphemes while suffixes occur only after other morphemes.IV. Derivational and inflectional morphemesIn English there are morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. A verb, for example, is formed by adding –en to the adjective black—blacken, or by adding -ize to the noun computer—computerize.More examples: noun—adjective affection + ateAlcohol + ic-en, -ate, and –ic are thus called derivational morphemes, because when they are conjoined to other morphemes (or words) a new word is derived, or formed.Similarly, there are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case, aspect and so on.Such bound morphemes are referred to as inflectional morphemes.V. Morphological rules of word formationThe ways words are formed are called morphological rules. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Some of the morphological rules can be used quite freely to form new words. We call them productive morphological rules.Un + accept + able = un + adjective = not adjectiveVI. CompoundsAnother way to form new words, or compound words, to be exact, is by stringing words together, as shown in the examples below:Chapter FourSyntaxI. What is syntax?Synta x is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.II. CategoriesCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.1. Word level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.2. Phrase categories and their structuresSyntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. In English syntactic analysis, the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories are noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (PP).Whether formed of one or more than one word, they consist of two levels, Phrase level and word level as exemplified below.NP VP AP PP ←phrase level||||N V A P ←word levelPhrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head, specifier and complement. The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head. The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. The words on the right side of the heads are complements.3 Phrase structure ruleThe special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) …VP →(Qual) V (NP) …AP →(Deg) A (PP) …PP →(Deg) P (NP) …The arrow can be read as “consist of ”or “branches into”. The parentheses mean that the element in them can be omitted and the three dots in each rule indicate that other complement options are available.4.XP ruleThe XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)5. X¯ Theorya. XP → (Specifier) X¯b. X¯→ X (complement)The first rule stipulates that XP categories such as NP and VP consist of an optional specifier (a determiner, a qualifier, and so forth) and an X¯. The second rule states that an X¯consists of a head, X, and any complements.6. Phrase elementsSpecifierSpecifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners, qualifiers and degree words as well.ComplementsAs we have seen, complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implies by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.The XP Rule (revised): XP → (Specifier) X (Complement*)This rule also captures the simple but important fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.ModifiersModifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Table 4-2 Modifier position in EnglishModifier Position ExampleAP Precedes the head A very careful girlPP Follows the head Open with careAdvP Precedes or follows the head Read carefully; carefully readTo make modifiers fit into phrase structure, we can expand our original XP rule into the following so that it allows the various options.The Expanded XP rule: XP → (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement,a modifier that occurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well.7. Sentences (The S rule)The S rule: S →NP VPWhich combines an NP (often called the subject) with a VP to yield a sentence such as the one bellow.Many linguists nowadays believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take an abstract category inflection (dubbed “Infl”) as their heads, which indicates the sentence’s tense and agreement.8. Deep structure and surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. Te first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategories, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).The organization of the syntactic component of the grammar can be depicted below.The XP Rule↓DEEP STRUCTURE ←（Sub-categorization restricts choice of complements）↓Transformations↓SURFACE STRUCTUREChapter FiveSemanticsI. What is semantics?Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. In our discussion, we will limit ourselves to the study o meaning from linguistic point of view.II. Some views concerning the study of meaning1 The naming theoryThe naming theory was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, according to which the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.2 The conceptualist viewConceptualist view relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mind. This view holds that there is no link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by Ogden and Richards:3. ContextualismThe contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context. The representative linguist of the view is Firth who is influenced by Molinonwsky and Wittgenstein.4. BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” (Bloomfield, 1933) Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of “Stimulus-Response reinforcement”and the adult’s use of language is also a process of Stimulus-Response. For the theory, Bloomfield put forward the well-known formula:S →r …………………s →RHere S stands fro practical stimulus, r stands for the substitute reaction of speech, s stands for the substitute stimulus, and R stands for external practical reaction.III. Lexical meaning1. Sense and referenceSense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2. Major sense relationsSynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or closed similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.PolysemyWhile different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy.HononymyHononymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.HyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.AntonymyThe term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.i. Gradable antonyms; ii. Complementary antonyms; iii. Relational opposites3. Sense relations between sentencesi. X is synonymous with Yii. X is inconsistent with Yiii. X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)iv. X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X)v. X is a contradictionvi. X is semantically anomalous.4. Analysis of meaningComponential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaningComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. By componential analysis, linguist looks at each word as a bundle of different features or components.Prediction analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaningWhether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectionalrestrictions, i.e., constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.Chapter SixPragmaticsI. DefinitionPragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.II. ContextThe notion of context is essential to the pragmatics study of language. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.III. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningWhile the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.IV. Speech act theory1 Austin’s model of speech actsSpeech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated wit the British philosophy John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. This is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”According to speech act theory, we are performing action when we are speaking. A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.2. Searl e’s classification of speech actAccording to Searle, an American philosophy, speech acts fall into five general categories, i.e., there are five general types of things we do with language, Specific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.1) representatives: stating or describing, saying that the speaker believes to be true.2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something3. Principle of conversationPaul Grice’s idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle.。
语言学概论复习(完整)
语言学概论复习资料一、名词解释1.语言的主观性：说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图。
（互动的另一方面包括受话人受到影响，做出相应的语言或行动上的反馈。
）2.语言能力：人的抽象思维能力与灵活发音的能力有机结合。
人的语言能力的生理基础相同。
3.心理现实：贮存在人脑的人对客观现实认知的成果，是关于客观现实的各种知识信息。
其来源：①感官对客观现实的直接感知，经脑神经综合处理转化为记忆信息；②对语言文字的接收处理。
4.颤音：舌尖或小舌连续颤动而发出的音。
（是舌尖、小舌这两个柔软的尖状物处在十分放松并有气流的冲击的状态下连续颤动而发出的音。
）例如：俄语中的Р（如РУка，手）是舌尖颤音[r]。
5.闪音：舌头颤动一次发出的音。
例如：英语very中的处于弱读音节的r[ʃ]。
6.区别特征：具体语言中有区别音位作用的发音特征。
每一个音位都可以分解为几个不同的区别特征。
例如汉语普通话/ɑ/音位有不圆唇和舌位低两个发音特征；某个音位利用哪些特征和其他音位对立，这由该特征在音位系统中所处的地位而定。
例如：英语音位用清/p/浊/b/对立而不同于汉语普通话的用是否送气来区别。
7.语言节奏：语言的节奏是狭义的节奏，是语流中某些超音段要素在时间上等距离地、周期性地交替出现。
相当于音乐节拍但不如音乐规整严格。
包括音节（或韵素）型节奏和音步型节奏。
8.成句范畴：语气（陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹）、情态、时、语态等句子功能意义类别。
成句范畴有一定的表达形式，例如疑问句语气可以用语调或虚词表达。
9.黏着语：只以黏着语素替换作为表示语法关系的主要手段的语言。
例如土耳其语、维吾尔语、芬兰语等。
10.概念结构：词义之间的相互关系叫做一种语言的概念结构，词义的形成以现实现象为基础，同时也受制于本语言词义的相互关系（概念结构）。
不同的语言对现实有不同的切分，也就具有不同的概念结构。
11.中心意义：离开上下文后人们最熟悉的意义，它大多同本义一致，有时同本义不一致。
语言学复习资料答案整理
一、名词解释1.词语的替换：词语的替换是指词语所指的事物现象本身依然存在，只是用新的词语取代了旧的词语。
如由于汉语语汇发展的双音化，“目”、“颈”、“耳”、“鼻”等词被“眼睛”、“脖子”、“耳朵”、“鼻子”等词替换了。
2.义素:义素是构成义项的语义成分，是从一组相关的词语中抽象出来的区别性语义特征，又叫语义成分、语义特征、语义标示、语义原子等。
如“男人”这个义项可以分析为[男性、成年、人]，其中[男性]、[成年]、[人]就是三个义素（方括号[]是义素的标记），这三个义素组合起来，构成“男人”这个义项。
同时，义素是一种没有特定语音形式的抽象的意义单位，如“男人”的义素是[成年]，就与“男人”的语音形式无关。
3.语义指向：语义指向是句子中词语之间的语义关系，包括连续成分和非连续成分之间的语义关系。
如，小王扭伤了腰。
“腰”与“小王”、“扭”、“伤”都有语义关系。
“腰”与“小王”有领属关系，即是“小王的腰”，“腰”与“扭”、“伤”都有施事——动作关系，即“腰扭了”、“腰伤了”。
4.语法范畴:语法范畴有广义和狭义之分。
广义语法范畴是各种语法形式表示的语法意义的概括，从语法形式上看，包括所有显性语法形式和隐形语法形式；从语法意义上看，包括所有类型的语法意义，如结构范畴（主谓结构、动宾结构等结构范畴）、功能范畴（名词、动词等词类范畴）、情态范畴（陈述、疑问等语气范畴）。
狭义语法范畴是由词的变化表示的语法意义的概括，又称形态范畴。
词的形态变化是用附加词缀、内部曲折、重叠等方式构成同一个词的不同语法变化，简称词形变化。
5.表述：表述是指由句子表示的语义单位，也叫句义。
一个句子表示的一种意义就是一个表述。
有些句子可以表示几种不同的意义，每一种意义就是一个表述。
如“小李借了他五块钱”，这个句子有两种意思：一是“小李向他借了五块钱”，二是“小李借给他五块钱”，所以这个句子有两个不同的表述。
6.形态范畴：狭义语法范畴是由词的变化表示的语法意义的概括，又称形态范畴。
语言学概论复习资料(全)
语言学概论复习资料（全）一、知识题（填空与选择）：1、语言的客观存在形式，首先表现为人与人之间的口头交际行为。
2、口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
3、瑞典、挪威、丹麦三个国家使用同一个语言。
4、口语和书面语包括物理现象和心理现象。
5、口头交际活动有两个因素：语言和言语。
6、瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》开创了20世纪现代语言学的新局面。
7、语言系统是由语音系统、语汇系统、语法系统、语义系统组成。
8、在任何语言中，音调变化都是语调的主要构成因素。
9、音强变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。
10、音质是由声波的形式决定的。
11、音质是声音四要素中最重要的。
12、人体的发音器官包括发音的动力源、发音体、共鸣腔。
13、口腔、鼻腔和咽腔是人类共鸣腔。
14、语音的物理属性和生理属性是语音的自然属性。
15、[e][ ε][a][ u ][o ][ ][ ɑ]八个音被称作定位元音或标准元音。
16、辅音的音质决定于发音部位和发音方法。
17、音位变体分条件变体和自由变体。
18、音素之间存在着对立关系和互补关系。
19、韵母分成韵头、韵腹、韵尾。
20、常见的语流音变现象有同化、异化、脱落、弱化、增音。
21、同化又可分顺同化和逆同化。
22、从音位理论的角度看，最小的音段是音位。
音位的组合又可进一步划分为音节、音节组合、语句。
23、汉藏语系包括汉语、藏语、苗语。
印欧语系一般都是非声调语言，包括英语、法语、俄语等。
24、声调可从调值和调位两方面来分析。
25、重音可分为词重音和句重音。
26、语汇学包括语汇的类聚系统和语汇的构造形式。
27、根据音节的数量将词分成单音节词、双音节词和多音节词。
根据包含语素的数量将词分成单纯词和合成词。
28、古语词包括历史词语和文言词语。
根据词的不同来源分成新造词、古语词、方言词和外来词。
29、语法分为词法部分和句法部分。
30、语法单位通常分成语素、词、词组和句子。
31、语法手段分成词法手段和句法手段。
语言学复习资料
第一章绪论A.Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. linguistics2. langue3. parole4. arbitrariness5. displacement6. language7. design features 8. performance 9. competence 10. semanticsB.Fill in each blank with one word.1.Linguistics is the scientific study of ＿＿＿.2.In professional usage, the ＿＿＿is a scholar who studies language objectively,observing it scientifically, recording the facts of language, and generalizing from them.3.When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of use, itbecomes another branch of linguistic study called ＿＿＿.4.The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society from thecore of the branch is called ＿＿＿.5.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is ＿＿＿.6.The branch of study related to sounds is called ＿＿＿.7.＿＿＿relates the study of language to psychology. Modern linguistics carried out inthe century is mostly ＿＿＿, it differs from the linguistic study normally known as “grammar”.nguage refers to the ＿＿＿linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.9.Chomsky defines ＿＿＿as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language and＿＿＿of the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.10.Five of the design features of human language are ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿,＿＿＿.C.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1.The study of language as a whole is often called ＿＿＿.A. general linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics2.The study of language meaning is called ＿＿＿.A. syntaxB. morphologyC. semanticsD. pragmatics3.The description of a language at some point in time is a ＿＿＿.A. diachronicB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. prescriptive4.＿＿＿made the distinction between langue and parole.A. ChomskyB. SapirC. HallD. Saussure5.Which of the following isn’t the design features of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. PerformanceC. DualityD. Displacement6.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practicalproblems, the study of such applications is known as ＿＿＿.A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics7.＿＿＿refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.A. ParoleB. LangueC. SpeechD. Writing8.The definition “language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicat ing ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”was proposed by ＿＿＿.A. SapirB. HallC. ChomskyD. Bloomfield9.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a goodillustration of the ＿＿＿nature of language.A. arbitrarinessB. productivityC. dualityD. cultural transmission10.Which of the following isn’t a major branch of linguistics?A. PhonologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SpeechD.Indicate the following statements true or false.1.Linguistics studies a particular language.nguage is an isolated phenomenon.3.The language a person uses often reveals his social background.nguage is human-specific.nguage is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, and it is possible forlinguists to deal with it all at once.6.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.7.The study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society is calledsociolinguistics.8.Today, the grammar taught to learners of a language is basically prescriptive, so modernlinguistics is mostly prescriptive.9.In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.10.The distinction between langue and parole is the same as the distinction betweencompetence and performance.11.Linguists Sapir and Hall both treated language as a purely human institution.12.“lblk” is not a possible sound combination in English.参考答案：B. 1. language 2. linguist 3. pragmatics 4. sociolinguistics5.descriptive6. phonology7. psycholinguistics, descriptive8. abstract9. competence, performance 10. arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement,cultural transmissionC. 1-5ACBDB 6-10CBAADD. 1-5FFTTF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TT第二章音系学A.Define the following terms, giving examples if necessary:1.Phonetics2.Stops3.Voicing4.Allophone5.Suprasegmental features6.Phonology7.Tone8.Consonant9.Vowel10.Narrow transcriptionB.Indicate the following statements true or false:1.Of the media of language, writing is more basic than speech.2.There have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have nothad written form.3.Speech sounds are limited in number.4.Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the mosthighly developed, is acoustic phonetics.5.Sound [l] in the word leaf is a dark [\].6.Sound [p] in the word “spit” is an unaspirated stop.7.In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.8.Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a language; it aims to discover howspeech sounds form patterns and how they differ from each other.9.In English, the position of word stress distinguishes meaning.10.English is a typical tone language.11.Phonetics is of a general nature.12.Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense andloose vowels.C.Fill in each of following blanks.1.In linguistic evolution, ＿＿＿prior to writing.2.The three branches of phonetics are: ＿＿＿phonetics, ＿＿＿phonetics and ＿＿＿phonetics.3.The major suprasegmental features in English are: ＿＿＿＿＿＿, ＿＿＿＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.4.The major rules in phonology are ＿＿＿rule, ＿＿＿rule, and ＿＿＿rule.5.Clear [l] and dark [\] are the ＿＿＿of the phoneme [l].6.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called ＿＿＿.7.The transcription with letter-symbols only is called ＿＿＿＿＿, the transcription withdiacritics is called ＿＿＿＿＿＿.8.In English these are two affricates, ＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.9.All the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are ＿＿＿.10.＿＿＿can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.D.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1.The ＿＿＿is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulationthan any other.A. lipsB. nasal cavityC. tongueD. oral cavity2.Liquids is classified in the light of ＿＿＿.A. manner of articulationB. place of articulationC. place of tongueD. none of the above3.In English, there is only one glottal. It is ＿＿＿.A. [l]B. [h]C. [k]D. [f]4.The phonetic symbol for “voiced, labiodental, fricative” is ＿＿＿.A. [v]B. [d]C. [f]D. [m]5.The difference between [u] and [u:] is caused by ＿＿＿.A. the openness of the mouthB. the shape of the lipsC. the length of the vowelsD. none of the above6.What kind of tone is used when what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-factstatements?A. The rising toneB. The falling toneC. The fall-rise toneD. None of the above7.In a sentence, which of the following is usually not stressed?A. NounsB. Demonstrative pronounsC. Personal pronounsD. All of the above8.Which of the following is a typical tone language?A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. All of the above9.Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in ＿＿＿.A. phonemic contrastB. complimentary distributionC. minimal pairD. None of the above10.The sound [v] can be described as ＿＿＿.A．voiced, labiodental, fricativeB．voiceless, labiodental, affricateC．voiced, alveolar, fricativeD．None of the above参考答案: A. 1-5 FTTFF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TF C. 1-5 CABAC 6-10 BCBBAB. 1. speech 2. articulatory, auditory, acoustic 3. word stress, sentence stress,intonation 4.sequential, assimilation, deletion 5. allophone 6. voicing 7. broadtranscription, narrow transcription 8. [] [] 9. rounded 10. Phone第3章形态学A.Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false).（）1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（）2. Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.（）3. The structure of words is not governed by rules.( ) 4. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.( ) 5. Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.( ) 6. Sometimes bound morphemes can be used by themselves.( ) 7. There is only one type of affixes in the English language.( ) 8. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.( ) 9. Compounding is the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.( ) 10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.B.Fill in each blank below with one word.1. __________ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.2. The affix "-es" conveys a __________ meaning.3. __________ morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.4. __________ affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such asnumber, degree, and case.5. The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called __________.6. The combination of two or sometimes more that two words to create new words is called__________7. Semantically, the meaning of a __________ is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.8. __________ morphology studies word-formation.9. A __________ can never stand by itself although it bears clears, definite meaning.10. __________ are added to the end of stems.C.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement.( ) 1. The word "boyish" contains two ____________.A. phonemesB. morphsC. morphemesD. allomorphs( ) 2. Inflectional ____________ studies inflections.A. derivationB. inflectionC. phonologyD. morphology( ) 3. ____________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affix( ) 4. ____________ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes( ) 5. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of ____________to froma new word.A. rootB. affixC. stemD. word参考答案：A．1-5 TTFTF 6-10 FFTFTB. 1. Morpheme 2. grammatical 3. Free 4. Inflectional5. prefixes6. derivation7. compound8. Derivational9. root 10. SuffixesC．1-5 CDBAC第5章语义学A．Indicate the following statements T (true) or F (false).( ) 1. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation ofmeaning they are linked through the meditation of concepts in the mind.( ) 2. Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning.( ) 3. There are words with more or less the same meaning based in different regional dialects. ( ) 4. Componential analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can not be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.( ) 5. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning. ( ) 6. Among the approaches to the study of meaning, the naming theory is better than others.( ) 7. Kid and child are stylistic synonyms.( ) 8. "furniture" is the superordinate of "bed".( ) 9. Antonyms contrast each other only on a single dimension, such as "live" and "die".( )10. "Cold" and "hot" are complementary antonyms.( )11. In English, there is no argument in some sentences.( )12.The sentence "Tom, smoke!" and "Tom smokes." have the same semantic predication. ( )13. The sentences that contain the same words are same in meaning.( )14. The meaning of a word is the combination of all its elements, and so is the sentence. ( )15. The meaning of the word we often use is the primary meaning.( )16. Meaning is central to the study of communication.( )17. The naming theory of meaning was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.( )18. In the classic semantic triangle, the symbol is directly related to the referent.( )19. Sense and reference are the same.( )20. Complete synonyms are rare in language.( )21. Stylistic synonyms differ in style because they come from different regions.( )22. Polysemy is the same as homonymy.( )23. Homophones are words which are identical in sound.( )24. The superordinate term is more general in meaning than its hyponyms.( )25. In a pair of gradable antonyms, the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.( )26. In componential analysis, the plus sign is used to indicate that a certain semantic feature is present.( )27. The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality.( )28. All the grammatically well-formed sentences are semantically well-formed.( )29. A predicate is something said about an argument.( )30. There is only one argument in the sentence "Kids like apples".B. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word.1.In semantic analysis, ___________ is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.2.___________ restrictions are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.3.___________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided intomeaning components4.___________ is a relation of inclusion.5.For ___________ antonyms, it is a matter of either one or the other.6.There are often intermediate form between the two members of a pair of ___________antonyms.7.The various meanings of a ___________ word are related to some degree.8.Synonyms which differ in the words they go together with are called___________synonyms.9.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different ___________ in differentsituations.10.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.11.___________ is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from observablecontexts.12.There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to according to the___________ view.13.According to Wittgenstein, for a large class of cases, the meaning of a word is its___________ in the language.14.In the study of meaning, ___________ focus their interest on understanding the human mindthrough language.15.According to the ___________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to belabels of the objects they stand for.16.Autumn and Fall are two ___________ ___________.17.The words of English are classified into ___________ words and ___________ words.18.Hyponymy is the relation of ___________, superordingate entails all ___________.19.“Father” and “son” are ___________ ___________.20.In the sentences of entailment, if X is true, Y is ___________.21.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.22.___________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.23.The same one word may have more that one meaning, this is what we called ___________,and such a word is called ___________ word.24.___________ refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and amore specific word.25.In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ___________.C．Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:( ) 1. “Lorry” and “truck” are ____________.A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. synonyms that differ in their emotive meaningD. none of the above( ) 2. Which pair is the emotive synonyms ____________.A. dad, fatherB. flat, apartmentC. mean, frugalD. charge, accuse( ) 3. In the collocational synonyms, "rebuke" is collocated by ____________.A. withB. forC. ofD. against( ) 4. The noun tear and the verb tear are ____________.A. homophonesB. homographsC. complete homonymsD. none of the above( ) 5. The sentence John likes ice-cream contains ____________ arguments.A. oneB. twoC. noneD. three( ) 6. The classic semantic triangle reflects ____________.A. the naming theoryB. the conceptual viewC. the contextualist viewD. the behaviorist view( ) 7. ____________ concerns with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it's abstract and de-contextualized.A. ReferenceB. SemanticC. SenseD. none of the above( ) 8. The same word may have more than one meaning, which is called ____________.A. synonymyB. homonymyC. hyponymyD. polysemy( ) 9. ____________ analysis is a way to analyze sentence meaning.A. ComponentialB. PredicationC. SyntacticD. none of the above( )10. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called ____________.A. selectional restrictionsB. grammatical rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. all of the above( ) 11. Semantics can be defined as the study of ____________.A. namingB. meaningC. communicationD. context( ) 12. In the study of meaning, the ____________ are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and what they refer to in the real world.A. linguistsB. philosophersC. psychologistsD. phoneticians( ) 13. The linguistic ____________ is sometimes known as co-text.A. contextB. situationC. contextualizationD. situation of context( ) 14. Bloomfield drew on _____________ psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.A. contextualB. conceptualistC. behavioristD. naming( ) 15. Sense and reference are two related ______________ different aspects of meaning.A. butB. andC. orD. as well as( ) 16. ____________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.A. SenseB. ReferenceC. MeaningD. Semantics( ) 17. Dialectal synonyms are synonyms used in different ____________ dialects.A. personalB. regionalC. socialD. professional( ) 18. Hyponyms of the same ____________ are co-hyponyms.A. wordB. lexical itemC. superordinateD. hyponymy( ) 19. Words that are opposite in meaning are ____________.A. synonymsB. hyponymsC. antonymsD. homophones( ) 20. An ____________ is a logical participant in a predication.A. argumentB. predicateC. predicationD. agentD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. semantics2. the naming theory3. superordinate4. complete homonym5. hyponymy参考答案：A. 1-5 TTTFT 6-10 FFTFF 11-15 TTFFF 16-20 TTFFT21-25 FFTTF 26-30 TTFTFB. 1. predication 2. Selectional 3. componential 4. Entailment5. complementary6. gradable7. polysemic8. collocational9. references 10. Sense 11. Contextualization 12. conceptualist13. use 14. psychologists 15. naming 16. stylistic synonyms17. native, loan 18. entailment, hyponyms 19. relational opposites20. true 21. Sense 22. Reference 23. polysemy, polysemic24. Hyponymy 25. predicationC. 1-5 ACBBB 6-10 BCDBA 11-15 BBACA 16-20 BBCCA第6章语用学A．Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false). ( ) 1. The contextualist view is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense.( ) 2. Pragmatics is related to and also different from semantics.( ) 3. The notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language.( ) 4. All utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 5. Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s ofthe 20th century.( ) 6. Grice made a distinction between what he called "constatives" and "performatives". ( ) 7. A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology.( ) 8. In their study of language communication, linguists are only interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and pay no attention to how his intention is recognized by thehearer.( ) 9. Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.( ) l0. The Cooperative Principle was proposed by John Searle.( ) 11. There are four maxims under the Cooperative Principle.( ) 12. The violations of the maxims make our language indirect.( ) 13. All the utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 15. According to the speech act theory, when we are speaking a language, we are doing something, or in other words performing acts; and the process of linguisticcommunication consists of a sequence of acts.( ) 16. All the acts that belong to the same category of illocutionary act share the same purpose or the same illocutionary act, and they are the same in their strength or force.( ) 17. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in the syntactic form.( ) 18. Conversation participants nearly always observe the CP and the maxims of the CP. ( ) 19. A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.( ) 20. Utterance is based on sentence meaning, it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or simply in a context.( ) 22. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.( ) 23. Gradually linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.( ) 24. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.( ) 25. Without the shared knowledge both by the speaker and the hearer, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge,linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a semantic sense. ( ) 26. An perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention.( ) 27. According to Paul Grice's idea, in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. ( ) 28. An illocutionary act is the consequence of or the change brought about by the utterance.B. Fill each of the following blanks with one word.1. The shared knowledge which constitutes context is of two types; the knowledge of the _____they use, and the knowledge about the _____, including the general knowledge aboutthe word and specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communicationis taking place.2. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, itbecomes an _____, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actuallyused.3. The idea of Paul Grice is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all bewilling to _____; otherwise, if would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. Thegeneral principle is called the ______ ______, abbreviated as CP.4. There are four maxims under the CP: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of ______, themaxim of relation and the maxim of ______.5. The maxim of relation requires that what the conversation participants say must be ______.6. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certaincontext, ______can be regarded as a kind of meaning study.7. If ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.8. The meaning of an _______is concrete and context-dependent.9. An ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.10. According to Searle, ______ acts fall into five general categories.11. ______ are those speech acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course ofaction.12. To ask someone to pass a book is obviously a ______.13. According to Paul Grice, in making ______, the participants must first of all be willing tocooperate.14. Most of the violations of the four maxims give rise to ______ implicatures.15. The significance of Grice’s ______ Principle lies in that it explains how it is possible for thespeaker to convey more than is literally said.C．There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.( ) 1. __________ resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics.A. PragmaticsB. PragmatismC. PhonologyD. Practicalism( ) 2. Once the notion of __________ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content( ) 3. If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes __________.A. a sentenceB. an actC. a unitD. an utterance( ) 4. A __________ analysis of an utterance will reveal what the speaker intends to do with it.A. semanticB. syntacticC. pragmaticD. grammatical( ) 5. __________ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.A. SpeakingB. SpeechC. SoundD. Spoken( ) 6. __________ act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.A. A locutionaryB. An illocutionaryC. A perlocutionaryD. A speech( ) 7. One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of __________ acts.A. IocutionaryB. illocutionaryC. perlocutionaryD. speech( ) 9. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in their __________ form.A. syntacticB. semanticC. grammaticalD. pragmatic( ) 10. The Cooperative Principle is proposed by __________.A. John SearleB. John AustinC. Paul GriceD. John Lyons( ) 11. Linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the __________ of language use was left unconsidered.A. brevityB. contextC. accuracyD. none of the above( ) 12. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the __________.A. locutionary actB. perlocutionary actC. illocutionary actD. none of the above( ) 13. The maxim of quantity requires: __________A. make your contribution as informative as required.B. do not make contribution more informative than is required.C. do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.D. Both A and B.( ) 14. The maxim of quality requires: do not say what you believe to be __________.A. falseB. trueC. briefD. orderly( ) 15. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to __________.A. utterance meaningB. speech act theoryC. conversational implicatureD. all of the above( ) 16. The significance of Grice's CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey __________ is literally said.A. more thanB. less thanC. the same asD. none of the aboveD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration:1. context2. utterance meaning3. locutionary act4. illocutionary act5. perlocutionary art参考答案：A. 1-5 TTFFT 6-10 FTFTF 11-16 TTFTT 16-20 FTFTT 21-25 FTFTF 26-28 FTFB. 1. language, world 2. utterance 3. cooperate, Cooperative Principle4. quality, manner5. relevant6. pragmatics7. context8. utterance 9. illocutionary 10. speech 11. Commissives12. directive 13. conversation 14. conversational 15. CooperativeC. 1-5ABDCB 6-10 CBCAC 11-15 BCDAC 16 A。
语言学复习资料 (1)
语言学纲要的复习资料第一章1、三大发源地（）（）（）2、语言学是（）世纪成为独立学科，其标志是（）的出现3、现代语言学的标志是瑞士语言学家（）4（）、被誉为“世界上最完备的语法书”5、我国传统语言学包括（）（）（）6、结构主义的三大分支（）（）（）7、语言的分类一般从两个方面进行分类①（）②（）8、美国结构主义的代表人物（）著作（）9、与理论语言学相对的是（）与外部语言学相对的是（）与具体语言学相对的是（）（二）判断题1、世界上使用人口最多的语言是英语，使用范围最广的是汉语（）2、语言学主要研究古代的口语和书面语（）3、历史比较语言学的出现标志着语言学成为一门独立的学科（）4、第一个对语言进行谱系分类的是德国语言学家（）1、下列说法正确的是【D】A 语言是一种心理现象B 语言是一种具有阶级性的特殊的社会现象C 没有语言，利用文字照样可以进行交际D 在语言的辅助性交际工具中，文字是最重要的。
2、一个英国小孩从小在中国长大，结果他只会讲汉语而不会英语【C】社会具有阶级性3、任意性特点说明了【D】语言是一种特殊的社会现象。
4语言符号层级性的核心是【A】以少聚多5、语言成分按线性次序组合起来【B】组合关系6、下列说法不正确的是【D】语言符号不可以拆卸拼装，不具有生命力7、{组合关系}选不足，改革8、人类语言和动物的交际方式【B】有着根本的区别9、思维不依赖与语言【✘】10、下列观点属于探索语言起源的是【BCD】11、原始语言特点说法正确的是【ABC】12、下列组合关系和聚合关系表述正确的是【ACDE】A 语言成分的聚合类下限于词类。
B 组合关系体现为聚合类的线性序列C 聚合关系是在组合关系中体现出来的D 组合关系可以体现为互相关联的语言单位组成的整体中。
13、下列语言符号与现实现象之间的关系表述正确的是【BDE】判断题14、符号的形式和意义是具有一般性【✔】15、语言是丰富人的心理现实的重要途径【✔】16、现实中的句子是无穷的，所以自合关系也是无限的【✘】17、音位和音位组合构成的语素【✘】18、语言符号可以拆卸拼装，重复使用【✔】19、符号和自己所代表的事物之间具有必然的联系【✘】20、语言与言语之间的关系是一般与个别的关系【✔】21、书刊的话语不是人际互动功能【✘】22、语言在文字的基础上产生人类最重要的交际工具(✘)23.现代社会沟通方式很多，语言重要性日渐衰落{✘}24.工人有工人语言，农民有农民语言。
语言学概论复习重点题目(附答案!!)
Linguistics:I.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets1. ( ) The study of language as a whole is often called __________ linguistics.A. particularB. generalC. ordinaryD. generative2. ( ) __________ can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.A. PhonesB. SoundsC. PhonemesD. Speech sounds3. ( ) The two clauses in a __________ sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence.A. simpleB. completeC. complexD. coordinate4. ( ) The goal of __________ is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among avariety of speech communities and indifferent social situations.A. psycholinguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. historical linguisticsD. general linguistics5. ( ) A __________ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highestposition.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle6. ( ) The open, back and long vowel is __________.A.［ɑ：］B.［ɔ：］C.［ə：］D.［u:］7. ( ) Language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable extent __________.A. regular but not systematicB. irregular and systematicC. regular and systematicD. irregular but systematic8. ( ) A scientific study of language is based on the __________ investigation of language data.A. symbolicB. systemicC. systematicD. system9. ( ) __________ are sometimes called “semivowels”.A. vowelsB. fricativeC. glidesD. nasals10. ( ) __________ is a typical tone language.A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. American English11. ( ) A sentence is considered __________ when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind ofnative speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical12. ( ) The number of the lexical items in the minor lexical categories is __________ and no new membersare allowed for.A. largeB. smallC. limitlessD. fixed13. ( ) Human beings are the only species that learns and acquires language__________ explicit instruction.A. withB. withoutC. withinD. through14. ( ) According to F. de Saussure, __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. language15. ( ) Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the __________ properties of the stream of sounds which aspeaker issues.A. oralB. mentalC. physicalD. recorded16. ( ) __________ is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.A. PhonologyB. PhoneticsC. MorphologyD. Phonemics17. ( ) __________ transcription is really the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in theirstudy of speech sounds.A. BroadB. DetailedC. WideD. Narrow18. ( ) The word “motel”is formed via word formation rule of __________.A. clippingB. blendingC. acronymD. coinage19. ( ) If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct”behavior, i.e., to tell people what theyshould say and what they should not say, it is said to be __________.A. productiveB. arbitraryC. prescriptiveD. creative20. ( ) __________, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second elementreceives secondary stress.A. OrthographicallyB. PhoneticallyC. SemanticallyD. Syntactically21. ( ) __________ is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. LexicologyD. Coordination22. ( ) __________ is a kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases.A. AbbreviationB. AcronymC. ClippingD. Blending23. ( ) Those that affect the syntactic category and the meaning of the root as well are __________.A. stemsB. affixesC. suffixesD. prefixes.24. ( ) __________ refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to theroots, stems, or words.A. DerivationB. CompoundingC. BlendingD. Back formation25. ( ) Since the phonetic contrast between /k/ in the word “kill”and /k/ in the word “coal”is not adistinctive one, the two /k/-s are only __________.A. phonemesB. phonesC. segmentsD. allophones26. ( ) When /p/ and /b/ occur in the same environments and distinguish meaning, they are in __________.A. minimal pairB. minimal setC. phonemic contrastD. complementary distribution27. ( ) __________ at the end of stems can modify the meaning of the original word and in many caseschange its part of speech.A. RootsB. PrefixesC. SuffixesD. Free morphemes28. ( ) As /k/ in the word “came”and /g/ in the word “game”are said to form a distinctive opposition inEnglish, they are __________.A. soundsB. phonemesC. allophonesD. varieties29. ( ) The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are __________ sounds.A. consonantalB. voicedC. vowelD. voiceless30. ( ) __________ are added to an existing form to create a word, which is a very common way to createnew words in English.A. Inflectional affixesB. Free morphemeC. Derivational affixesD. Stems31. ( ) __________ is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires anew, sometimes related meaning.A. Semantic narrowingB. Semantic broadeningC. Semantic borrowingD. Semantic shift32. ( ) __________ studies how sounds are put together to convey meaning in communication.A. PhonologyB. MorphologyC. LexicologyD. Phonetics33. ( ) Stress in English is used to __________ semantically important words.A. signalB. stand outC. identifyD. single34. ( ) __________ refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another.A. Sound assimilationB. Internal borrowingC. ElaborationD. Rule simplification35. ( ) A compound word consists of __________.A. two or more than two wordsB. two morphemesC. two root morphemesD. two or more morphemes36. ( ) Of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords37. ( ) “alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above38. ( )The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. grammaticalC. morphemicD. semanticII. Directions: Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.1. English is an i__________ language.2. The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called p__________.3. IPA stands for International Phonetic A__________.4. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called s__________ features.5. C__________ is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6. P__________ studies language in relation to the mind.7. Human capacity for language has a g______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.8. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d__________.9. P__________ is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language.10. F__________ morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.11. B__________ is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.12. An English speaker and Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutuallyintelligible. This is a case of c__________ transmission.13. C__________ distribution means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occur in differentphonetic environments.14. Affixes like “im-”, “il-”, “un-”, “-tion”, “-or”, “-hood”, are called d______ affixes.15. The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one s__________ the other.16. Modern linguistics gives priority to the s__________ form of language.17. A bound r__________ can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning.18. Language is p_____ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.19. P_________ occur at the beginning of a word and suffixes at the end.20. Historical linguists are concerned with the historical d__________ of languages and the processes involvedin language change.21. Linguistics is generally defined as the s__________ study of language.22. D__________ means that language can be used to refer to things which present or not present, real orimagined matters in the past, present , or future, or in faraway places.23. The sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is l__________.24. Lying across the glottis are the v__________ cords, which are not really cords or strings as the nameindicates, but two membranes.25. S_________ is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies the social significance of language variation andlanguage use in different speech communities including regional, ethnic and social groups.26 I__________ affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number,degree, and case.27. A d__________ study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.28. In terms of morphemic analysis, c__________ can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes morethan two words to create new words.29. An acronym is a word created by combining the i__________ letters of a number of words.30 The description of a language as it changes through time is a d__________ study.31. The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society is known as s__________.32. O__________, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as twoseparate words.33. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they arecollectively known as i__________.34. The long vowels are all t__________ vowels and the short vowels are l__________ vowels.35. A s__________ community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or aparticular variety of language.36. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in thesame place in the strings, the two words are said to form a m__________ pair.37. Language is a system of a__________ vocal symbols used for human communication.38. Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a f__________ verb or averb phrase.39. Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language.40. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b______________ .41. M_____________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules bywhich words are formed.42. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.43. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.44. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.45. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.46. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.47.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.48. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.49. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Ⅲ. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement.1. ( ) Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, but sometimes prescriptive.2. ( ) Distinctive features are the same to any language.3. ( ) One of the clauses in a coordinate sentence is subordinate to the other.4. ( ) In English and many other languages, the subject usually follows the verb and the direct object usuallyprecedes the verb.5. ( ) The most vigorous and on going change in the historical development of a language is the change in itsvocabulary.6. ( ) SLA stands for second language acquisition.7. ( ) The writing system of any language is always a later invention, used to record the speech.8. ( ) Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.9. ( ) The root of a word is the smallest meaningful unit of language.10. ( ) Historical linguistics studies language change.11. ( ) Language is a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.12. ( ) A synchronic study of language is a historical study.13. ( ) The structure of words is not governed by rules.14. ( ) Epenthesis is a change that involves the insertion of a consonant or a vowel sound to the middle of aword.15. ( ) Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.16 ( ) Phonology is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all thesounds that occur in the world's languages.17. ( ) Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress andsentence stress.18. ( ) WH movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.19. ( ) Morphology and syntax study the same aspect of language.20. ( ) Stress is a relative notion; only words with two or more syllables can be said to have word stress, andmonosyllabic words can not be said to have word stress.21. ( ) Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.22. ( ) Language change is different from the change in the grammar.23. ( ) An acronym is a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.24. ( ) Some languages are more challenging to acquire as a native language.25. ( ) The ultimate objective of language is to create grammatically well formed sentences.26. ( ) Suffixes, in contrast with prefixes, are added to the end of stems.27. ( ) Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another.28. ( ) It is the property of arbitrariness that provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide rangeof things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.29. ( ) When language users use it to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to anotheror as an attempt to control each other's behavior, we think that language is now functioning as a means of intrapersonal communication.30. ( ) A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.31. ( ) The location of one of the suprasegmental features in English —stress does distinguish meaning.32. ( ) Most English words are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categoriesis fixed and no new members are allowed for, so they are known as major lexical categories.33. ( ) Language as the most important tool for human communication is both an open system and a closedsystem as well. It is closed because its forms in terms of sentences are regular, stable and context free.It is open because of its being variable, and context sensitive.34. ( ) What any individual speaker says within the same speech community is known as idiolect.35. ( ) A coordinate sentence contains two clauses which hold unequal status, that is, with one subordinatingthe other.36. ( ) It seems that with the help of language people may “think”better, and here it is believed thatlanguage is exerting its function of interpersonal communication.37. ( ) General linguistics studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicablein any linguistic study.38. ( ) Languages vary in the order of the subject, the verb and the object.39. ( ) The distinction between Saussure's langue and Chomsky's competence lies in that the former is amatter of social conventions while the latter emphasizes the property of the mind of each individual.40. ( ) Words are the smallest unit of language that can not be broken down into even smaller components.41. ( ) Blending is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.42. ( ) Phonetics deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning.43. ( ) Linguistic performance is essentially a social phenomenon but not a context dependent behavior.44. ( ) There are actually many other communicative systems rather than human language that are also rulegoverned.45. ( ) Morphology is divided into three sub-branches: inflectional morphology, lexical morphology andderivational morphology.46. ( ) In some sense we may use the term diachronic linguistics instead of historical linguistics.47. ( ) The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity.48. ( ) Both phonology and phonetics are studies of sound though they have different emphases.49. ( ) Generally speaking, the standard language is more effective in expressing ideas than any other dialectcoexisting with it.50. ( ) Major lexical categories are open categories.51. ( ) The most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of gender markings only.52. ( ) In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spokenform for a number of reasons.53. ( ) Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.54. ( ) The compound word "bookstore" is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning ofa compound is the sum total of the meanings of its components.55. ( ) Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English andAmerican English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.56. ( ) Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic worldof experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.57. ( ) Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.58. ( ) In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physicalworld of experience.IV. Explain the following terms briefly:1. Design feature: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2. Synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.3. Diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.4. Prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.5. Descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.6. Arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.7. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.8. Displacement: one design feature of human language, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space, at the moment of communication.9. Creativity(创造性): one design feature of human language ,by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its reccursiveness.10.C ompetence: competence means the language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.11. Performance: according to Chomsky, performance means the actual use of language in concrete situations.12. Langue: According to Saussure, langue refers to the linguistic competence of the speaker.13. Parole: According to Saussure, parole refers to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).14. Consonant: Consonants are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.15．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speech sounds.16．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved.. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation. 17．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.18. P hone: the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. It’s a phonetic unit or segment.19. Phoneme: A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. It’s a basic unit in phonological analysis. It is not any particular sound, but an abstract segment. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. (the sound type in the mind) The phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit.20. Allophone: the phones which are versions of one phoneme are referred to as the allophones of that phoneme.21. Minimal pairs: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment, which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.22. V owel: are sound segments produced without such obstruction, so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.23. Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.24. Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. There are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is know as progressive assimilation.25. Phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages. What it studies includes the organs of speech, transcription, classification of speech sounds etc.26. Intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English, which has four basic types of intonation known as the four tones: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.27. Suprasegmental: aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.28. Morpheme: The smallest meaningful components at the lowest level of a word are called morphemes, such as “man”, “-ly”, “teach” “-er”, “dark”, and “-en” in “manly”, “teacher” and “darken”. The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning such as “man”, “-ly”, “teach”, “-er” and grammatical meaning such as “-e s”, “-ed”, and “-ing” in “teaches” “ played” and “raining”.29. Grammatical words: words expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.30. Open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.31. Affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).32. Root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.33. Compounds: Compounds are compound morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snow-white, etc.34. Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”35. Blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words. 36. Loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.37. Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.38. Constituent: a term used in structural analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.39. Immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.40. Endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.41. Eexocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.42. Category: parts of speech and function, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.43. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.44. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised.45. Reference:Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience46. Synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.V. Questions:1. What are the major functions of language?Language function means the use of language to communicate, to think, etc. Language functions include informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.2. Describe the four design features of language with examples.3. State briefly how consonants are classified.Three parameters are involved in classifying a consonant/ Consonants are classified according to the following three parameters:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs: bi-labial, labio-dental, alveolar, etc②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished: plosive, fricative, nasal, etc③state of vocal cords: if the vocal cords vibrate or not: voiced and voiceless consonants.3. How are simple vowels classified?There are four ways to classify simple vowels:① According to the height of tongue raising: high, middle, low②According to the position of the highest part of the tongue: front, central, back③According to the shape of the lips (the degree of lip-rounding): rounded, unrounded。
语言学纲要期末复习完整答案
单选（12）语法、文字、词义、语言的发展演变多选（5）1、2、3、4、7、填空（8）（课件）判断分析（2）元辅音的发音元音，是发音时气流不受阻碍的音素。
辅音，是发音时气流要受一定阻碍的音素。
（1）元音：发音时声带振动，没有阻碍；辅音：有阻碍。
（2）元音：发音器官各部分保持均衡的紧张；辅音：只有形成阻碍的部位特别紧张。
（3）元音：气流较弱；辅音：气流较强。
地域方言概念、差异、特点语言符号的性质符号分三种：视觉符号、听觉符号、和触觉符号。
所有这些符号都有两个显着的特点：第一，它是随意约定的。
第二，这些符号都不是孤立存在的，它们都与其它符号相对地存在。
而语言符号区别于其他符号的特点是产生的时间不同，语言符号第一性，其他符号第二性。
还有就是运用的空间不同，语言符号具有开放性，其他符号具有封闭性。
名词解释（6）同化（同化现象在各种语言的语流音变中都十分常见，）同化是指一个音位受相邻音位的影响而在某个区别特征或音位整体上趋同的现象。
浊音清化“清——浊”是中古汉语的一对区别特征，后来浊音这个区别特征在很多方言中消失了，原来的浊音与同部位、同方法的清音合并。
这种现象叫做“浊音清化”。
符号有一定的形式表示一定意义的记号、标志。
（eg：红色—喜庆）一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记。
它包括了形式和意义两个方面的要素，是一定的形式和一定的内容的统一体，二者缺一不可。
符号分三种：一是视觉符号二是听觉符号三是触觉符号。
音位音位是具体语言或方言里具有区别词的语音形式作用的最小语音单位。
音位具有区别词的语音形式进而区别词的意义的作用。
音位是有区别词的语音形式之功能的最小线性单位。
音位总属于具体的语言或方言。
区别特征具体语言中有区别音位作用的发音特征，叫做该语言的区别特征。
音素与音素的区别特征主要靠语音发音的生理特征和声学特征来确定。
如辅音[p]是由辅音性、清音性、不送气性、塞音性、口音性、唇音性等特征聚合而成的。
语言学概论复习题及参考答案
《语言学概论》课程复习资料一、单项选择题：1.抽象思维的能力和灵活的发音能力相结合，表现为 [ ]A.聪明的才智B.潜在的能力C.人类的语言能力D.超级智慧2.语言是一种 [ ]A.自然现象B.个人现象C.社会现象D.正常现象3.语法的组合规则包括 [ ]A.词法和句法B.构词法和语法范畴C.句法和形态D.内部屈折和词序4.在语言学中，“pidgin”这个单词是指 [ ]A.鸽子B.洋泾浜C.商业D.外来语5.英语的 beer,汉语译为“啤酒”，这种类型的外来词叫做 [ ]A.音译B.意译C.音译加意译D.仿译6.把现代汉语第三人称代词写成“他”、“她”。
[ ]A.表示性的范畴B.表示格的范畴C.并不是表示性的范畴D.表示体的范畴7.汉藏语系诸语言表示语法关系多用( )，这是它们在结构类型上的共同特点之一。
[ ]A.声调B.重音C.词序和虚词D.词的形态变化8.现代汉语的“葡”和“玻” [ ]A.两个都是词B.两个都不是词C.前一个是词，后一个不是词D.后一个是词，前一个不是词9.藏语、维吾尔语、法语三种语言所属的语法结构类型按次序是 [ ]A.粘着语—屈折语—孤立语B.孤立语—粘着语—屈折语C.孤立语—屈折语—粘着语D.屈折语—孤立语—粘着语10.[p‘]、[t‘]、[k‘]三个音素的区别是( )不同。
[ ]A.发音方法B.清浊C.发音部位D.送气与否11.英语的重音是一种 [ ]A.音质音位B.非音质音位C.时位D.音位变体12.“雪花”和“花钱”的两个“花”的关系是 [ ]A.一词多义B.同音词C.同义词D.反义词13.词和句子都是 [ ]A.符号B.顺序C.符号的序列D.音标14.在社会变动较大或政治斗争激烈时，语言各构成要素中变化最大的是 [ ]A.语音B.词汇C.语法D.词义15.英语里的 football,汉语译为“足球”，这种类型的外来词叫做 [ ]A.音译词B.借词C.仿译词D.音译加意译16.词干 [ ]A.就是词根B.不是词根，但只能由词根构成C.可以由词根和词缀构成，不包括词尾D.由词根、词尾、词缀构成17.语言本身的性质和特点表现为 [ ]A.语言是人类最重要的交际工具B.语言是符号系统C.语言是思维工具D.语言是一种特殊的社会现象18.元音和辅音最本质的区别是 [ ]A.声带是否振动B.是否均衡紧张C.时间延续久暂D.气流是否受阻19.“拿一把锁把门锁上。
语言学概论复习题及详细答案
语言学概论一、填空题：1.双唇、浊、鼻音的国际音标是，舌面前、高、圆唇元音的国际音标是，舌面前、半高、不圆唇元音的国际音标是，舌面后、半高、圆唇元音的国际音标是。
2.舌面后、半高、圆唇元音的国际音标是，齿间、浊、擦音的国际音标是__________，双唇、不送气、浊、塞音的国际音标是__________，舌尖中、送气、清、塞音的国际音标是。
3.根据发音特征描述，写出下列元音：舌面后半高圆唇元音是，舌面前低不圆唇元音是，舌面前高圆唇元音是。
4.汉语的七大方言是、、、、、、，其中是现代汉民族共同语的基础方言。
5.根据语素在词中的不同作用，把词根和词缀叫作语素，而把词尾叫作语素。
6.世界上的语言从语法结构角度来划分，一般可以分为四种类型，即：、、和复综语，汉语属于。
7. 是由两个或两个以上构词语素组成的词。
8. 和是语言发展的两个突出的特点。
9.研究通常以词为界，词以上的规则叫，词以下的规则叫。
10.语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这两种关系是和。
11.语言符号的和是它的两大特点。
12.每个元音的音质是由、、三个方面的因素决定的。
舌位的高低，舌位的前后，嘴唇的圆展13.以音素为材料进行分析的音位是，具有区别意义作用的音高、音重、音长这类音位叫做。
14.一般说来，地域方言间的差别主要表现在上。
15.根据发音特点，音素可以分为和两类，例如汉语音节中的声母，主要就是由充当的。
16.用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义，完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员。
17.人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性。
18.几种句子格式表示相同或相近的结构意义，称为。
同一个句子表示几种不同的结构意义，称为。
19.语音的、、三个环节，分别对应于语音的生理、物理、心理三个方面的属性。
20.句子按其语气可以分为陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹等不同的类型，例如“什么书他都喜欢看”是。
语言学概论期末考试复习题及参考答案
语言学概论（八）期末考试复习题及参考答案一、单选题1.（2分）语言符号的任意性是指A.语言符号可以任意使用和创造B.绝大多数语言符号的能指和所指之间没有必然的理据关系C,可以任意使用语言符号绐事物命名D∙语言符号的能指和所指可以任意改变参考答案：B2.（2分）下列各组辅音中，发音部位相同的•组是A.image1..pngB.image2.pngC.image3.pngD.Image4.png参考答案：B3.（2分）“汽车”和“轿车”是A.上下位词B.同义词C.等义词D.近义词参考答案，A4.（2分）下列几种社会方言中，具有排他性的一项是A.阶级习惯语B.行话C隐语D.学生腔参考答案：C5.（2分）下列关于亲属语言的表述中，不正确的项是A亲属语言是社会完全分化的产物B∙亲属语言之间具有历史同源关系C.语言亲属关系有亲疏远近的分别D.亲属语言间不存在语音对应关系参考答案：D6..（2分）“老郎鼓励我考大学”是A.生谓诃组B.兼语词组C.连动词组D.复句词组参考答案，B7.12分）目前己知的最古老的拼音文字是一A.古埃及文字8.占希腊文字C腓尼基文字D∙中国的甲骨文参考答案：C9.（2分）划分词类的最本质的标准是A.分布标准8.意义标准C.形态标准D逻辑标准参考答案，A9.（2分）外语学习中的后期阶段被称为A.中介语阶段B.目标语阶段C低平期D高原期参考答案I D10.（2分）英语“students"中的"∙s"是.A.虚词语素B∙词根语素C.构形语素D.构词语素参考答案：C11.（2分）认为“思维和语言各自发展,二者没仃关系”的学者不包括A.古希腊哲学家柏拉图B.法国哲学家迪卡尔C.英国哲学家座布斯D.苏联语言学家马尔参考答案：D12.（2分）以卜.不属于语言学的三大发源地的是A.中国B.埃及C.印度D希腊•罗马参考答案，B13.（2分）下列语言学流派中桀中研究语言本体的流派是A.功能语言学B∙社会语言学C认知语言学D.结构语言学春考答案：D14.（2分）下面词组中,结构类型与其他各组不同的•组是A.年轻漂亮/朴素大方B.我们大家/首都北京C.民航大厦/工人农民D.贯彻执行/讨论研究辨考答案：C15.（2分）关于语言获得的原因，卜列学说中偏重于内部条件解择的一项是A.天赋说B.摹仿说C强化说D剌激反应说参考答案；A16.（2分）传统上把汉字的单纯字符称为A偏旁B笔画C记号D.独体字参考答案，D17.（2分）北京话“面”单念时读作但“面包”却读作［mi?mpau）,这种语流音变现象是A溺化B.增音C同化D.异化春考答案：C18.（2分）汉语中的词类（词的语法分类）可以首先分出的两个大类是一A.基本词和非基本词B.实诃和虚词C.典型词和兼类词D.体词和谓词参考答案：B19.（2分）目前对于语言和思维的关系，比较一致的观点是A.有什么样的思维，就有什么样的语言B∙有什么样的语言，就有什么样的思维C思维对语言有•定影响，但更重要的是语言决定思维D.语言对思维有一定影响,但更重要的是思维决定语言参考答案，D20.（2分）听觉上最自然、最容易分辨的最小语音单位是A.音素B.国i音C音位D.音节参考答案：D21.（2分）首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是A洪堡特B.索绪尔D.萨丕尔分考答案：B22.（2分）判断两种话是不同语言还是同一种语言的不同方言应该主要参考A.相互理解程度B.语言结构的差异程度C.共同的历史文化传统和民族认同感D∙地域临近程度参考答案，C23.（2分）语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在丁语言符号的A.任意性B.强制性C离散性D.系统性参考答案：A24.（2分）下列各项中，谓词和变元之间属于动作与结果关系的是A.写黑板B.打篮球C.织毛衣D.寄包裹参考答案，C25.（2分）从词的构造类型上看，汉语“动人”一词属于A.单纯词B.复合词D.简缩词参考答案：B26.（2分）语法的演变之所以比语汇缓慢，是因为A语法规则比较简单B.语法规则数量较少C.语法规则具有强制性D∙语法规则具有抽象性参考答案IC27.（2分）构形语素属于A.虚词语素B.词根语素C.自由语素D.黏若语素参考答案：D28.（2分）下列各组中,三个复合词构词类型不一致的一组是A.席卷耳鸣地震B.打倒切断推翻C发光散热出气D.天地欢乐爱好弁考答案：A29.（2分）在语言谱系分类的层级体系中,域大的类别是一A.语族B.语支C.语系D∙语群参考答案，C30.（2分）从语音的社公功能角度划分出来的最小语音单位是A.音位B.音素C.音节D.各渡参考答案：B31.（2分）人类语言和动物的交际方式A.完全一致B.有根本区别C有•定的差别D∙基本一样参考答案：B32.（2分）“我知道你很聪明。
(完整)语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版)1
语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on languagefacts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studiesthe basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable inany linguistic study. 7.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies thecombinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningfulsentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words iscalled morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies themorphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words intosentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning notin isolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point intime.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the writtenlanguage.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F.deSaussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the lettergiven:21. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rulesof his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the membersof a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions andapplication of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to thepheno广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaninglessindividual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can bestcomplete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, itis said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed. C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires hismother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between_________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics 46. Language 47. Phonetics 48. Morphology 49.Semantics 50. Sociolinguistics 51. Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness 53 Productivity 54. Displacement 55.Duality 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance 59. Langue 60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary,not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15. T 16.F 17.T 18.F 19.F 20.FII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the le tter given: 21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement. 3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms: 41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally definedas the scientific study of language. 42. Phonology: The study of how soundsare put together and used in communication is called phonology. 43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is calledsyntax. 44.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is calledpragmatics. 45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference tothe workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication iscalled phonetics. 48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemesare arranged to form words is called morphology. 49. Semantics: Thestudy of meaning in language is called semantics. 50. Sociolinguistics:The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to theapplication of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning,especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refersto the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such asthe recovery of speech ability. 52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the designfeatures of language. It means that there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and sounds 53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative inthat it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by itsusers. 54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be usedto refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in thepast, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be usedto refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, whichconsists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other ofmeanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the definingproperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system ofcommunication 57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the idealuser's knowledge of the rules of his language, 58. Performance: performance isthe actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rule s which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of lang ue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the appli cation of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation t o situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give exam ples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a sys tem, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondl y, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different language s have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good i llustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with object s, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed t heir writing systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that l anguage is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the c ommunication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" m eans that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with ex amples. 1) Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of langu age means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer t o the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirelyarbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sound s by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound word s are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 2) Productivity Language is prod uctive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretationof new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand a n infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have ne ver said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ev er sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal comm unication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. 3) Duality The du ality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning s. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk abou t anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duali ty or even comes near to possessing it. 4) Displacement Displacement mea ns that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away p laces. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed fro m the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation. 5) Cultural transmission Huma n beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of an y language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmi tted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) writte n language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mai nly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in a n objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study anda diachronic study? The description of a language at some point in timeis a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes throu gh time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describesa language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language o ver a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written? First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten for m and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of langua ge. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purp oses Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire o ur mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole? The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole ref ers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conve ntions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is t he concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Lang ue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is c oncrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is rel atively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from per son to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance? American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between comp etence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules e nables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large n umber of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mista kes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarras sment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the co mpetence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphaz ard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you thi nk are their major differences? Although Saussure’s distinction and Cho msky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a soci ological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social c onventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? Language isarbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia,words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds s uch as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two el ements “photo”and “copy”in “photocopy”are non-motivated, but t he compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章)Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of thestream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machinecalled spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulationand the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into whichthe consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alv eolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over asequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with t he letter given:21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released a nd the air passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]>27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is calledbroad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31. P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units t o effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the na sal cavity.33. T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates ofvibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just li ke phonemes. <![endif]>34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are twokinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stressIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark t he choice that can best complete the statement.35. Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible. A. mouth B. lips C. tongue D. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds. A. voiceless B. voiced C. vowel D. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C. exactly alike D. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be _________ __.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________. A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two ormore phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________. A. phonetic components B. immediate constituents C. suprasegmental features D. se mantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstractunit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. so und C. allophone D. phoneme44. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophones <![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone 48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F 11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begin s with the letter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place 26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. P honology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.DIV. Define the terms below:45.phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular lan guage; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patter ns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic com munication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unitof distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationallyaccepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i ntonation.50.51. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages52. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er. 53. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds a re transmitted through the air from one person to another.54. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we usewhen speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.55. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment a nd distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.56. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.57. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stri ngs, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:58. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing? 1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.59. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?。
语言学复习题及答案
I. Choose the best answer.1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human__________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2.Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language—A nice day, isn’t it— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal3.__________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’sknowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole4.__________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics5. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. Psycholinguistics linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics6. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns areimposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice7. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme8. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones9. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as__________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula10. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering11. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones12. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech soundsA. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above13. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulationA. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]14. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowelsA. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]15. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibratingA. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottal stopD. Consonant16. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words17. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational18. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six19. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems20. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation21. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition22. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending23. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy24. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement25. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorph26. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical27. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite28. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational29. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical30. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator31. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional32. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.33. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome34. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate35. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ s entence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complex36. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth37. “Can I borrow your bike”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes38. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis39. “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above40. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense41. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy42. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms43. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context44. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual45. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive46. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century47. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act48._____ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.49.A. SyntaxB. Grammar C. MorphologyD. Morpheme50._____ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units oflanguage by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences51.“-s” in the word “books” is_______.52.A. a derivative affixB. a stem C. an inflectional affix D. a root53.Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ___ affix ____ and __bound root________.54. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.55. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy56. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic features57. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context58.A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual59. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive60. Which of the following is trueA. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.65. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century66. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act67. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs68. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about69. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle70. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted,_______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicatures71.The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is __________..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky72.The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of __________.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system73.The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is __________.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris74.Generally speaking, the __________ specifies whether a certain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Cohesion75. __________ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative76. __________ Grammar started from the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Montague77. In Halliday’s view, the __________ function is the function that the child uses to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. informative78. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is __________.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jane79.Chomsky follows __________ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. mentalism80. TG grammar has seen __________ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. linguistics2. competenceCompetence: It is an essential part of perf ormance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.3. Synchronic linguisticsSynchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.4. Sound assimilationSound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.5. AllomorphAllomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.6. phonology7. SyntaxSyntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.8. referential theory9. PerformativePerformative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).10. Locutionary actLocutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.11. phonetics12. Complementary distributionComplementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.13. displacement14. sociolinguisticssociolinguistics: Defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the study of language in relation to society. It is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.15 Phoneme20 assimilation21 synonymy22 semanticsIII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound. T2. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation. T3. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop. F4. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes. F5. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations. F6. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations. F7. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. F8. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb. T9. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge. F10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional. T11. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all itscomponents. F12. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. T13. “It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument. T14. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. T15. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F16. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent. F17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences F18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. Fmade the distinction between a constative and a performative. T20. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.F21. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history. F22. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms. F23. Only human beings are able to communicate. F24. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist. FIV. Fill in the blanks.nguage, broadly speaking, is a means of __verbal _communication.2.Saussure put forward two important concepts. ___ _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is metalingual function.4.The description of a language as it changes through time is a _ diachronic linguistic__. ___ study.5.Consonant sounds can be either ___voiced. ______ or __voiceless _ ___, while all vowel sounds are voiced.6.Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __ friction ___.7.The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __tongue ________ and the lips.English there are a number of _ diphthongs___, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.9. Phonemes is the smallest linguistic unit.10.Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __ air stream __ coming from the lungs.11.Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with _ vocabulary .12.All words may be said to contain a root ___morpheme_.13.Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the _ morpheme level.14.A word formed by derivation is called a _derivative _ __, and a word formed by compounding is called a ___compound _ .15.A ___simple __ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16.A __ subject __ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentencethat usually precedes the predicate.17.A __complex _ __ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.18.In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an _ embedded _ clause.19.Major lexical categories are __open _ __ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.20.The theory of _ _Case ____ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.21. __Semantics ___ can be defined as the study of meaning.22.The conceptualist view holds that there is no __direct ____ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.23. Reference ___ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.24. Words that are close in meaning are called __ synonyms__.25. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called homophones .26. The Prague School practiced a special style of __synchronic ________ Linguistics.27. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between __phonetics ________ and phonology.28. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was ___J. R. Firth _______.29. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind his Functional Grammar is __systemic ________. 30. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) __sociologically________ oriented functional linguistic approach.31. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of ___ distribution _______.32. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as __Bloomfieldian ________ Age.33. ___Descriptivism _______ in language theories is characteristic of America.34. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG grammar is his ___innateness _______ hypothesis.35. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that isa ___hypothesis-maker _______, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.V. Give the description of the following consonants and vowels in English [p] [b] [s] [z] [d] [k] [l] [t] [m] [h] [g] [j][u:] [ e ] [ : ] [ i: ] [: ] [] [: ] [ɑ: ]VI.Draw a tree diagram of the following sentences.1.The boy ate the apple.2.Mother gave a doll to my sister.3.Mother gave my sister a doll4.I read a interesting book.VII.Answer the following questions.1.The following conversational fragments is to some degree odd. Towhat extent can the oddness be explained by reference to Grice’s CP and what extent can the oddness be explained by reference to Grice’s CP and maximsA: When is the bus comingB: There has been an accident further up the road.Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when.” However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “I don’t know” or “I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “relevant” and “informative.” Given that B’s answer contains relevant information, A can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “traffic jam,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when the bus comes.”2.Explain the following remarks with examples or make somecomments. “Both semantics and pragmatics are concerned with meaning, but the difference between them can be traced to two different uses of the verb mean: (a) What does X mean (b) What did you mean by X”Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.3.Can you make a brief introduction to some important schools andtheir influential representatives in modern linguistics4.How many types of morphemes are there in the English languageWhat are they5.What are endocentric construction and exocentric constructionAn endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.。
语言学纲要复习考试题及答案
语言学纲要复习考试题及答案语言学纲要》复习题导言一．填空题1． ___ 、 ___ 、 ____ 具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。
2． ___ 是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为。
3． ___ 、 ___ 、 ____ 是我国传统的语文学。
4．研究语言的结构，主要是研究 ______ 、 ___ 、 ____ 三个部分。
5．运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为 _______ 、 ____ 、 ___ 、 ____ 、____ 五个阶段。
二．问答题1．古代的语言研究和今天的语言研究有哪些不同？2．语言交际过程分为哪几个阶段？请举例具体说明。
3．" 语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学；既与社会科学有密切的联系，又与自然科学有密切的联系。
段话的含义？" 怎样理解这4．语言学有哪些作用？请结合实际谈谈你的看法。
5．《语言学纲要》一书讲述了哪几个方面的问题？6 •查阅有关资料，回答下列问题：① 语言学有哪些分支学科？②"语言学概论”属于语言学中的哪一门学科？③代汉语属于语言学中的那一门学科？④ 研究言语交际的科学属于语言学的哪一门学科？现代汉语、古第一章语言的社会功能一•填空题1 •人和动物的区别是人会制造工具，而且人类有 ______ ，这人和动物相区别的重要标志之一。
2•一种语言中的句子数量是无限的，人类之所以能掌握语言，是因为构成句子的____是十分有限的。
3 •语言是人类社会的 ____ ，而且也是思维的 _____ 。
4•在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务。
例如汉民族点头表示 ____ ，摇头表示—，送别时挥手表示 __ ， ___ 表示欢迎，咬牙切齿表示 _____ ，手舞足蹈表示 ____ 。
5 •人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的 _____ 半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性 _______ 。
6 •汉语的哥哥、弟弟，英语用 ____ 表示，汉语的舅妈、姨妈、姑妈、婶婶，英语用 _______ 表示。
滨州学院语言学概论期末复习题及参考答案
2023年下学期语言学概论（考试课）复习资料、多项选择题1元音[A]是。
(1分）A前元音B.央元音C低元音D不圆唇元音答案：BCD2非音质要素是指(1分）A.音色B音高C音强D音长答案：BCD3.固定词组的显著特点是。
(1分）A来源的多样性B运用的普遍性C.结构的定型性D意义的完整性答案：CD4常见的附加意义有。
(1分）A感情意义B.比喻义C语体意义D联想意义答案：ACD5依据句子的表述功能，可以将句子分为。
(1分）A.陈述句B疑问旬C祈使句D感叹句答案：ABCD6.同基本词汇相比，一般词汇的特点是。
(1分）A多义性B.不一定是全民常用的，使用的范围和复现的频率不及基本词汇C.缺乏历史稳固性，发展变化较快D数量庞大，成分庞杂答案：BCD7词典的编纂的三个步骤分别是。
(1分）A.选词B.注释C编排D检索答案：ABC8语义场的类别有(1分）A联想义场B同义义场C反义义场D多义义场答案：ABCD9词义引申的途径是(1分）A夸张B比喻C拟人D借代答案：BD10语义历史演变的原因是(1分）A语音的发展B社会生活的发展变化C人的认识能力的提高D语言单位内部的矛盾答案：BCD11语言和言语的联系是。
(1分）A语言存在千言语之中，言语是语言存在的形式。
B语言是对言语的规范。
C语言和言语都具有个人因素。
D语言是从言语中概括出来的，没有言语就无所谓语言。
答案：ABD12普遍语言发展规律的特点是(1分）A突变性B多样性C渐变性D参差性答案：CD13造成语音音质不同的原因有(1分）A发音体不同B发音方法不同C发音时间长短不同D共振腔的形状不同答案：ABD14诀定每个辅音的特性的是(1分）A气流的强弱B形成阻碍的具体部位C具体的发音方法D是否形成阻碍答案：BC15常见的表达语法结构意义的语法手段有。
(1分）A选词B词序C.虚词D词形变化答案：ABCD16人与人在语言交际中要遵守合作原则，合作原则包括。
(1分）A量的准则B质的准则C相关准则D方式准则答案：ABCD17诀定辅音发音不同的是。
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语法范畴：词形变化表现的语法意义的聚合叫做“语法范畴”。
语法范畴就是词形变化所表达的语法意义的类。
常见的语法范畴主要性、数、格、体、时、态、级等，俄语、德语、法语中的某些词有性的区分。
文字：是指语言的视觉符号性质，是为了记录语言而发明的一种书写符号系统，是在语言的基础上产生的。
文字有音，形，义三部分。
音位变体：处在互补关系中的相似的音素彼此不对立，即不起区别词的语音形式的作用，我们可以把它们归并为一个音位。
如果他们被归为一个音位，则处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看作同一个音位在不同的位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，所以我么把它们叫做音位变体。
音位变体可以分为“自由变体”和“条件变体”组合关系：符号和符合组合起来，形成高一级的结构，处于高一级结构中的各个符号，称为结构的成份，结构中的各个成分的关系称为组合关系。
聚合关系：如果一些语言符号或更大的单位在结合的某一环节上能够互相替换并且替换后结构关系不会改变，那么这些符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，它们彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。
直接组成成分：句子是按照一定的规则一层一层组合起来的。
每一层中直接组合起来构成一个更大的语法单位的两个组成成分叫做直接组成部分。
洋泾浜：是当地人在和外来的商人，水手，传教士等打交道的过程中学来的一种变了形的外语。
是当地人没有学好的外语，是外语在当地语言的影响下出现的变种。
“洋泾浜”的共同特点是：语音经过当地语言音系的适当改造，语法规则减少到最低限度，词汇的项目比较少，往往要借助于迂回曲折的总说法指称事物。
“洋泾浜”是一定社会条件下的产物，只有口头形式，用于和外国人交往的特殊场合，没有人把它看作母语作为第一语言。
语言和言语语言的交际功能就是通过言语形式来实现的。
语言学中把对语言的运用及其成果成为言语，通俗点讲言语就是说话（或写作）和所说（所写）的话语言是从言语中概括出来的的为社会所公认的词语和规则的总和。
每个人说出来的各式各样的句子中，都必须具备为全社会共同理解的一致遵守的东西，这就是语言的语音，词汇，语法。
社会中的人群由于性别，年龄，文化程度，经济状况和社会分工的不同而分化为不同的社团。
格局社会因素而区分的社团与语言特点相关，因此这些社会社团又被成为不同的“言语社团”。
各个言语社团语言是在全民族语言基础上产生的各有自己特点的语言分支或语言变体，这就是所谓社会方言。
基础方言一个民族或一个国家的共同语是在某一个方言的基础上形成的，这种方言叫做基础方言。
小学训诂学（字义），音韵学（字音），文字学（字形）句法同义：就是几种句子格式表示相同或相近的结构意义。
例如：（1）我打破了杯子。
（2）杯子被我打破了（3）杯子我打破了。
（4）我把杯子打破了。
这四个句子句法组合有别，但意义相近句法多义：是指同一个句法组合具有两种或两种以上的结构意义。
例如：通知的人还没有来简答题1、举例说明语言符号的任意性和线条性语言符号的任意性是指：作为符号系统的成员，单个语言符合的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系，即约定俗成的。
相近的概念，在不同的语言中其语音形式差异很大，同样表达“书”的意义，汉语发音为“shu”，英语发音为“book”。
相反，相近的发音，在不同的语言中，可能意义完全不同。
语言符号的线条性：语言符号在试用中是以符号序列的形式出现的，符号只能一个跟着一个依次出现，在时间的线条上绵延，不能在空间的面上铺开。
如：“香”，“菜”，“肠”，“瓜”，“油”这些都是单个的符号，“香菜”，“香肠”，“香瓜”，“香油”，“菜香”等，则分别是由这些最小的符号组合而成的不同的符号序列，表达了不同于单个符号的新的意义。
例如“香菜”与“瓜香”意义不同是由于符号的结构关系不同，而结构关系的不同是由于符号的线性排序不同来表达的。
语法结构规则就隐含在这些线性序列中。
2、举例说明三种语法范畴词形变化表现的语法意义的聚合叫做“语法范畴”。
语法范畴就是词形变化所表达的语法意义的类。
常见的语法范畴主要性、数、格、体、时、态、级等，俄语、德语、法语中的某些词有性的区分。
（1）体，表示动作行为而进行的各种阶段和状态，是动词特有的语法范畴动词的简单形式表示普通体（eg.“I write”），“be+动词的现在分词”表示进行体（eg.“I am writing”），“have+动词的过去词”表示完成体（eg.“I have written”）。
（2）态，也称语态，表示动作和主体的关系。
它是动词所具有的语法范畴，一般分为主动态和被动态，主动态表示主体是动作的发出者，被动态表示主体是动作的承受者，谓语会有eg. John is writing by JohnA letter is being written by John（3）人称，不少语言的动词随着主语的人称不同而有不用的形式，英语动词只在现在时单数的时候有第三人称和其他人称的对立。
eg. He（she）writes I write You write They Write3、语言发展的特点渐变性和不平衡性是语言发展的两个最重要的特点。
（一）语言发展的渐变性渐变性是语言发展的一个重要特点，指语言随着社会的发展变化而变化，但语言不像社会变革那样产生突变，而是逐渐发展变化的，具有相对稳定性。
为什么语言发展变化会有渐变性特点呢？这是由语言的社会功能所决定的，语言作为人类最重要的交际工具，社会成员相互联系的纽带和桥梁，是人们日常生活根本离不开的，人们无时无刻不使用语言，语言同社会的关系是如此密切，因此不可能发生巨变、突变，只能逐渐变化，即使社会发生了剧烈变化，语言也不马上巨变，大有我自岿然不动之势。
这样才能有人们的需要相适应，不至于影响人们的使用。
我们前面说到，有些国家分裂了，一种语言也随着分裂为不同的语言，这里好象发生了巨变，其实这只是名分上的变化，没有影响到语言的实质，真正的变化还是在以后逐渐发生的。
（二）语言发展的不平衡性第一，语言系统的各个组成部分的发展不平衡，发展速度不一样，有的快，有的慢，其中词汇变化最快，语音和语法发展比较慢。
第二，语言在不同的地域的发展速度和发展方向也不一样，同一种语言现象，在有的地区变化，在有的地区不发生变化，有的地区是另一种变化，其结果是形成地域方言和社会方言。
为什么语言发展变化会有不平衡性特点呢？这可以从以下几个方面来认识：第一，语言系统中，词汇变化最快，因为词汇与社会的联系最为紧密，最直接，对社会的发展变化反应也最灵敏，社会的变化，现实现象的产生与消失，随时都能在词汇中反应出来，比如一个新事物新观念产生了，要进入交际领域，首先就要有个名称，就必然要在词汇系统中反映出来，而社会现象、事物、观念的产生与消失，是经常发生的，在词汇中以新词的产生、旧词的消亡、词义的发展变化等种种形式。
第二，由于各地的社会政治、经济文化等方面的发展水平不一致，往往就导致语言在不同地域的发展变化具有不同的特点，因而具有不平衡性的特点。
比如我们今天常用的“楼盘、楼花、按揭、写字楼”就是从“台港－广东－内地”这样传开的。
4、什么是分布？区分词类的标准是什么？词出现的语言环境的总和叫分布词类按照词在结构中所能起的作用，即词的句法功能分出类词法功能：1、充当句法成分（实）主语n. 谓语v. 宾语n 补语adj adv2、能与哪些词语组合（实）不能加“很、不”，后不能加“了”，不做谓语的叫名词前加“很”，后面加“了、的”，在偏正结构中修饰名词的叫形容词后加“的，了”，前不加“不”，但能加“很”，叫动词3、表达的语法意义（虚）专门起语法作用，是体现结构关联的重要语法手段，语法特征比较明显。
eg. 汉语中起连接作用的连词（和，或者，虽然），表示语气的语气词（吗，呢，吧）5、语言符号的层级体系（P28）语言符号看起来零零散散，好像是一堆乱糟糟的材料，但实际上它们相互间存在着规律性的联系，组成一个严密的系统。
可以从两方面来认识这种系统：一是组成规则，二是运转规则。
语言系统的组成规则主要表现为结构的层次性，就是说，语言是一种分层的装置，可以从低到高、或者从下到上分出若干个层次，使音、义以及由音义相结合而组成的符号“各就各位”，各得其所，但每一种现象又不是孤立的，相互之间处于一种互相依存、彼此制约的关系之中，形成一个严密的系统。
我们可以从下到上去观察语言系统的结构层次。
语言符号是音与义的结合体，因而音与义自然处于最下层。
“音”本来是一条混沌、模糊的线性音流，犹如笑声哭声、虎啸狼毫，分不出音的结构成分来；“义”的情况也是如此，混沌、模糊，分不出意义的界限。
一种语言的音位是有限的，一般只有三、四十个，但这些有限的音位按照一定的规则进行组合而构成语音，基本上就能满足意义表达的需要，构成语言符号。
音位本身没有意义，但具有区别意义的作用；意义如果不经语音的包装，也是无法显示和表达的。
音位处于语言系统的下层，其特点就是单面性，因为它本身没有意义。
音位经组合而与某种意义相结合就能构成语言的符号和符号的序列，这是语言的上层。
这一层又可以分若干个级：第一级是语素，这是语言中音义结合的最小结构单位，第二级是由语素的组合构成的词，第三级是由词的组合构成的句子；词和句子都是符号的序列。
6、举例说明常见的语言手段1、历史比较语言学——标志语言科学诞生（1）19世纪历史比较语言学在理论和方法上大致可以分为三个阶段：在初始阶段，丹麦的拉斯克、德国的格里姆和葆扑被成为历史比较语言学的奠基者。
19世纪中期，历史比较语言学发展到第二阶段，最有代表性的人物是德国的施莱歇尔。
19世纪的最后25年是历史比较语言学的“新语法学派”时期。
这个学派的代表人物是德国的奥斯特霍夫和布鲁克曼，他们在自己创办的刊物《形态学研究》上正式宣布：语音的演变规律不允许任何例外。
（2）地位：历史比较语言学从前又称比较语法，通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律，拟测它们的共同母语。
历史比较语言学主要是印欧语系的历史比较。
1 9世纪历史比较语言学家为语言学的发展做出了重要贡献。
他们不仅提出了人类语言演变过程的假设，画出了世界语言的譜系，而且还创造出比较科学的研究方法，提出了有关语言起源、语言本质的新理论，为后来结构主义和描写语言学的产生和发展创造了有利条件。