曼昆《经济学原理》第6版微观经济学分册第13章课后习题答案P280-P283
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解【讲解】
目 录第一部分 笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解[视频讲解]第1篇 导 言第1章 经济学十大原理1.1 复习笔记1.2 课后习题详解1.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第2章 像经济学家一样思考2.1 复习笔记2.2 课后习题详解2.3 考研真题详解第3章 相互依存性与贸易的好处3.1 复习笔记3.2 课后习题详解3.3 考研真题详解第2篇 市场如何运行第4章 供给与需求的市场力量4.1 复习笔记4.2 课后习题详解4.3 考研真题详解第5章 弹性及其应用5.1 复习笔记5.2 课后习题详解5.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第6章 供给、需求与政府政策6.1 复习笔记6.2 课后习题详解6.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第3篇 市场和福利第7章 消费者、生产者与市场效率7.1 复习笔记7.2 课后习题详解7.3 考研真题详解第8章 应用：赋税的代价8.1 复习笔记8.2 课后习题详解8.3 考研真题详解第9章 应用：国际贸易9.1 复习笔记9.2 课后习题详解9.3 考研真题详解第4篇 公共部门经济学第10章 外部性10.1 复习笔记10.2 课后习题详解10.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第11章 公共物品和公共资源11.1 复习笔记11.2 课后习题详解11.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第12章 税制的设计12.1 复习笔记12.2 课后习题详解12.3 考研真题详解第5篇 企业行为与产业组织第13章 生产成本13.1 复习笔记13.2 课后习题详解13.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第14章 竞争市场上的企业14.1 复习笔记14.2 课后习题详解14.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第15章 垄 断15.1 复习笔记15.2 课后习题详解15.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第16章 垄断竞争16.1 复习笔记16.2 课后习题详解16.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第17章 寡 头17.1 复习笔记17.2 课后习题详解17.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第6篇 劳动市场经济学第18章 生产要素市场18.1 复习笔记18.2 课后习题详解18.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第19章 收入与歧视19.1 复习笔记19.2 课后习题详解19.3 考研真题详解第20章 收入不平等与贫困20.1 复习笔记20.2 课后习题详解20.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第7篇 深入研究的论题第21章 消费者选择理论21.1 复习笔记21.2 课后习题详解21.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第22章 微观经济学前沿22.1 复习笔记22.2 课后习题详解22.3 考研真题详解[视频讲解]第二部分 模拟试题及详解曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）模拟试题及详解（一）曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）模拟试题及详解（二）第一部分 笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解[视频讲解]第1篇 导 言第1章 经济学十大原理1.1 复习笔记1．经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》第6版课后习题详解(1~2章)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》第6版课后习题详解第一篇导言第1章经济学十大原理一、概念题1.稀缺性稀缺性是指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有限性与人类的欲望无限性之间的矛盾。
2.经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
其中微观经济学是以单个经济主体为研究对象，研究单个经济主体面对既定资源约束时如何进行选择的科学；宏观经济学则以整个国民经济为研究对象，主要着眼于经济总量的研究。
3.效率效率是指人们在实践活动中的产出与投入比值或者是效益与成本比值，比值大效率高，比值小效率低。
它与产出或收益大小成正比，与投入或成本成反比。
4.平等平等是指人与人的利益关系及利益关系的原则、制度、做法、行为等都合乎社会发展的需要，即经济成果在社会成员中公平分配的特性。
它是一个历史范畴，按其所产生的社会历史条件和社会性质的不同而不同，不存在永恒的公平；它也是一个客观范畴，尽管在不同的社会形态中内涵不同对其的理解不同，但都是社会存在的反映，具有客观性。
5.机会成本机会成本是指将一种资源用于某种用途，而未用于其他用途所放弃的最大预期收益。
其存在的前提条件是：①资源是稀缺的；②资源具有多种用途；③资源的投向不受限制。
6.理性人理性人是指系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标的人，是经济研究中所假设的、在一定条件下具有典型理性行为的经济活动主体。
7.边际变动边际变动是指对行动计划的微小增量调整。
8.激励激励是指引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。
9.市场经济市场经济是指由家庭和企业在市场上的相互交易决定资源配置的经济，而资源配置实际上就是决定社会生产什么、生产多少、如何生产以及为谁生产的过程。
10.产权产权是指个人拥有并控制稀缺资源的能力，也可以理解为人们对其所交易东西的所有权，即人们在交易活动中使自己或他人在经济利益上受益或受损的权力。
第六版微观经济学课后习题答案解析
习题一1.简释下列概念：稀缺：指相对于人的无穷无尽的欲望而言，“经济物品”以及生产这些物品的资源总是不充分的或者说不足的。
自由物品：指人类无需通过努力就能自由取用的物品，如阳光、空气等，其数量是无限的。
经济物品：指人类必须付出代价方可得到的物品，即必须借助生产资源通过人类加工出来的物品。
生产可能性边界：指在既定的经济资源和生产技术条件下所能达到的各种产品最大产量的组合的轨迹，又叫生产可能性曲线。
自给经济：一种经济体制，其特点是每个家庭生产他们消费的大部分物品，扩大一点说，是每个村落生产他们消费的大部分物品，只有极少数消费品是与外界交换来的。
在这种体制下，资源配置和利用由居民的直接消费所决定，经济效率低下。
计划经济：一种经济体制，其基本特征是生产资料归政府所有，经济的管理实际上像一个单一的大公司。
在这种体制下，资源配置和利用由计划来解决。
市场经济：一种经济体制，其基本特征是产权明晰，经济决策高度分散。
这种经济为一只“看不见的手”所指引，资源配置和利用由自由竞争的市场中的价格机制来解决。
混合经济：一种经济体制，其基本特征是生产资料的私人所有和国家所有相结合，自由竞争和国家干预相结合，因此也是垄断和竞争相混合的制度。
在这种体制下，凭借市场制度来解决资源配置问题，依靠国家干预来解决资源利用问题。
微观经济学：西方经济学的两大组成部分之一，它以单个经济单位（居民户、厂商以及单个产品市场）为考察对象，研究单个经济单位的经济行为，以及相应的经济变量的单项数值如何决定。
宏观经济学：西方经济学的两大组成部分之一，以整个国民经济活动作为考察对象，研究社会总体经济问题以及相应的经济变量的总量是如何决定的及其相互关系。
总体经济问题包括经济波动、经济增长、就业、通货膨胀、国家财政、进出口贸易和国际收支等。
实证经济学：在解释经济运行时从客观事实出发，力求说明和回答经济现象“是什么”和“为什么”，并借以预测人们经济行为的后果，而不对事物作好坏、善恶的评价。
经济学原理第六版答案
经济学原理第六版答案经济学原理是经济学的基础课程，它涵盖了微观经济学和宏观经济学的基本理论和原则。
通过学习经济学原理，我们可以更好地理解和分析经济活动，为我们未来的经济决策提供理论支持。
在经济学原理第六版中，我们将学习到许多重要的经济学概念和原理。
其中包括供求关系、市场均衡、生产成本、市场结构、货币和银行体系、经济增长和循环等内容。
这些知识将帮助我们理解现代经济体系的运作机制，为我们在实际生活和工作中做出正确的经济决策提供指导。
在学习经济学原理的过程中，我们可能会遇到一些困难和问题。
特别是对于一些抽象的概念和理论，我们可能需要更多的实例和案例来加深理解。
因此，本文档将提供经济学原理第六版的答案，帮助大家更好地掌握课程内容。
首先，我们将从微观经济学的角度出发，回答一些关于供求关系、市场均衡和市场结构的问题。
通过分析市场上的需求和供给情况，我们可以更好地理解价格形成的机制，以及市场在资源配置中的作用。
同时，我们也将涉及到不同市场结构下企业行为和市场效率的问题，帮助大家理解市场竞争的特点和影响。
其次，我们将转向宏观经济学的内容，讨论货币和银行体系、经济增长和循环等方面的问题。
通过分析货币供应和需求的关系，我们可以了解货币政策对经济的影响，以及通货膨胀和失业等宏观经济问题的解决办法。
同时，我们也将探讨经济增长的驱动力和经济循环的原因，帮助大家理解宏观经济运行的规律。
最后，我们将总结本文档提供的经济学原理第六版答案，并强调学习经济学原理的重要性。
通过系统地学习和掌握经济学原理的知识，我们可以更好地理解和分析现实生活中的经济问题，为我们的个人和职业发展提供理论支持。
总之，经济学原理是一门重要的经济学基础课程，通过学习它，我们可以更好地理解和分析经济活动，为我们未来的经济决策提供理论支持。
本文档提供了经济学原理第六版的答案，帮助大家更好地掌握课程内容。
希望大家能够认真学习，加深对经济学原理的理解，为未来的学习和工作打下坚实的基础。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第1章 经济学十大原理)精编版
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第1篇导言第1章经济学十大原理课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1．稀缺性（scarcity）答：经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
稀缺性指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有用性与有限性。
人类消费各种物品的欲望是无限的，满足这种欲望的物品，有的可以不付出任何代价而随意取得，称之为自由物品，如阳光和空气；但绝大多数物品是不能自由取用的，因为世界上的资源（包括物质资源和人力资源）是有限的，这种有限的、为获取它必须付出某种代价的物品，称为“经济物品”。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，地球上就存在着资源的有限性和人类的欲望与需求的无限性之间的矛盾。
经济学的一个重要研究任务就是：“研究人们如何进行抉择，以便使用稀缺的或有限的生产性资源（土地、劳动、资本品如机器、技术知识）来生产各种商品，并把它们分配给不同的社会成员进行消费。
”也就是从经济学角度来研究使用有限的资源来生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产的问题。
2．经济学（economics）答：经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
时下经常见诸国内报刊文献的“现代西方经济学”一词，大多也都在这个意义上使用。
自从凯恩斯的名著《就业、利息和货币通论》于1936年发表之后，西方经济学界对经济学的研究便分为两个部分：微观经济学与宏观经济学。
微观经济学是以单个经济主体（作为消费者的单个家庭或个人，作为生产者的单个厂商或企业，以及单个产品或生产要素市场）为研究对象，研究单个经济主体面对既定的资源约束时如何进行选择的科学。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解
第14章竞争市场上 的企业
第13章生产成本
第15章垄断
第16章垄断 竞争
第17章寡头
第19章收入与歧视
第18章生产要素市 场
第20章收入不平等 与贫困
第21章消费 者选择理论
第22章微观 经济学前沿
作者介绍
读书笔记
这是《曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）课后习题详解》的读书笔记模板，可以替换为自己 的心得。
目录分析
第2章像经济学家 一样思考
第1章经济学十大 原理
第3章相互依存性 与贸易的好处
第5章弹性及其应 用
第4章供给与需求 的市场力量
第6章供给、需求 与政府政策
第8章应用：赋税 的代价
第7章消费者、生 产者与市场效率
第9章应用：国际 贸易
第11章公共物品和 公共资源
第10章外部性
第12章税制的设计
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分 册）》（第6版）课后习题详解
读书笔记模板
01 思维导图
03 目录分析 05 读书笔记
目录
02 内容摘要 04 作者介绍 06 精彩摘录
思维导图
关键字分析思维导图
习题
教材
消费者
微观经济 学
企业
习题
供给
微观经 济学
经济学
原理
第章
需求
曼昆经济 学பைடு நூலகம்
市场
经济学家
第篇
收入
应用
税制
内容摘要
本书特别适用于参加研究生入学考试指定考研参考书目为曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》的考生， 也可供各大院校学习曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》的师生参考。曼昆的《经济学原理》是世界上最流 行的初级经济学教材，也被众多院校列为经济类专业考研重要参考书目。为了帮助学生更好地学习这本教材，我 们有针对性地编著了它的配套辅导用书（均提供免费下载，免费升级）：1．曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分 册）》（第6版）笔记和课后习题详解（含考研真题）[视频讲解]2．曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》 【教材精讲+考研真题解析】讲义与视频课程【35小时高清视频】3．曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》 （第6版）课后习题详解4．曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第5版）课后习题详解5．曼昆《经济学原 理（微观经济学分册）》配套题库【名校考研真题（视频讲解）+课后习题+章节练习+模拟试题】6．曼昆《经济 学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）笔记和课后习题详解（含考研真题）[视频讲解]7．曼昆《经济学原理 （宏观经济学分册）》【教材精讲+考研真题解析】讲义与视频课程【27小时高清视频】8．曼昆《经济学原理 （宏观经济学分册）》（第6版）课后习题详解9．曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》（第5版）课后习题 详解10．曼昆《经济学原理（宏观经济学分册）》配套题库【名校考研真题（视频讲解）+课后习题+章节练习+ 模拟试题】本书是曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）教材的配套e书，参考国外教材的英文答案 和相关资料对曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）教材每章的课后习题进行了详细的分析和解答， 并对个别知识点进行了扩展。课后习题答案久经修改，非常标准，特别适合应试作答和临考冲刺。另外，部分高 校，如武汉大学、深圳大学等，研究生入学考试部分真题就来自于该书课后习题，因此建议考生多加重视。
曼昆微观经济学课后答案第六版
曼昆微观经济学课后答案第六版【篇一：曼昆《经济学原理》第6版微观经济学分册第3章课后习题答案p63-p66】情况下，生产可能性曲线是直线，而不是外凸的？【重要级别】☆☆☆【难度级别】☆☆☆【考查要点】生产可能性边界定义【参考答案】当生产一种产品的机会成本为常数时，生产可能性曲线是直线而不是外凸的。
2?解释绝对优势和比较优势有什么不同。
【重要级别】☆☆☆☆【难度级别】☆☆☆【考查要点】绝对优势定义；比较优势定义【参考答案】绝对优势和比较优势都是用于衡量不同生产者生产效率差异的概念，绝对优势以生产效率为评价标准，比较优势以机会成本为评价标准。
同一生产者可能同时在两种物品上都具有绝对优势，但不可能同时在两种物品上都拥有比较优势。
绝对优势反映了生产率的高低，比较优势反映了相对机会成本的高低。
3?举例说明一个人在做某件事上有绝对优势，而另一个人有比较优势。
【重要级别】☆☆☆【难度级别】☆☆【考查要点】绝对优势应用；比较优势应用【参考答案】工程师a每小时的工资为500元，一个小时可以把自己的家打扫干净。
b每小时的工资为50元，两个小时可以把与a相同面积的房屋打扫干净。
在此例中，无论是赚钱还是打扫房间，a都拥有绝对优势。
但从比较优势的角度来看，打扫a的家，a的机会成本是500元，而b的机会成本是100元，所以b在打扫房间上具有比较优势。
4?对贸易来说，是绝对优势重要还是比较优势重要?以你对上一道题的答案为例来解释你的推理。
【重要级别】☆☆☆☆【难度级别】☆☆【考查要点】绝对优势应用；比较优势应用【参考答案】对贸易而言，比较优势重要。
如果按照绝对优势，a 和b之间没有从事贸易的可能。
但是如果从比较优势来看，a专门工作而b专门打扫房间，在相同的时间内，a和b都可以获得更高的收入，这样双方的状况都变得更好。
5?一国是倾向于出口还是进口自己有比较优势的物品？解释原因。
【重要级别】☆☆☆☆【难度级别】☆☆【考查要点】比较优势应用【参考答案】倾向于出口自己具有比较优势的产品。
曼昆《经济学原理(宏观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解
曼昆《经济学原理〔宏观经济学分册〕》〔第6版〕第35章通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经历，从前辈中获得的经历对初学者来说是珍贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进展咨询。
一、概念题1．菲利普斯曲线〔Phillips curve〕〔师大学2004研；工业大学2005、2006研；大学2006研〕答：菲利普斯曲线是指货币工资变动率与失业率之间交替关系的曲线。
它是由英国经济学家菲利普斯根据1861～1957年英国的失业率和货币工资变动率的经历统计资料提出来的，故称之为菲利普斯曲线。
这条曲线表示，当失业率高时，货币工资增长率低，反之，当失业率低时，货币工资增长率高。
因此，如图35-1所示，横轴代表失业率〔U〕，纵轴代表货币工资增长率〔W〕，菲利普斯曲线是一条向右下方倾斜的曲线。
根据本钱推动型通货膨胀的理论，货币工资增长率决定了价格增长率，所以，菲利普斯曲线也可以表示通货膨胀率和失业率之间的交替关系，即当失业率高时，通货膨胀率低；反之，当失业率低时，通货膨胀率高。
图35-1 菲利普斯曲线新古典综合派经济学家把菲利普斯曲线作为调节经济的依据，即当失业率高时，实行扩性财政政策与货币政策，以承受一定通货膨胀率为代价换取较低的失业率；当通货膨胀率高时，实行紧缩性的财政政策与货币政策，借助提高失业率以降低通货膨胀率。
货币主义者对菲利普斯曲线所表示的通货膨胀率与失业率之间的交替关系提出了质疑，并进一步论述了短期菲利普斯曲线、长期菲利普斯曲线和附加预期的菲利普斯曲线，以进一步解释在不同条件下，通货膨胀率与失业率之间的关系。
理性预期学派进一步以理性预期为依据解释了菲利普斯曲线。
曼昆微观经济学课后练习英文答案完整版
曼昆微观经济学课后练习英文答案集团标准化办公室：[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]the link between buyers’ willingness to pay for a good and the demandcurve.how to define and measure consumer surplus.the link between sellers’ costs of producing a good and the supply curve.how to define and measure producer surplus.that the equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes total surplus in amarket.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 7 is the first chapter in a three-chapter sequence on welfare economics and market efficiency. Chapter 7 employs the supply and demand model to develop consumer surplus and producer surplus as a measure of welfare and market efficiency. These concepts are then utilized in Chapters 8 and 9 to determine the winners and losers from taxation and restrictions on international trade.The purpose of Chapter 7 is to develop welfare economics—the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being. Chapters 4 through 6 employed supply and demand in a positive framework, which focused on the question, “What is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market” This chapter now addresses the normative question, “Is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market the best possible solution to the resource allocation problem, or is it simply the price and quantity that balance supply and demand” Students will discover that under most circumstances the equilibrium price and quantity is also the one that maximizes welfare.KEY POINTS:Consumer surplus equals buyers’ willingness to pay for a good minus the amount they actually pay for it, and it measures the benefit buyers get from participating in a market. Consumer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the demand curve and above the price.Producer surplus equals the amount sellers receive for their goods minus their costs of production, and it measures the benefit sellers get from participating in a market. Producer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the price and above the supply curve.An allocation of resources that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus is said to be efficient. Policymakers are often concerned with the efficiency, as well as the equality, of economic outcomes.The equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the sum of consumer andproducer surplus. That is, the invisible hand of the marketplace leadsbuyers and sellers to allocate resources efficiently.Markets do not allocate resources efficiently in the presence of market failures such as market power or externalities.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Definition of welfare economics: the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being.A. Willingness to Pay1. Definition of willingness to pay: the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a good.2. Example: You are auctioning a mint-condition recording of Elvis Presley’s first album. Four buyers show up. Their willingness to pay is as follows:If the bidding goes to slightly higher than $80, all buyersdrop out except for John. Because John is willing to paymore than he has to for the album, he derives some benefitfrom participating in the market.3. Definition of consumer surplus: the amount a buyer is willing to payfor a good minus the amount the buyer actually pays for it.4. Note that if you had more than one copy of the album, the price in the auction would end up being lower (a little over $70 in the case of two albums) and both John and Paul would gain consumer surplus.B. Using the Demand Curve to Measure Consumer Surplus1. We can use the information on willingness to pay to derive a demandmarginal buyer . Because the demand curve shows the buyers’ willingness to pay, we can use the demand curve to measure c onsumer surplus.C. How a Lower Price Raises Consumer Surplussurplus because they are paying less for the product than before (area A on the graph).b. Because the price is now lower, some new buyers will enter the market and receive consumer surplus on these additional units of output purchased (area B on the graph).D. What Does Consumer Surplus Measure?1. Remember that consumer surplus is the difference between the amount that buyers are willing to pay for a good and the price that they actually pay.2. Thus, it measures the benefit that consumers receive from the good as the buyers themselves perceive it.III. Producer SurplusA. Cost and the Willingness to Sell1. Definition of cost: the value of everything a seller must give up to produce a good .2. Example: You want to hire someone to paint your house. You accept bidsfor the work from four sellers. Each painter is willing to work if the priceyou will pay exceeds her opportunity cost. (Note that this opportunity costthus represents willingness to sell.) The costs are:sellers will drop out except for Grandma. Because Grandma receives more than she would require to paint the house, she derives some benefit from producing in the market.4. Definition of producer surplus: the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller’s cost of providing it.5. Note that if you had more than one house to paint, the price in the auction would end up being higher (a little under $800 in the case of two houses) and both Grandma and Georgia would gain producer surplus.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price ceilings from Chapter 6. Redraw themarket for two-bedroom apartments in your town. Draw in a priceceiling below the equilibrium price.Then go through:consumer surplus before the price ceiling is put into place. consumer surplus after the price ceiling is put into place. You will need to take some time to explain the relationship between the producers’ willingness to sell and the cost of producing the good. The relationship between cost and the supply curve is not as apparent as the relationship between the It is important to stress that consumer surplus is measured inmonetary terms. Consumer surplus gives us a way to place amonetary cost on inefficient market outcomes (due to governmentB. Using the Supply Curve to Measure Producer Surplus1. We can use the information on cost (willingness to sell) to derive a2.the cost of the marginal seller. Because the supply curve shows the sellers’ cost (willingness to sell), we can use the supply curve to measure producer surplus.C. How a Higher Price Raises Producer Surplussurplus because they are receiving more for the product than before (area C on the graph).b. Because the price is now higher, some new sellers will enter the market and receive producer surplus on these additional units of output sold (area D on the graph).D. Producer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of producers,ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price floors from Chapter 6. Redraw the marketfor an agricultural product such as corn. Draw in a price supportabove the equilibrium price.Then go through:producer surplus before the price support is put in place.producer surplus after the price support is put in place.Make sure that you discuss the cost of the price support tomuch like consumer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of consumers.IV. Market EfficiencyA. The Benevolent Social Planner1. The economic well-being of everyone in society can be measured by total surplus, which is the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus:Total Surplus = Consumer Surplus + Producer SurplusTotal Surplus = (Value to Buyers – Amount Paid byBuyers) +(Amount Received by Sellers – Cost to Sellers)Because the Amount Paid by Buyers = Amount Received bySellers:2. Definition of efficiency: the property of a resource allocation of maximizing the total surplus received by all members of society .3. Definition of equality: the property of distributing economicprosperity uniformly the members of society .a. Buyers who value the product more than the equilibrium price will purchase the product; those who do not, will not purchase the product. Inother words, the free market allocates the supply of a good to the buyers who value it most highly, as measured by their willingness to pay.b. Sellers whose costs are lower than the equilibrium price will produce the product; those whose costs are higher, will not produce the product. Inother words, the free market allocates the demand for goods to the sellers who can produce it at the lowest cost.value of the product to the marginal buyer is greater than the cost to the marginal seller so total surplus would rise if output increases.Pretty Woman, Chapter 6. Vivien (Julia Roberts) and Edward(Richard Gere) negotiate a price. Afterward, Vivien reveals shewould have accepted a lower price, while Edward admits he wouldhave paid more. If you have done a good job of introducingconsumer and producer surplus, you will see the light bulbs gob. At any quantity of output greater than the equilibrium quantity, the value of the product to the marginal buyer is less than the cost to the marginal seller so total surplus would rise if output decreases.3. Note that this is one of the reasons that economists believe Principle #6: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity.C. In the News: Ticket Scalping1. Ticket scalping is an example of how markets work to achieve anefficient outcome.2. This article from The Boston Globe describes economist Chip Case’sexperience with ticket scalping.D. Case Study: Should There Be a Market in Organs?1. As a matter of public policy, people are not allowed to sell their organs.a. In essence, this means that there is a price ceiling on organs of $0.b. This has led to a shortage of organs.2. The creation of a market for organs would lead to a more efficientallocation of resources, but critics worry about the equity of a market system for organs.V. Market Efficiency and Market FailureA. To conclude that markets are efficient, we made several assumptions about how markets worked.1. Perfectly competitive markets.2. No externalities.B. When these assumptions do not hold, the market equilibrium may not be efficient.C. When markets fail, public policy can potentially remedy the situation. SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. Figure 1 shows the demand curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P 1and the consumer surplus that results from that price is denoted CS. Consumer surplus is the amount a buyer is willing to pay for a good minus the amount the buyer actually pays for it. It measures the benefit to buyers ofparticipating in a market.Figure 1 Figure 22. Figure 2 shows the supply curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P 1and the producer surplus that results from that price is denoted PS. Producer surplus is the amount sellers are paid for a good minus the sellers’ cost of providing it (measured by the supply curve). It measures the benefit to sellers of participating in a market.It would be a good idea to remind students that there are circumstances when the market process does not lead to the most efficient outcome. Examples include situations such as when a firm (or buyer) has market power over price or when there areFigure 33. Figure 3 shows the supply and demand for turkey. The price of turkey is P, consumer surplus is CS, and producer surplus is PS. Producing more turkeys 1than the equilibrium quantity would lower total surplus because the value to the marginal buyer would be lower than the cost to the marginal seller on those additional units.Questions for Review1. The price a buyer is willing to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and above the price, which equals the price that each buyer is willing to pay minus the price actually paid.2. Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price received minus each seller's costs of producing the good.Figure 43. Figure 4 shows producer and consumer surplus in a supply-and-demand diagram.4. An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes total surplus, the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus. But efficiency may not be the only goal of economic policymakers; they may also be concerned about equitythe fairness of the distribution of well-being.5. The invisible hand of the marketplace guides the self-interest of buyers and sellers into promoting general economic well-being. Despite decentralized decision making and self-interested decision makers, free markets often lead to an efficient outcome.6. Two types of market failure are market power and externalities. Market power may cause market outcomes to be inefficient because firms may cause price and quantity to differ from the levels they would be under perfect competition, which keeps total surplus from being maximized. Externalities are side effects that are not taken into account by buyers and sellers. As a result, the free market does not maximize total surplus.Problems and Applications1. a. Consumer surplus is equal to willingness to pay minus the price paid. Therefore, Melissa’s willingness to pay must be $200 ($120 + $80).b. Her consumer surplus at a price of $90 would be $200 $90 = $110.c. If the price of an iPod was $250, Melissa would not have purchased one because the price is greater than her willingness to pay. Therefore, she would receive no consumer surplus.2. If an early freeze in California sours the lemon crop, the supply curve for lemons shifts to the left, as shown in Figure 5. The result is a rise in the price of lemons and a decline in consumer surplus from A + B + C to just A. So consumer surplus declines by the amount B + C.Figure 5 Figure 6In the market for lemonade, the higher cost of lemons reduces the supply of lemonade, as shown in Figure 6. The result is a rise in the price of lemonade and a decline in consumer surplus from D + E + F to just D, a loss of E + F. Note that an event that affects consumer surplus in one market oftenhas effects on consumer surplus in other markets.3. A rise in the demand for French bread leads to an increase in producer surplus in the market for French bread, as shown in Figure 7. The shift of the demand curve leads to an increased price, which increases producer surplusfrom area A to area A + B + C.Figure 7The increased quantity of French bread being sold increases the demandfor flour, as shown in Figure 8. As a result, the price of flour rises, increasing producer surplus from area D to D + E + F. Note that an event that affects producer surplus in one market leads to effects on producer surplus in related markets.Figure 84. a.Figure 9b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Bert buys two bottles of water. His consumer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He values hisfirst bottle of water at $7, but pays only $4 for it, so has consumer surplus of $3. He values his second bottle of water at $5, but pays only $4 for it, so has consumer surplus of $1. Thus Bert’s total consumer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2, Bert buys three bottles of water, an increase of one. His consumer surplus consists of both areas A and B in the figure, an increase in the amount of area B. He gets consumer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($7 value minus $2 price), $3from the second bottle ($5 value minus $2 price), and $1 from the third bottle ($3 value minus $2 price), for a total consumer surplus of $9. Thus consumer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2.5. a.Figure 10b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Ernie sells two bottles of water. His producer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He receives $4 for his first bottle of water, but it costs only $1 to produce, so Ernie has producer surplus of $3. He also receives $4 for his second bottle of water, which costs $3 to produce, so he has producer surplus of $1. Thus Ernie’s total producer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6, Ernie sells three bottles of water, an increase of one. His producer surplus consists of both areas A and B in the figure, an increase by the amount of area B. He gets producer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($6 price minus $1 cost), $3 from the second bottle ($6 price minus $3 cost), and $1 from the third bottle ($6 price minus $5 price), for a total producer surplus of $9. Thus producer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6.6. a. From Ernie’s supply schedule and Bert’s demand schedule, thean equilibrium quantity of two.b. At a price of $4, consumer surplus is $4 and producer surplus is $4, as shown in Problems 3 and 4 above. Total surplus is $4 + $4 = $8.c. If Ernie produced one less bottle, his producer surplus would decline to $3, as shown in Problem 4 above. If Bert consumed one less bottle, hisconsumer surplus would decline to $3, as shown in Problem 3 above. So total surplus would decline to $3 + $3 = $6.d. If Ernie produced one additional bottle of water, his cost would be $5, but the price is only $4, so his producer surplus would decline by $1. If Bert consumed one additional bottle of water, his value would be $3, but the price is $4, so his consumer surplus would decline by $1. So total surplus declines by $1 + $1 = $2.7. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for stereos results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 11. As a result, the equilibrium price of stereos declines and the equilibriumquantity increases.Figure 11b. The decline in the price of stereos increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D. Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G – B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Because consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.c. If the supply of stereos is very elastic, then the shift of the supply curve benefits consumers most. To take the most dramatic case, suppose the supply curve were horizontal, as shown in Figure 12. Then there is no producer surplus at all. Consumers capture all the benefits of falling production costs, with consumer surplus rising from area A to area A + B.Figure 128. Figure 13 shows supply and demand curves for haircuts. Supply equals demand at a quantity of three haircuts and a price between $4 and $5. Firms A, C, and D should cut the hair of Ellen, Jerry, and Phil. Oprah’s willingnessto pay is too low and firm B’s costs are too high, so they do not participate. The maximum total surplus is the area between the demand and supply curves, which totals $11 ($8 value minus $2 cost for the first haircut, plus $7 value minus $3 cost for the second, plus $5 value minus $4 cost for the third).Figure 139. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases. The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Figure 14 Figure 15Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E(the area above the supply curve and below the price). After theshift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producersurplus changes by the amount F + G – B, which may be positive ornegative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus,while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Becauseconsumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises byF +G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.b. Because typewriters are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that people substitute computers for typewriters, shifting the demand for typewriters to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of typewriters. Consumer surplus in the typewriter market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Typewriter producers are sad about technological advances in computers because their producer surplus declines.c. Because software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The result is an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B, a net change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.Figure 16d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richest people, because his company produces a lot of software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.10. a. With Provider A, the cost of an extra minute is $0. WithProvider B, the cost of an extra minute is $1.b. With Provider A, my friend will purchase 150 minutes [= 150 –(50)(0)]. With Provider B, my friend would purchase 100 minutes [=150 – (50)(1)].c. With Provider A, he would pay $120. The cost would be $100 with Provider B.Figure 17d. Figure 17 shows the friend’s demand. With Provider A, he buys 150minutes and his consumer surplus is equal to (1/2)(3)(150) – 120= 105. With Provider B, his consumer surplus is equal to(1/2)(2)(100) = 100.e. I would recommend Provider A because he receives greater consumer surplus.11. a. Figure 18 illustrates the demand for medical care. If each procedure has a price of $100, quantity demanded will be Q1 procedures.Figure 18b. If consumers pay only $20 per procedure, the quantity demanded will be Qprocedures. Because the cost to society is $100, the number of procedures 2performed is too large to maximize total surplus. The quantity that maximizes total surplus is Q1 procedures, which is less than Q2.c. The use of medical care is excessive in the sense that consumers get procedures whose value is less than the cost of producing them. As a result, the economy’s total surplus is reduced.d. To prevent this excessive use, the consumer must bear the marginal cost of the procedure. But this would require eliminating insurance. Another possibility would be that the insurance company, which pays most of the marginal cost of the procedure ($80, in this case) could decide whether the procedure should be performed. But the insurance company does not get the benefits of the procedure, so its decisions may not reflect the value to the consumer.。
曼昆微观经济学第13章习题答案
第13章生产和成本(一)单项选择题1.总产量曲线的斜率是（ C ）A.总产量B.平均产量C.边际产量D.以上都不是2.当TP下降时，（D ）A.AP L递增B.AP L为零C.MP L为零D.MP L为负3.当AP L为正且递减时，MP L是（ A ）A.递减B.负的C.零D.以上任何一种4.生产过程中某一可变要素的收益递减，这意味着（ B）A.可变要素投入量的增长和产量的增长等幅变化B.产量的增长幅度小于可变要素投入量的增长幅度C. 可变要素投入量的增长幅度小于产量的增长幅度D产量的增长幅度大于可变要素投入量的增长幅度5.某厂商每年从企业的总收入中取出一部分作为自己所提供的生产要素的报酬，这部分资金被视为（B ）。
A.显性成本B.隐性成本C.经济利润 D生产成本6.对应于边际报酬的递增阶段，STC曲线（C ）。
A.以递增的速率上升B. 以递增的速率下降C. 以递减的速率上升 D以递减的速率下降7.短期平均成本曲线成为U形的原因与（C ）有关A.规模报酬B.外部经济与不经济C.要素的边际报酬 D固定成本与可变成本所占比例8.在从原点出发的射线与TC 曲线的相切的产量上，必有（ D）。
A.AC值最小B.AC=MCC.MC曲线处于上升段D.A、B、C、9.如果生产10单位产品的总成本是100美元，第11单位产品的边际成本是21美元，那么（ C）。
A.第11单位产品TVC是21美元B.第10单位产品的边际成本是大于21美元C.11个产品的平均成本是11美元D第12单位产品的平均成本是21美元10.当边际成本小于平均成本时，产量的进一步增加将导致（ B）。
A.平均成本上升B.平均可变成本可能上升也可能下降C.总成本下降D平均可变成本一定是处于减少的状态11.长期平均成本曲线呈U型原因是（A ）。
A.规模报酬的变化所致B.外部经济与不经济所致C.生产要素的边际生产率所致 D固定成本与可变成本所占比重所致12.如果一个厂商的生产是处于规模报酬不变的阶段，则其LAC曲线一定是处于（ C）。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》第6版课后习题详解(1~2章)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》第6版课后习题详解（1~2章）曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》第6版课后练习的详细讲解第一篇导言第一章经济学十大原理一、概念题1.稀缺性稀缺性是指在一定时间内，经济资源的供给相对于人的需求总是不足的，即资源的有限性与人的欲望的无限性之间的矛盾。
2.经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
微观经济学是以单个经济主体为研究对象，研究单个经济主体在面临既定资源约束时如何做出选择的科学；宏观经济学以整个国民经济为研究对象，主要研究经济总量。
3.效率效率是指人们在实践活动中的产出与投入比值或者是效益与成本比值，比值大效率高，比值小效率低。
它与产出或收益大小成正比，与投入或成本成反比。
4.平等平等是指人与人之间的利益关系，利益关系的原则、制度、实践和行为符合社会发展的需要，即经济成果在社会成员之间公平分配的特征。
它是一个历史范畴，根据社会历史条件和社会性质而变化，没有永恒的公平；它也是一个客观范畴。
虽然它的内涵在不同的社会形态中有所不同，对它的理解也有所不同，但它是社会存在的反映，具有客观性。
5.机会成本机会成本是指将一种资源用于某种用途，而未用于其他用途所放弃的最大预期收益。
其存在的前提条件是：①资源是稀缺的；②资源具有多种用途；③资源的投向不受限制。
6.理性人理性人是指为实现自己的目标而做出系统而有目的的努力的人。
他是经济研究中假定的经济活动的主体，在一定条件下具有典型的理性行为。
7.边际变化边际变动是指对行动计划的微小增量调整。
8.激励动机是促使一个人做某事的东西。
9.市场经济市场经济是指由家庭和企业在市场上的相互交易决定资源配置的经济，而资源配置实际上就是决定社会生产什么、生产多少、如何生产以及为谁生产的过程。
10.产权产权是指个人拥有和控制稀缺资源的能力。
它也可以理解为人们对他们交易的物品的所有权，即人们在贸易活动中为经济利益而使自己或他人受益或受损的权力。
曼昆经济学原理英文版文案加习题答案13章(最新整理)
221WHAT’S NEW IN THE SEVENTH EDITION:There are no major changes to this chapter.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:what items are included in a firm’s costs of production. the link between a firm’s production process and its total costs.the meaning of average total cost and marginal cost and how they are related. the shape of a typical firm’s cost curves.the relationship between short-run and long-run costs.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 13 is the first chapter in a five-chapter sequence dealing with firm behavior and the organization of industry. It is important that students become comfortable with the material in Chapter 13 because Chapters 14 through 17 are based on the concepts developed in Chapter 13. To be more specific, Chapter 13 develops the cost curves on which firm behavior is based. The remaining chapters in thissection (Chapters 14-17) utilize these cost curves to develop the behavior of firms in a variety of different market structures—competitive, monopolistic, monopolistically competitive, and oligopolistic.The purpose of Chapter 13 is to address the costs of production and develop the firm’s cost curves. These cost curves underlie the firm’s supply curve. In previous chapters, we summarized the firm’s production decisions by starting with the supply curve. While this is suitable for answering manyquestions, it is now necessary to address the costs that underlie the supply curve in order to address the part of economics known as industrial organization —the study of how firms’ decisions about prices and quantities depend on the market conditions they face.KEY POINTS:The goal of firms is to maximize profit, which equals total revenue minus total cost.THE COSTS OF PRODUCTION222 ❖ Chapter 13/The Costs of Production∙When analyzing a firm’s behavior, it is important to include all the opportunity costs of production. Some of the opportunity costs, such as the wages a firm pays its workers, are explicit. Other opportunity costs, such as the wages the firm owner gives up by working at the firm rather than taking another job, are implicit. Economic profit takes both explicit and implicit costs into account, whereas accounting profits consider only explicit costs.∙A firm’s costs reflect its production process. A typical firm’s production function gets flatter as the quantity of an input increases, displaying the property of diminishing marginal product. As a result, a firm’s total-cost curve gets steeper as the quantity produced rises.∙A firm’s total costs can be divided between fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs are costs that do not change when the firm alters the quantity of output produced. Variable costs are costs that change when the firm alters the quantity of output produced.∙From a firm’s total cost, two related measures of cost are derived. Average total cost is total cost divided by the quantity of output. Marginal cost is the amount by which total cost rises if output increases by one unit.∙When analyzing firm behavior, it is often useful to graph average total cost and marginal cost. For a typical firm, marginal cost rises with the quantity of output. Average total cost first falls as output increases and then rises as output increases further. The marginal-cost curve always crosses the average-total-cost curve at the minimum of average total cost.∙A firm’s costs often depend on the time horizon considered. In particular, many costs are fixed in the short run but variable in the long run. As a result, when the firm changes its level of production, average total cost may rise more in the short run than in the long run.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I.What Are Costs?A.Total Revenue, Total Cost, and Profit1.The goal of a firm is to maximize profit.Chapter 13/The Costs of Production ❖ 2232.Definition oftotal revenue: the amount a firm receives for the sale of its output.3.Definition of total cost: the market value of the inputs a firm uses in production.4.Definition of profit: total revenue minus total cost.B.Costs as Opportunity Costs1.Principle #2: The cost of something is what you give up to get it.2.The costs of producing an item must include all of the opportunity costs of inputs used inproduction.3.Total opportunity costs include both implicit and explicit costs.a.Definition of explicit costs: input costs that require an outlay of money by thefirm.b.Definition of implicit costs: input costs that do not require an outlay of moneyby the firm.c.The total cost of a business is the sum of explicit costs and implicit costs.d.This is the major way in which accountants and economists differ in analyzing theperformance of a business.e.Accountants focus on explicit costs, while economists examine both explicit and implicitcosts.C.The Cost of Capital as an Opportunity Cost1.The opportunity cost of financial capital is an important cost to include in any analysis of firmperformance.2.Example: Caroline uses $300,000 of her savings to start her firm. It was in a savings accountpaying 5% interest.3.Because Caroline could have earned $15,000 per year on this savings, we must include thisopportunity cost. (Note that an accountant would not count this $15,000 as part of the firm'scosts.)224 ❖ Chapter 13/The Costs of Production4.If Caroline had instead borrowed $200,000 from a bank and used $100,000 from her savings,the opportunity cost would not change if the interest rate stayed the same (according to the economist). But the accountant would now count the $10,000 in interest paid for the bank loan.D.Economic Profit versus Accounting Profit1.Figure 1 highlights the differences in the ways in which economists and accountants calculateprofit.2.Definition of economic profit: total revenue minus total cost, including both explicitand implicit costs .a.Economic profit is what motivates firms to supply goods and services.b.To understand how industries evolve, we need to examine economic profit.3.Definition of accounting profit: total revenue minus total explicit cost .4.If implicit costs are greater than zero, accounting profit will always exceed economic profit.II.Production and CostsA.The Production Function1.Definition of production function: the relationship between quantity of inputs usedto make a good and the quantity of output of that good.2.Example: Caroline's cookie factory. The size of the factory is assumed to be fixed; Carolinecan vary her output (cookies) only by varying the labor used.Number ofWorkersOutputMarginal Productof LaborCost of Factory Cost of WorkersTotal Cost of Inputs 00---$30$0$30150503010402904030205031203030306041402030407051501030508061555306090Chapter 13/The Costs of Production ❖ 2253.Definition of marginal product: the increase in output that arises from an additionalunit of input.a.As the amount of labor used increases, the marginal product of labor falls.b.Definition of diminishing marginal product: the property whereby the marginalproduct of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.4.We can draw a graph of the firm's production function by plotting the level of labor (x -axis)against the level of output (y -axis).226 ❖ Chapter 13/The Costs of Productiona.The slope of the production function measures marginal product.b.Diminishing marginal product can be seen from the fact that the slope falls as theamount of labor used increases.B.From the Production Function to the Total-Cost Curve1.We can draw a graph of the firm's total cost curve by plotting the level of output (x-axis)against the total cost of producing that output (y-axis).a.The total cost curve gets steeper and steeper as output rises.b.This increase in the slope of the total cost curve is also due to diminishing marginalproduct: As Caroline increases the production of cookies, her kitchen becomesovercrowded, and she needs a lot more labor.Chapter 13/The Costs of Production ❖ 227III.The Various Measures of CostA.Example: Conrad’s Coffee ShopOutputTotal Cost Fixed Cost Variable Cost Average Fixed Cost Average Variable Cost AverageTotalCostMarginal Cost 0 $3.00 $3.00 $0------------1 3.30 3.000.30$3.00$0.30$3.30$0.302 3.80 3.000.80 1.500.40 1.900.503 4.50 3.00 1.50 1.000.50 1.500.704 5.40 3.00 2.400.750.60 1.350.905 6.50 3.00 3.500.600.70 1.30 1.1067.80 3.00 4.800.500.80 1.30 1.3079.30 3.00 6.300.430.901.33 1.50228 ❖ Chapter 13/The Costs of Production811.00 3.008.000.38 1.00 1.38 1.70912.90 3.009.900.33 1.10 1.43 1.901015.003.0012.000.301.201.502.10B.Fixed and Variable Costs1.Definition of fixed costs: costs that do not vary with the quantity of outputproduced.2.Definition ofvariable costs: costs that do vary with the quantity of outputproduced.3.Total cost is equal to fixed cost plus variable cost.C.Average and Marginal Cost1.Definition of average total cost: total cost divided by the quantity of output.2.Definition ofaverage fixed cost: fixed costs divided by the quantity of output.3.Definition of average variable cost: variable costs divided by the quantity of output.4.Definition of marginal cost: the increase in total cost that arises from an extra unitof production.Chapter 13/The Costs of Production ❖ 2295.Average total cost tells us the cost of a typical unit of output and marginal cost tells us thecost of an additional unit of output.D.Cost Curves and Their Shapes1.Rising Marginal Costa.This occurs because of diminishing marginal product.b.At a low level of output, there are few workers and a lot of idle equipment. But as outputincreases, the coffee shop gets crowded and the cost of producing another unit of outputbecomes high.2.U-Shaped Average Total Costa.Average total cost is the sum of average fixed cost and average variable cost.b.AFC declines as output expands and AVC typically increases as output expands. AFC ishigh when output levels are low. As output expands, AFC declines pulling ATC down. Asfixed costs get spread over a large number of units, the effect of AFC on ATC falls andATC begins to rise because of diminishing marginal product.c.Definition of efficient scale: the quantity of output that minimizes average totalcost.3.The Relationship between Marginal Cost and Average Total Costa.Whenever marginal cost is less than average total cost, average total cost is falling.Whenever marginal cost is greater than average total cost, average total cost is rising.b.The marginal-cost curve crosses the average-total-cost curve at minimum average totalcost (the efficient scale).230 ❖ Chapter 13/The Costs of Production4.Typical Cost Curvesa.Marginal cost eventually rises with output.b.The average-total-cost curve is U-shaped.c.Marginal cost crosses average total cost at the minimum of average total cost.IV.Costs in the Short Run and in the Long RunA.The division of total costs into fixed and variable costs will vary from firm to firm.B.Some costs are fixed in the short run, but all are variable in the long run.1.For example, in the long run a firm could choose the size of its factory.2.Once a factory is chosen, the firm must deal with the short-run costs associated with thatplant size.C.The long-run average-total-cost curve lies along the lowest points of the short-run average-total-cost curves because the firm has more flexibility in the long run to deal with changes in production.D.The long-run average-total-cost curve is typically U-shaped, but is much flatter than a typicalshort-run average-total-cost curve.E.The length of time for a firm to get to the long run will depend on the firm involved.F.Economies and Diseconomies of Scale1.Definition of economies of scale: the property whereby long-run average total costfalls as the quantity of output increases.2.Definition of diseconomies of scale: the property whereby long-run average totalcost rises as the quantity of output increases.3.Definition of constant returns to scale: the property whereby long-run average totalcost stays the same as the quantity of output changes.4.FYI: Lessons from a Pin Factorya.In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith described how specialization in a pin factoryallowed output to be greater than it would have been if each worker attempted toperform many different tasks.b.The use of specialization allows firms to achieve economies of scale.V.Table 3 provides a summary of all of the various cost definitions used throughout this chapter.SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1.Farmer McDonald’s opportunity cost is $300, consisting of 10 hours of lessons at $20 an hourthat he could have been earning plus $100 in seeds. His accountant would only count theexplicit cost of the seeds ($100). If McDonald earns $200 from selling the crops, thenMcDonald earns a $100 accounting profit ($200 sales minus $100 cost of seeds) but incursan economic loss of $100 ($200 sales minus $300 opportunity cost).2.Farmer Jones’s production function is shown in Figure 1 and his total-cost curve is shown inFigure 2. The production function becomes flatter as the number of bags of seeds increasesbecause of the diminishing marginal product of seeds. The total-cost curve gets steeper asthe amount of production increases. This feature is also due to the diminishing marginalproduct of seeds, since each additional bag of seeds generates a lower marginal product, andthus, the cost of producing additional bushels of wheat rises.Figure 1Figure 23.The average total cost of producing 5 cars is $250,000/5 = $50,000. Since total cost rosefrom $225,000 to $250,000 when output increased from 4 to 5, the marginal cost of the fifthcar is $25,000.The marginal-cost curve and the average-total-cost curve for a typical firm are shown inFigure 3. They cross at the efficient scale because at low levels of output, marginal cost isbelow average total cost, so average total cost is falling. But after the two curves cross,marginal cost rises above average total cost, and average total cost starts to rise. So thepoint of intersection must be the minimum of average total cost.Figure 34.The long-run average total cost of producing 9 planes is $9 million/9 = $1 million. The long-run average total cost of producing 10 planes is $9.5 million/10 = $0.95 million. Since thelong-run average total cost declines as the number of planes increases, Boeing exhibitseconomies of scale.Questions for Review1.The relationship between a firm's total revenue, profit, and total cost is profit equals totalrevenue minus total costs.2.An accountant would not count the owner’s opportunity cost of alternative employment as anaccounting cost. An example is given in the text in which Caroline runs a cookie business, butshe could instead work as a computer programmer. Because she's working in her cookiefactory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour as a computer programmer. Theaccountant ignores this opportunity cost because money does not flow into or out of thefirm. But the cost is relevant to Caroline’s decision to run the cookie factory.3.Marginal product is the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input.Diminishing marginal product means that the marginal product of an input declines as thequantity of the input increases.4.Figure 4 shows a production function that exhibits diminishing marginal product of labor.Figure 5 shows the associated total-cost curve. The production function is concave becauseof diminishing marginal product, while the total-cost curve is convex for the same reason.Figure 4Figure 55.Total cost consists of the costs of all inputs needed to produce a given quantity of output. Itincludes fixed costs and variable costs. Average total cost is the cost of a typical unit of output and is equal to total cost divided by the quantity produced. Marginal cost is the cost of producing an additional unit of output and is equal to the change in total cost divided by the change in quantity. An additional relation between average total cost and marginal cost is that whenever marginal cost is less than average total cost, average total cost is declining; whenever marginal cost is greater than average total cost, average total cost is rising.Figure 66.Figure 6 shows the marginal-cost curve and the average-total-cost curve for a typical firm.There are three main features of these curves: (1) marginal cost is U-shaped but risessharply as output increases; (2) average total cost is U-shaped; and (3) whenever marginal cost is less than average total cost, average total cost is declining; whenever marginal cost is greater than average total cost, average total cost is rising. Marginal cost is increasing for output greater than a certain quantity because of diminishing returns. The average-total-cost curve is downward-sloping initially because the firm is able to spread out fixed costs over additional units. The average-total-cost curve is increasing beyond some output levelbecause as quantity increases, the demand for important variable inputs increases; therefore, the cost of these inputs increases. The marginal-cost and average-total-cost curves intersect at the minimum of average total cost; that quantity is the efficient scale.7.In the long run, a firm can adjust the factors of production that are fixed in the short run; forexample, it can increase the size of its factory. As a result, the long-run average-total-costcurve has a much flatter U-shape than the short-run average-total-cost curve. In addition,the long-run curve lies along the lower envelope of the short-run curves.8.Economies of scale exist when long-run average total cost decreases as the quantity ofoutput increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies ofscale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increases, whichoccurs because of the coordination problems inherent in a large organization.Quick Check Multiple Choice1. a2. d3. d4. c5. b6. aProblems and Applications1. a.opportunity cost; b. average total cost; c. fixed cost; d. variable cost; e. total cost; f.marginal cost.2. a.The opportunity cost of something is what must be given up to acquire it.b.The opportunity cost of running the hardware store is $550,000, consisting of $500,000to rent the store and buy the stock and a $50,000 implicit cost, because your aunt wouldquit her job as an accountant to run the store. Because the total opportunity cost of$550,000 exceeds the projected revenue of $510,000, your aunt should not open thestore, as her economic profit would be negative.3. a.The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:Hours Fish Fixed Cost Variable Cost Total Cost Marginal Product 00$10$0$10---11010515102181010208324101525642810203045301025352b.Figure 7 graphs the fisherman's production function. The production function becomesflatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginalproduct.Figure 7c.The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing. Figure 8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It has an upward slope because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time because each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish.Figure 84.Here is the completed table:WorkersOutputMarginal Product Total Cost Average Total Cost Marginal Cost00---$200------12020300$15.00$5.00250304008.00 3.3339040500 5.56 2.50412030600 5.00 3.33514020700 5.00 5.00615010800 5.3310.0071555900 5.8120.00a.See the table for marginal product. Marginal product rises at first, then declines becauseof diminishing marginal product.b.See the table for total cost.c.See the table for average total cost. Average total cost is U-shaped. When quantity islow, average total cost declines as quantity rises; when quantity is high, average totalcost rises as quantity rises.d.See the table for marginal cost. Marginal cost is also U-shaped, but rises steeply asoutput increases. This is due to diminishing marginal product.e.When marginal product is rising, marginal cost is falling, and vice versa.f.When marginal cost is less than average total cost, average total cost is falling; the costof the last unit produced pulls the average down. When marginal cost is greater thanaverage total cost, average total cost is rising; the cost of the last unit produced pushes the average up.5.At an output level of 600 players, total cost is $180,000 (600 × $300). The total cost ofproducing 601 players is $180,901. Therefore, you should not accept the offer of $550, because the marginal cost of the 601st player is $901.6. a.The fixed cost is $300, because fixed cost equals total cost minus variable cost. At anoutput of zero, the only costs are fixed cost.b.Quantity TotalCost VariableCostMarginal Cost(using total cost)Marginal Cost(using variable cost)0$300$0------135050$50$50239090404034201203030445015030305490190404065402405050Marginal cost equals the change in total cost for each additional unit of output. It is also equal to the change in variable cost for each additional unit of output. This relationship occurs because total cost equals the sum of variable cost and fixed cost and fixed costdoes not change as the quantity changes. Thus, as quantity increases, the increase intotal cost equals the increase in variable cost.7.The following table illustrates average fixed cost (AFC), average variable cost (AVC), andaverage total cost (ATC) for each quantity. The efficient scale is 4 houses per month,because that minimizes average total cost.Quantity VariableCost FixedCostTotalCostAverageFixed CostAverageVariable CostAverageTotal Cost0$0.00$200.00$200.00---------110.00200.00210.00$200.00$10.00$210.00220.00200.00220.00100.0010.00110.00340.00200.00240.0066.6713.3380.00480.00200.00280.0050.0020.0070.005160.00200.00360.0040.0032.0072.006320.00200.00520.0033.3353.3386.677640.00200.00840.0028.5791.43120.008. a.The lump-sum tax causes an increase in fixed cost. Therefore, as Figure 10 shows, onlyaverage fixed cost and average total cost will be affected.Figure 10b.Refer to Figure 11. Average variable cost, average total cost, and marginal cost will all begreater. Average fixed cost will be unaffected.Figure 119. a.The following table shows average variable cost (AVC), average total cost (ATC), andmarginal cost (MC) for each quantity.Quantity VariableCost TotalCostAverageVariable CostAverageTotal CostMarginalCost0$0.00$30.00---------110.0040.00$10.00$40.00$10.00225.0055.0012.5027.5015.00345.0075.0015.0025.0020.00470.00100.0017.5025.0025.005100.00130.0020.0026.0030.006135.00165.0022.5027.5035.00b.Figure 12 shows the three curves. The marginal-cost curve is below the average-total-cost curve when output is less than four and average total cost is declining. Themarginal-cost curve is above the average-total-cost curve when output is above four and average total cost is rising. The marginal-cost curve lies above the average-variable-cost curve.Figure 1210.The following table shows quantity (Q), total cost (TC), and average total cost (ATC) for thethree firms:Firm A Firm B Firm CQuantity TC ATC TC ATC TC ATC1$60.00$60.00$11.00$11.00$21.00$21.00270.0035.0024.0012.0034.0017.00380.0026.6739.0013.0049.0016.33490.0022.5056.0014.0066.0016.505100.0020.0075.0015.0085.0017.006110.0018.3396.0016.00106.0017.677120.0017.14119.0017.00129.0018.43Firm A has economies of scale because average total cost declines as output increases. Firm B has diseconomies of scale because average total cost rises as output rises. Firm C has economies of scale from one to three units of output and diseconomies of scale for levels of output beyond three units.。
(NEW)曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解
目 录第1篇 导 言第1章 经济学十大原理第2章 像经济学家一样思考第3章 相互依存性与贸易的好处第2篇 市场如何运行第4章 供给与需求的市场力量第5章 弹性及其应用第6章 供给、需求与政府政策第3篇 市场和福利第7章 消费者、生产者与市场效率第8章 应用：赋税的代价第9章 应用：国际贸易第4篇 公共部门经济学第10章 外部性第11章 公共物品和公共资源第12章 税制的设计第5篇 企业行为与产业组织第13章 生产成本第14章 竞争市场上的企业第15章 垄 断第16章 垄断竞争第17章 寡 头第6篇 劳动市场经济学第18章 生产要素市场第19章 收入与歧视第20章 收入不平等与贫困第7篇 深入研究的论题第21章 消费者选择理论第22章 微观经济学前沿第1篇 导 言第1章 经济学十大原理一、概念题1．稀缺性（scarcity）答：经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
稀缺性指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有用性与有限性。
人类消费各种物品的欲望是无限的，满足这种欲望的物品，有的可以不付出任何代价而随意取得，称之为自由物品，如阳光和空气；但绝大多数物品是不能自由取用的，因为世界上的资源（包括物质资源和人力资源）是有限的，这种有限的、为获取它必须付出某种代价的物品，称为“经济物品”。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，地球上就存在着资源的有限性和人类的欲望与需求的无限性之间的矛盾。
经济学的一个重要研究任务就是：“研究人们如何进行抉择，以便使用稀缺的或有限的生产性资源（土地、劳动、资本品如机器、技术知识）来生产各种商品，并把它们分配给不同的社会成员进行消费。
”也就是从经济学角度来研究使用有限的资源来生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产的问题。
2．经济学（economics）答：经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
时下经常见诸国内报刊文献的“现代西方经济学”一词，大多也都在这个意义上使用。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
第2篇市场如何运行第4章供给与需求的市场力量4.1 复习笔记跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
1．市场与竞争市场（market）是某种物品或劳务的一群买者与卖者组成的一个群体。
买者作为一个群体决定了一种物品或劳务的需求，而卖者作为一个群体决定了一种物品或劳务的供给。
（1）市场类型的划分与特征市场类型的划分与特征如表4-1所示：表4-1 市场类型的划分和特征（2）完全竞争市场完全竞争市场指竞争不存在任何阻碍和干扰因素的市场情况，亦即没有任何垄断因素的市场结构。
完全竞争市场有两个主要特征：①用于销售的物品是完全相同的。
②买者和卖者如此之多，以至于没有一个买者或卖者可以影响价格。
由于完全竞争市场上的买者与卖者必须接受市场决定的价格，所以，他们被称为价格接受者。
2．需求（1）定义一种商品的需求指消费者在一定时期内在各种可能的价格水平愿意而且能够购买的该商品的数量。
（2）需求定理在其他条件相同时，一种物品价格上升，该物品需求量减少；价格下降，需求量增加。
（3）需求的表示需求表：表示一种物品价格与需求量之间关系的表格。
需求曲线：表示一种物品与需求量之间关系的图形。
根据需求定理，需求曲线向右下方倾斜。
（4）市场需求与个人需求市场需求是所有个人对某种物品或劳务需求的总和，把个人需求曲线水平相加可以得出市场需求曲线。
市场需求曲线表示在所有其他影响消费者需求的因素保持不变时，一种物品的总需求量如何随该物品价格的变动而变动。
（5）影响需求曲线移动的因素当人们改变他们在每种价格上希望购买的量时，需求曲线移动。
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）课后习题详解（第13章__生产成本）
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）课后习题详解（第13章__生产成本）曼昆〈经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第5篇企业行为与产业组织第13章生产成本课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1.总收益（total revenue ）答：总收益指一定时期内厂商从一定量产品的销售中得到的货币总额，它等于单位产品的价格P乘以销售量Q，即：TR=P Q由于完全竞争的厂商所面对的是一条水平的需求曲线，厂商增减一单位产品的销售所引起的总收益的变化（TR ）总是等于固定不变的单位产品的价格P ,所以总收益曲线是一条从原点出发的直线,其斜率就是固定不变的价格。
完全竞争市场外其他类型市场的总收益曲线是先上升达到最大后再下降的。
2.总成本(total cost )答：总成本指企业购买生产投入所支付的货币量，它包括两个部分，即固定成本(FC)与可变成本(VC )。
固定成本是在短期内不随产量变动而变动的生产费用，如厂房费用、机器折旧费用、一般管理费用及厂部管理人员的工资等。
只要建立了生产单位，不管产量多少，都需要支出固定成本。
可变成本是随产量变动而变动的生产费用，如原材料、燃料和动力支出及生产工人的工资等。
这些费用在短期内是随着产量的变动而变动的。
其变动的规律是：最初，在产量开始增加时，由于各种生产要素的投入比例不合理，不能充分发挥生产效率，故可变成本增加的幅度较大；以后随着产量的增加，各种生产要素的投入比例趋于合理，其效率得以充分发挥，故可变成本增加的幅度依次变小；最后由于可变要素的边际收益递减，可变成本增加的幅度依次变大。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第2章 像经济学家一样思考)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第2章像经济学家一样思考课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1．循环流量图（circular flow diagram）答：循环流量图是指表明物品和劳务、生产要素以及货币支付在家庭和企业之间如何流动的经济图形，如图2-1所示。
在这个模型中，经济由两类决策者——家庭和企业——所组成。
企业用劳动、土地和资本（建筑物和机器等）这些投入来生产物品和劳务，这些投入被称为生产要素。
家庭则拥有生产要素并消费企业生产的所有物品与劳务。
图2-1 循环流量图图2-1中，经济决策由家庭和企业做出。
家庭和企业在物品与劳务市场（在这个市场上，家庭是买者而企业是卖者）以及生产要素市场（在这个市场上，企业是买者而家庭是卖者）上相互交易。
外面一圈的箭头表示货币的流向，里面一圈的箭头表示相应的物品与劳务的流向。
循环流量图的形式是简化的，是整体经济的一个简化模型，因为它不包括国际贸易和政府。
2．生产可能性边界（production possibilities frontier）（深圳大学2007研；北京工业大学2008研）答：生产可能性边界也称为社会生产可能性边界或生产可能性曲线，指一个经济在可获得的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产品的产量的各种组合。
由于整个社会的经济资源是有限的，当这些经济资源都被充分利用时，增加一定量的一种产品的生产，就必须放弃一定量的另一种产品的生产。
整个社会生产的选择过程形成了一系列的产品间的不同产量组合，所有这些不同产量的组合就构成了社会生产的可能性边界。
曼昆《经济学原理》第6版微观经济学分册第13章课后习题答案P280-P283
第十三章生产成本复习题1．企业总收益、利润和总成本之间的关系是什么?答：企业利润＝总收益－总成本2．举出一个会计师不算做成本的机会成本的例子。
为什么会计师不考虑这种成本?答：企业家花时间和精力经营管理企业，他的机会成本是从事其他工作所能赚到的工资。
这种机会成本会计师不算做成本。
因为会计师分析经营活动的依据是货币的流人和流出，隐性机会成本不引起企业的货币流动。
因此，会计师不考虑它。
3．什么是边际产量？边际产量递减意味着什么?答：边际产量是增加一单位投入所引起的产量的增加。
边际产量递减意味着一种投入的边际产量随着投入量的增加而减少。
4．画出表示劳动的边际产量递减的生产函数。
画出相关的总成本曲线。
(在这两种情况下，都要标明坐标轴代表什么。
)解释你所画出的两个曲线的形状。
答：生产函数表示雇佣的工人数量和生产量之间的关系。
随着工人数量增加，生产函数变得增加，生产函数变得平坦，这反映了边际产量递减。
由于边际产量递减，边际成本递增，随着产量增加，总成本曲线变得较为陡峭。
图13－1劳动的边际产量递减的生产函数图13－2总成本曲线5．叙述总成本、平均总成本和边际成本的定义。
它们之间的关系是怎样的?答：总成本是指企业购买生产投入支付的量。
平均总成本是总成本除以产量。
边际成本指额外－单位产量所引起的总成本的增加。
平均总成本＝总成本/产量边际成本＝总成本变动量/产量变动量6．画出一个典型企业的边际成本曲线和平均总成本曲线。
解释为什么这些曲线的形状是这样，以及为什么在那一点相交。
答：图13－3典型企业的边际成本和平均总成本典型企业的边际成本曲线呈U型。
因为企业在刚开始时，生产能力有剩余，增加一单位的投入量，边际产量会高于前一单位的投入，这样就出现一段边际成本下降。
生产能力全部被利用之后，再增加边际投入，就会出现边际产量递减，边际成本递增。
于是，边际成本曲线呈现U型。
典型企业的边际总成本曲线呈U型。
平均总成本线反映了平均固定成本和平均可变成本的形状。