第二语言习得研究期末复习题
二语习得考试复习汇总
二语习得考试复习汇总一、名词解释母语、目的语、第一语言、第二语言、双语者、第二语言习得、1、“母语”通常是指学习者家庭或者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。
一般情况下，母语通常是幼儿出生后最先接触、习得的语言。
也被称作“第一语言”。
2、“目标语”，也称“目的语”，指学习者正在学习的语言。
这种语言可能是他的第二语言、第三语言甚或第四语言。
它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。
美国学生无论在美国学习汉语，还是在中国学习汉语，其目的语都是汉语。
如果他们同时在学习法语，那么法语也是他们的目的语。
对第二语言学习者而言，母语对其目的语的习得具有重要的影响。
3、第二语言习得：人们在自然的语言环境中或者课堂环境中潜意识地或者有意识地获得母语之外的另一种语言。
4、“双语者”或“操双语者”，指可以同等流利地使用两种语言的人。
（1）、双语者指那些两种语言都达到与母语者同等熟练水平的人（balanced bilingualism）。
精通两种语言的人。
这种观点是根据是否具有“同等的语言知识”来定义双语者；（2）、双语者可以指那些能够用另外一种语言生成完整的有意义的话语的人。
这就是所谓双语者的“最底限定义”（minimal definition）。
这种观点是基于能否使用第二语言来定义双语者。
5、第二语言：相对于第一语言而言，指在母语之后再学习另一种语言。
第二语言习得可能发生在自然环境，也可能在正规的课堂环境中。
在课堂环境下学习的第二语言被称为外语。
6、中介语是指在第二语言习得过程中，学习者通过一定的学习策略，在目的语输入的基础上所形成的一种既不同于其第一语言也不同于目的语、随着学习的进展向目的语逐渐过渡的动态的语言系统。
1、第二语言习得研究的发端是以什么为标志的？为什么？origination: the end of 1960s.Corder 1967: “The significance of leaners’errors” ; Selinker 1972“Interlanguage”.Why?1. . For the first time Corder theoretically elaborate the great significance of errors SL learners made on language teaching, the process of acquisition and the second learners themselves;2. the view of Corder radically change the view and attitude of how people see the errors of second language learners.Corder (1967) make clear the object, method and the direction for further development. SLA as a isolated area for study.Corder:第二语言习得研究应该把目光放在学习者语言系统的考察上，把学习者的语言偏误作为观察学习者语言习得过程的窗口，从中发现学习者是如何习得第二语言的规律的。
二语习得复习资料
二语习得复习资料填空、判断类1.第二语言习得研究的交叉学科：语言学、心理学、心理语言学。
2.第二语言习得研究的发端：Corder在1967年发表的《学习者偏误的意义》和Selinker在1972年发表的《中介语》。
3.1984年，鲁健骥在《中介语理论与外国人学习汉语的语音偏误分析》这篇文章中，将第二语言学习者的语言“偏误”和“中介语”的概念引入对外汉语教学领域。
4.强势说强调对比分析的预测功能，认为母语干扰是造成第二语言学习者语言习得困难和错误的主要原因。
5.1957年，拉多在《跨文化语言学》中系统地阐述了对比分析的内容、理论依据和分析方法。
6.对比分析这一基本假设建立在行为主义心理学和结构主义语言学基础之上。
7.Selinker被称为“中介语之父”8.过度泛化指的是二语学习者在习得第二语言的过程中，将其一目的语的规则推广到超越所能接受的范围之外。
9.输入假说是克拉申的语言监控模式整个习得理论的核心部分。
10.克拉申的输入假说包括四个要素：输入数量、输入质量、输入方式、输入条件。
11.情感过滤假说把成功的二语习得相关联的情感因素分为三大类：动机、自信、焦虑。
12.“社会文化理论”由前苏联心理学家维果茨基创立。
主要内容包括：调节论、最近发展区理论、个体话语和内在言语、活动理论。
13.语言输入与互动的研究始于上世纪70年代14.最早提出“关键期假说”这个观点的是著名神经外科医生Penfield。
15.根据社会心理学家的观点，学习者的态度是有三个方面构成：认知、情感、意动。
16.影响学习策略选择的因素主要有学习者个人差异、学习者个人背景和情景社会因素等。
17.沉浸式教学法是采用目的语作为学校课堂教学的媒介，课堂上主要是向学习者提供目的语语言输入。
18.1945年，弗里斯在《作为外语的英语教学与学习》一书中提出了对比分析的思想。
19.在第二语言习得顺序中，主要存在以下争议：①母语迁移；②“正确顺序”是否等于“习得顺序”③第一语言习得顺序是否等于第二语言习得顺序。
二语习得复习题
二语习得复习题1. 第二语言习得研究发展的路径（P19）（1）。
上世纪六十年代的第二语言习得研究的理论初创阶段。
在这一时期，第二语言习得研究与第二语言教学研究尚未分离。
当时站主导地位的是以行为主义为心理学基础的“对比分析”方法。
（2）上世纪70年代，第二语言习得研究已经发展成为一个独立的研究领域，是第二语言习得研究大发展的阶段。
偏误分析应运而生，产生了“中介语”理论假设。
还有两个重要的理论研究和创建，一是以Dulay和Burt为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究二是克拉伸的“监控模式”等（3）上世纪80 年代，第二语言习得研究作为一个独立的学科开始逐渐走向成熟。
受其他学科的影响构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点形成了不同的理论视角，如语言学视角、社会语言学视角、认知视角等。
2. 语言输入观P181：（1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位。
行为主义学习理论认为外在因素是语言习得的决定因素，否定学习者内在因素的作用。
（2）与行为主义学习理论相反，心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定因素。
（3）“互动论”的观点。
Elis认为，在互动论的旗帜下包括两个不同理论：一是以认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”二是“社会互动理论”。
认知互动理论不单单强调语言输入环境的重要性，也不仅仅强调语言习得内在因素的重要性，而是将两者结合起来。
3. 学习策略的含义P304：学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。
学习策略的分类P306：（一）Skehan(1989)的分类：1.根据学习者处理学习情景的能力来分（1）主动参与策略（active task approach）学习者主动寻找学习机会，并参与练习活动，反映积极。
（2）解释与确认策略（clarification and verification）学习者利用查字典和意译的方式，获得词语等的应用实例，并从句子里确认词语等的意义。
二语习得考试复习资料
第二语言习得研究期末考试复习题1、简述第二语言习得研究发展的途径分为三个阶段：1）20世纪50-60年代，这一阶段为理论初创阶段，占主导地位的是以行为主义心理学为基础的“对比分析”方法。
2）20世纪70年代，理论研究大发展阶段，开始关注学习者的语言偏误，产生了“中介语”理论假设。
三个理论研究，即以Dulay和Burt 为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究、克拉申的“监控模式”、Schumann的“文化适应模式”。
3）20世纪80年代，作为一个独立的学科，并开始走向成熟。
不同的发展途径构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点。
不同的发展途径体现在：1）语言学理论对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的语言学视角。
2）社会语言学及其研究范式对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的社会语言学视角。
3）认知科学对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的认知视角。
2、针对语言输入有哪几种不同的语言输入观？1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位，基于以下假设：a，语言输入是由外在的语言刺激和反馈构成的 b，语言输入通过正面的反馈和纠正得到强化 c，通过语言形式的操练可以达到语言学习的目的。
2）心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定性因素。
语言输入不过是语言习得发生的“触发”因素而已，语言输入是贫乏的，学习者不可能通过外在的语言输入获得完整的语言能力。
3）“互动论”：认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”强调将语言输入环境与语言习得内在因素两者结合起来；社会互动理论主要是从社会语言学的角度来研究语言输入环境与第二语言习得的关系。
3、学习策略的含义是什么？学习策略如何分类？学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。
1）Skehan（1989）根据学习者处理学习情境的能力来分：主动参与策略、解释与确认策略根据学习者的方法素质来分：跨语言比较策略、归纳策略根据学习者的评价能力来分：监控策略、自我评价策略2）O’Malley（1987）根据信息加工模型分类：认知策略（重复策略、记笔记策略、关联策略）；元认知策略（直接注意策略、自我管理策略）；社会/情感策略（合作策略、要求解释策略）3）Oxford的分类（1990）直接策略：直接影响语言学习，需要对语言学习进行心理操作间接策略：通过集中注意、计划、评价自我、控制焦虑感和增加与他人合作机会等间接影响语言学习4、如何区分下列概念：母语、目的语、第一语言、第二语言？母语通常是指学习者所属种类、社团使用的语言，也叫本族语，母语通常是指儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言；目的语也称目标语，一般是指学习者正在学习的语言，它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言；第一语言是指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言；第二语言是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言，包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言5、简述社会文化理论的主要内容及意义主要内容：调节论：主要用于解释儿童的认知发展，在语言的调节下，儿童的认知从“客体调控”阶段发展到“他人调控”阶段，最后到“自我调控”阶段。
第二语言习得期末复习
第一讲第二语言习得的基本概念、问题与发展历史一、基本概念研究范畴：对象：学习者语言系统、学习者自身、习得过程和机制母的：描写语言习得过程、揭示规律方法：语言学心理学、社会心理学、认知科学、社会语言学第一语言vs第二语言顺序最先习得的语言第一之外的所有语言母语vs外语指的是相对于某个国家而言的其它国家的语言种族社团语言习得与语言学习意识二语习得与外语习得社会环境语言能力与语言表达隐形/显性语法知识/运用知识目的语又叫目标语，一般指学习者正在学习的语言，与环境无关语感觉得语言合适不合适的能力，又是反省与修订语言的能力腐蚀语言回退的现象+停滞不前，可导致未完全习得磨蚀指某种语言使用的减少和停止导致的代内而不是代间，生理不是病理，个体不是团体易混第二语言习得是在目的语国家学习目的语外语习得是在本国学目的语继承语祖先语，只能在家庭环境内部接触到的语言，未完成习得的语言第二语言习得是一门独立的学科吗？学科性质：跨学科（交叉学科）独立的研究内容一批专业研究者成熟的研究方法成熟的理论体系（概念、假说）教学是二语习得发展的最初动力二、研究问题1.初始状态是什么普遍语法 A：始于第一语言，初态有一定一语特征 B：始于普遍语法，与二语习得无本质差别2.二语学习者是否能像母语一样某些范畴可达到年龄3.有关键时期吗：关键期假说4.发展情况如何：a-b-c 语速等顺序性发展（变异）5.外显学习和内隐学习的作用是什么：显性：试图发现规则，有意识隐形：无意识6.在SLA中输入和输出的作用是什么：其互动关系，输入输出假说，互动理论7.个体差异是什么及其对习得的影响：动机个性态度8.教学对第二语言作用：有限的教学无用受制于其他条件，是必要条件9.习得的制约条件：上面都影响三、基本问题：如何学、教什么、怎么教发展历史：初创20世纪50-60年代最初理论：对比分析假说解决问题:外语教学问题（追溯一语）标志：Corder(1967) The significance of Learner's errorsSelinker(1972) Interlanguage发展20世纪70-80年代成熟20世纪80年代-今标志：鲁健骥中介语理论与外国人学习汉语的语音偏误分析语言教学与研究 1984第一部著作：1997 靳洪刚《语言获得理论研究》第一部国内介绍二语习得理论的著作。
第二语言习得考试试题
第二语言习得考试试题一、选择题（每题 2 分，共 40 分）1、第二语言习得中的“中介语”是指（）A 学习者母语和目的语之间的过渡语言B 学习者在学习过程中创造的一种独立语言C 教师为帮助学习者而使用的简化语言D 一种国际通用的辅助语言2、以下哪项不是影响第二语言习得的个体差异因素（）A 学习动机B 性格特点C 社会环境D 认知风格3、在第二语言习得中，“输入假说”的提出者是（）A 克拉申B 乔姆斯基C 皮亚杰D 布鲁纳4、学习者在第二语言习得过程中出现的“石化”现象，指的是（）A 语言能力停止发展B 语言错误固定化C 学习兴趣丧失D 学习方法不当5、以下哪种教学方法更注重语言的交际功能（）A 语法翻译法B 直接法C 听说法D 交际法6、第二语言习得中的“情感过滤假说”认为，以下哪种因素会影响语言输入的吸收（）A 自信心B 焦虑程度C 学习态度D 以上都是7、对于儿童和成人在第二语言习得方面的比较，以下说法正确的是（）A 儿童学习速度更快B 成人学习效果更好C 儿童在语音方面更有优势D 成人在语法方面更有优势8、以下哪项不是第二语言习得中的语言输出的作用（）A 检验语言知识B 提高语言流利度C 促进语言输入的理解D 减少语言错误9、学习者在第二语言习得中，对目的语规则的过度概括所产生的错误属于（）A 语际错误B 语内错误C 诱导错误D 随机错误10、以下哪种语言环境更有利于第二语言习得（）A 课堂教学环境B 自然语言环境C 双语环境D 单一语言环境11、在第二语言习得中，“监控假说”认为，学习者的语言输出主要受到（）的监控。
A 潜意识B 有意识C 情感因素D 语言规则12、以下哪项不是第二语言习得中的学习策略（）A 认知策略B 元认知策略C 情感策略D 语法策略13、对于第二语言习得中的“文化适应”，以下说法错误的是（）A 有助于语言学习B 只是了解文化知识C 包括价值观的适应D 能提高交际能力14、以下哪种测试方法更能准确测量学习者的第二语言实际运用能力（）A 标准化测试B 口语测试C 书面测试D 听力测试15、第二语言习得中的“关键期假说”认为，语言学习的最佳年龄是（）A 儿童时期B 青少年时期C 成年时期D 没有固定年龄16、以下哪项不是影响第二语言习得的外部因素（）A 教学方法B 教材质量C 学习者年龄D 语言环境17、在第二语言习得中，“可理解输入”的特点不包括（）A 略高于学习者现有水平B 有趣且相关C 语法复杂D 大量重复18、以下哪种反馈方式对第二语言习得最有效（）A 积极反馈B 消极反馈C 直接纠错D 引导自纠19、学习者在第二语言习得中出现的回避现象，主要是为了（）A 避免错误B 节省时间C 简化表达D 显示个性20、以下关于第二语言习得和第一语言习得的比较，错误的是（）A 学习动机不同B 学习环境相似C 认知能力有差异D 语言输入质量不同二、简答题（每题 10 分，共 30 分）1、请简述第二语言习得中的“输入假说”的主要内容。
第二语言习得试题及答案
第二语言习得试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共10分）1. 第二语言习得理论中，克拉申的“输入假说”主张学习者需要接收到什么样的语言输入？A. 完全理解的输入B. 可理解的输入C. 无理解的输入D. 超过理解的输入答案：B2. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于什么？A. 模仿B. 强化C. 内化D. 社会互动答案：B3. 在语言习得中，“临界期”假说主张语言学习的最佳时期是？A. 任何年龄B. 儿童时期C. 青少年时期D. 成年时期答案：B4. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为语言技能的发展遵循一定的顺序，以下哪项不是该假说的内容？A. 语法结构的习得顺序是固定的B. 词汇的习得顺序是固定的C. 发音的习得顺序是固定的D. 语言习得的速度是个体差异决定的答案：D5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调以下哪个因素在语言学习中的作用？A. 认知发展B. 社会互动C. 语言输入D. 语言输出答案：B二、填空题（每空1分，共10分）1. 语言习得的“监控假说”是由________提出的。
答案：克拉申2. 语言习得中的“输入假说”认为，学习者需要接收到________的输入。
答案：可理解的3. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为，语言技能的发展遵循一定的________。
答案：顺序4. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于________。
答案：强化5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调________在语言学习中的作用。
答案：社会互动三、简答题（每题5分，共20分）1. 简述克拉申的“输入假说”。
答案：克拉申的“输入假说”认为，为了习得第二语言，学习者需要接收到略高于其当前语言水平的可理解输入，这样的输入被称为“i+1”输入。
2. 描述斯金纳的操作条件反射理论在语言习得中的应用。
答案：斯金纳的操作条件反射理论认为，语言习得是通过强化机制实现的。
当学习者正确使用语言时，他们会受到奖励（强化），这会增强他们使用正确语言形式的倾向。
第二语言习得专题研究考试资料
名词解释：1、母语：指学习者所属种族、社团使用旳语言，因而也称作“本族语”，一般状况下，母语是小朋友出生后来最先接触、习得旳语言2、目旳语：也称“目旳语”，是指学习者正在学习旳语言，这种语言可以指正在学习旳母语或第一语言，也可以指她正在学习旳第二语言、第三语言甚至第四语言。
3、第一语言：指小朋友幼年最先接触和习得旳语言。
4、第二语言：是相对于学习者习得旳第一语言之外任何一种其她语言。
5、习得：指“非正式”旳语言获得，小朋友大都是通过这种方式来获得母语。
6、学习：指“正式”旳语言规则学习，即通过课堂教学旳方式来获得第二语言。
7、第二语言习得：指学习者在目旳语国家学习目旳语。
8、外语习得：指学习者在本国学习除母语外旳目旳语。
9、语言能力：指是一种反映交际双发语言知识旳心理语法。
10、语言体现：指旳是交际双发在语言旳理解与生成过程中对其内在旳语法运用。
11、对比分析：产生于20世纪50年代。
昌盛于60年代。
初衷是为了在第二语言教学中预测学习者旳难点，避免学习者旳语言偏误，提高第二语言教学旳效率。
12、母语负迁移：这一假设旳实质是母语在第二语言习得中旳作用问题，主张对比分析旳学者觉得。
学习者旳母语对第二语言习得将产生极大旳影响，如第二语言学习者学习外语大均有母语旳“口语”。
13、内隐学习：是通过无意识或下意识旳方式来获得语言知识，外显学习是在故意识旳状态下通过规则学习，来获得语言知识。
14、通过学习获得旳“显性知识”不能转化为“隐性知识”一、第二语言习得研究旳跨学科特点：语言学与心理学有着交叉与重叠，构成了心理语言学，第二语言习得研究与语言学密切有关，但是在学科旳划分上，它并不属于语言学，同样，第二语言习得研究与心理语言学也密切有关，但她既不属于心理语言学也不属于心理学。
二、第二语言习得研究旳发端：第二语言习得研究旳发端可以追溯到20世纪60年代末，Corder1967年刊登旳《学习者偏误旳意义》明确提出了第二语言习得旳研究对象，标志着第二语言习得研究成为一种相对独立旳研究领域；Selinker1972刊登旳《中介语》，系统地论述了“中介语”理论假设，更加明确旳提出了第二语言习得研究旳对象，即“学习者旳语言系统”，因此，这两人旳文章被称为第二语言习得研究旳“开山之作”，成为建立第二语言习得研究学科旳标志。
西华大学《第二语言习得》2023-2024学年第一学期期末试卷
(2023至2024学年第1学期)课程名称：第二语言习得考试时间：分钟课程代码：试卷总分：100分考试形式：闭卷考试一、(从四个备选答案中选出一个正确答案。
每小题2分，共24分)1.在第二语言习得中，下列哪个理论强调了语言输入的重要性？A.行为主义理论B.自然法C.交际语言教学法D.监控模型2.Krashen的“i+1”理论中的“i”代表什么？A.输入B.输出C.个体差异D.理想语言水平3.根据Vygotsky的社会文化理论，哪项是促进第二语言发展的关键因素？A.正式教学B.社会互动C.私人演讲D.语言输出4.在Dulay和Burt的错误分析中，哪个阶段学习者的语言系统尚未稳定？A.无错误阶段B.快速假设测试阶段C.形成假设阶段D.自我修正阶段5.以下哪个选项不是多语言习得中的代码混淆现象？A.词汇借用B.语法结构迁移C.语音干扰D.文化同化6.根据Auerbach的二语习得理论，什么是学习者内部处理机制的表现？A.语言迁移B.目标语言泛化C.交际策略D.反馈利用7.在第二语言写作教学中，以下哪个方法更侧重于形式而非内容？A.过程写作法B.产品写作法C.任务型写作法D.合作学习写作法8.“沉默期”这一概念通常与以下哪位语言学家的研究相关？A.Noam ChomskyB.Stephen KrashenC.Lev VygotskyD.Hans H.Wells9.根据Skinner的行为主义理论，哪种教学方法被认为可以加强语言习惯的形成？A.模仿练习B.角色扮演C.自由会话D.阅读理解10.在第二语言听力理解中，自下而上的处理指的是：A.从整体语境到具体细节的理解过程B.从具体细节到整体语境的理解过程C.通过背景知识来解读听到的信息D.依赖先前经验来预测信息11.在第二语言教学中，任务型语言教学法(TBLT)主张使用哪种类型的任务？A.真实交际任务B.语法翻译任务C.形式填空任务D.词汇记忆任务12.根据文化认同理论，学习者对第二语言文化的适应程度会影响：A.语言学习动机B.语言输入的数量C.语言输出的质量D.语言学习策略的选择二、(判断正误，正确的标识“√”，错误的标识“X”，每小题1分，共10分)1.（）根据普遍语法理论，所有语言的深层结构都是相同的。
第二语言习得复习题
第二语言习得复习题第二語言習得複習題一、名詞解釋1.第二語言：指相對於第一語言來說，除兒童幼年最先接觸和習得の語言，在此後習得の語言就是第二語言。
2. 第一語言：指兒童幼年最先接觸和習得の語言。
3. 母語：指學習者所屬種族、社團使用の語言，也稱作“本族語”。
4，目の語：也叫目標語，一般指學習者正在學習の語言。
5，第二語言習得：簡稱SLA，是指人們在獲得母語(第一語言)の基礎上習得另一種或幾種語言の過程。
也叫“二語習得”6，語言習得機制：喬姆斯基提出人腦中存在一個“語言習得機制”（LAD），它有以下一些特點：1.具有遺傳性，為人類獨有。
2.能使兒童加工語言材料，判斷語言體系の發展，建立抽象規則。
3.可能已經具備一些普遍の語言特征，這些特征可以在所有人類語言中找到，因此，許多語法屬性可能是先天存在於人類の大腦中，無需學習。
7，工具型動機：學習者對目の語群體沒有興趣，學習目の語只是為了掌握一個工具，用來提高自己の知識水平、改善社會地位。
8，習得與學習：克拉申認為“習得”通常指在自然狀態下“下意識”の語言獲得，而“學習”一般是指“有意識”の語言獲得。
前者稱為“內隱學習”，後者稱為“外顯學習”9，中介語：語言學習者在學習第二語言時所擁有の一種獨立の語言系統,這種語言系統在結構上既不是學習者の母語也不是目の語,而是介於兩者之間。
中介語系統在語音、詞匯、語法、文化等方面都有表現。
但它又不是固定不變の，而是隨著學習の發展，逐漸向目の語の正確形式靠攏。
10，普遍語法：喬姆斯基認為普遍語法是由一些原則條件和規則構成の系統，這些所有人類語言共有の因素是或特性是必然の而不是偶然の，原則系統和規則系統。
11，僵化：僵化（fossilization），也叫化石化或石化，是由Selinker於1972年在其中介語理論中提出の。
僵化是存在於“潛在の心理結構”中の一種機制，表現為某種母語背景の第二語言學習者會在目の語習得の某個階段上停滯不前，無論學習者年齡大小，也無論其是否繼續學習12，外國人話語：所謂“外國人話語”並不是指外國人の話語，而是指對外國人說の話語。
第二语言习得复习资料
第⼆语⾔习得复习资料★1. SLA (Second language acquisition)is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a classroom.★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars.Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3. The study of second language acquisition is a branch of applied linguistics.It mainly deals with how the second language is acquired. The process not only involves linguistics but also a great many subjects including linguistic physiology, psychology, psycholinguistics, cognitive science and so on.4. Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated peopleLearner factors (internal factors)MotivationAgeLearning strategy5. Through observations and experiments they have found that children all undergo certain stages of language development. Babbling stage (articulating certain speech sounds)(6 -12)One word or Holophrastic stage (using single words to represent various meanings)（12-18 months)Two –word stage (18-20 months)Telegraphic speech stage (using phrase and sentences composed of only content words.)(2-3 years )6. Language acquisition和Second Language Acquisition之间的关系7.(1) Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits. These arise when the learner is confronted with specific stimuli which lead to specific responses, which are, in turn, reinforced by rewards. Behaviorist learning theory emphasizes environmental factors as opposed to internal, mental factors.(2) The habit-formation theoryThe association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.Two important characteristics of habitsObservable: the true basis for psychological enquiry existed only in objects that could be touched and actions that could be observed. (Watson)Automatic:habits were performed spontaneously without awareness and were difficult to eradicate unless environmental changes led to the extinction of the stimuli upon which they were built.Two means: imitation and practiceImitation and practice play an important role in the process of habit- formation, because the behaviorists maintained that imitation will help learners identify the associations between stimuli and responses while practice will reinforce the associations and help learners to form the new linguistic habits.Theories of habit formation were theories of learning in general.The process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation. (The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit.)8. The causes of errors according to behaviorismDifferences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language.Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result.Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning,rather than wrong learning.Attitude towards errorErrors should be avoided and should be corrected if they have been made, because they are indication of non-learning and have the danger of becoming bad linguistic habits.Errors could be avo ided by comparing the learner?s native language with the target language, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of potential error.Where are the means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists?The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.9. StructuralismLanguage was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns)10. What is contrastive analysis (CA)?Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.11. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.12. Contrastive Analysis Assumptions1. Language learning = habit formation2. L1 is major source of error in L2 production/reception3. Errors are accounted for by considering differences between L1 and L24. The greater the differences, the more errors will occur5. Focus on dissimilarities in learning; similarities require little new learning6. Difficulty and ease in predicted by differences and similarities between L1 and L213. Steps for contrastive analysis①Describing L1 and L2②Selecting a linguistic feature③Marking an L1-L2 comparison on this feature④Using the results to predict or explain err ors in learner?s L2 performance.14.The Validity of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis(正确性)Over-simplification to think that comparing two languages is a straightforward comparison of structures.Other factors such as innate principles of language, attitude, motivation, aptitude, age, other languages known, and so forth. In the 1960s, the behaviorist theory of language and language learning was challenged. Language came to be seen in terms of structured rules instead of habits. Learning was nowseen not as imitation but as active rule formation.Another criticism of the role of CA had to do with the concept of difficulty. Differences are based on formal descriptions of linguistic units –those selected by a linguist, a teacher, or a textbook writer. It is not a real measure of difficulty. (Difference=difficulty=error)too negative about borrowing from L1Ignoring the conditions of interference.Empirical study found that not all actually occurring errors were predicted; not all predicted errors occurred.15.Theoretical Criticisms（批评）Chomsky?s attack on behaviorismRelationship between “difficulty” and “error”Problems concerning the linguistic basis of contrastive analysisNeed to accommodate the variability of learner performance when predicting errors16.“Difficulty” and “Error”There were objections to the validity of equating …difference? with …difficulty? on the hand and …difficulty? with …error? on the other.difference vs difficulty“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psy chological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.17. Definition of EAError analysis:--the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96).--A type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners? interlanguage and the target language;--A methodology of describing L2 learners? language systems (Corder, 1981)The Purpose of EATo discover the processes learners make use of in learning & using the target language,To identify the causes of learner errors,To obtain information on common difficulties in L2 learningBasic AssumptionsHuman learning is fundamentally a process involving making errors;Language learning is like any other human learning;Errors made by L2 learners can be observed, analyzed, classified, and described ( Brown,1987: 169-171) Procedure of Error AnalysisIdentification of ErrorsDescription of ErrorsExplanation of errors: determine the sources of errors Comapararison:18.Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one?s L1, or the negative transfer of one?s mother tongue.Intralingual error:①deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners? transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.②confusion of L2 rules19. Sources of ErrorsIn language learning, learner?s errors are caused by s everal different processes, including--Interlingual transfer--Intralingual transfer--Transfer of training or context of learning--Cognitive & affective factors20. Levels of ErrorsSubstance errorsText errorsDiscourse errors21. Implication & ApplicationError Analysis is significant theoretically and practically.--Theoretica l: it is part of the methodology of investigating the language learning process--Practical: it has direct relevance to the improvement of language teaching materials and methods★22. Differences of error analysis Between EA and CA1.Interest in errors ：EA interested in errors resulting from interference from L1CA interested in the totality of the errors of a L2 learner2.Classification of errors :EA classifies only errors resulting from interference of L1CA classifies all errors3.Source of errorsEA: errors are the result of negative transferCA: errors are a learner?s hypotheses in relation to the new language and considered to be a natural part of L2 learning4.Position of errorsEA: errors are harmful and it seeks to correct themCA: takes no position on errors5.When CA/EA beganEA:begins with Fries and LadoCA: a type of study that has existed for a long time6.PerformanceEA. interested in learner?s performance and correlates it to L1CA: interested in the learner?s performance and correlates it to L1 and the developing L222. Factors causing errors1. Language transfer2. Overgeneralization3. Learner differences3. Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communicatione.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.23. DefinitionStrategy VS. technique Stern (1983)Strategy is general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, while techniques to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior.Strategy : conscious , behavioral24. Types of learner strategyLearning strategy 学习策略Production strategy 表达策略Communication strategy 交际策略25. Classifications (Cohen 2006)By goal; By function; By skill; Others(1) By goal: Language learning strategies (e.g., translating, memorizing) or language use strategies(e.g., retrieval, communicative, and cover strategies).(2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.(4) Others: Strategies by proficiency levels, by specific cultures (i.e., learning the language of a specific culture), or by specific languages.O?Malley & Chamot (1990)MetacognitiveCognitiveSocial26.Meta-cognitive strategiesMeta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one?s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.Organize/plan your own learningManage ……..Monitor………Evaluate……….Importance of meta-cognitive strategiesStudents without meta-cognitive approaches are essentially learners without direction or opportunity to review their progress, accomplishment, and future directions.27. Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.RepetitionResourcingDirected physical responseTranslationGroupingNote-takingDeductionRecombinationImageryAuditory representationKey wordContextualizationElaborationTransferInferencing27. social/affective strategiesSocial strategiesstrategies for regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes; strategies for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement.协作（cooperation）提问澄清（question for clarification）Affective strategies:strategies for regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes; strategies for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement.28. Individual learner variablesPersonal factors:group dynamicsattitudes to the teacher and course materialslearning techniquesGeneral factors:ageaptitudecognitive style field dependence / independencemotivationpersonality29. MotivationIntegrative motivation 融合型动机is present in learners who identify with the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation⼯具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possible benefits: professional advancement, study in the target language, business.Resultative motivation:因果性动机Learners’motivation is strongly affected by their achievement.Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest.Motivation as a multi-componential constructMotivation= effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudes★Integrative motivation 融合型动vs. Instrumental orientation⼯具型动机(p94)★30. Definition –interlanguage★Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner construct for use incommunication through the target language.The term“interlanguage” , coined by Selinker(1972), refers to the language system constructed by second language learners on their way to the target language.Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the targetlanguage. (Larry Selinker)Nemser calls it“approximative system”Corder (1971) called learners? language an idiosyncratic dialect .These terms suggest that learners? language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.错误发⽣的原因：Interlingua interference (语际⼲扰)⒈Positive transfer⒉negative transferIntralingua interference（语内⼲扰）★31. Characteristics of interlanguage systempermeable ;dynamic; systematic; fossilization★32.Definition of fossilizationIt has been observed that somewhere in the L2 learning process, such an IL may reach one or more temporary restricting phases during which the development of the IL appears to be detained (Nemser, 1971; Selinker, 1972; Schumann, 1975).A permanent cessation of progress toward the TL has been referred to as fossilization (Selinker, 1972).33. Classification of fossilizationTemporary fossilization:暂时性⽯化:Temporary fossilization refers to stability of language acquisition or the plateau phenomenon of learning, at the moment language parameter is steady and static, the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions .Permanent fossilization永久性⽯化：This means the learner?s language stops evolving for ever. Because most of the students? interlanguage is in the temporary and stable stage, no permanent fossilization. Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization.Fossilization appears through five central processes:Language transfer; transfer of learning; learning strategies; communication strategies; overgeneralizationInternal Causes of fossilizationMotivationCommunicative needsAcquisition deviceExternal Causes of fossilizationCommunicative pressureLack of learning opportunitiesFeedback:positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ;(e.g. “Oh,I see”)negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization.(e.g. “I don?t understand you” )34. Linguistic basis for SLAContrastive analysis (pre-Chomskyan structuralism)Universals and contrastive analysisUniversals and SLA★35. Definition of UGUG is a term used by Chomsky to refer to the abstract knowledge of language which children bring to the task of learning their native language, and which constrains the shape of the particular grammar they are trying to learn. It consists of various principles which govern the form grammatical rules can take. Some of these principles are parameterized ( i.e. are specified as consisting of two or more options).DefinitionCook(1985) summarizing the Chomskyan position, defines …universal grammar? as …the properties inherent in the human mind?. Un iversal grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to all language rather than a set of particular rules.Definitiona set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in different languages36. Principles refers to highly abstract properties of grammar which apply to language in general and which, therefore, underlie the grammatical rules of all specific languages.Parameters refers to principles that vary in certain restricted ways from one language to another. That is, they take the form ofa finite set of options which individual languages draw on and which define the variation possible between language36. UG also provides a basis for determining markedness. The degree of markedness depends on whether a feature is part of the …core? or the …periphery?.Core grammar: unmarked, that is, they accord with the general tendencies of language. Periphery rules: marked, that is they are exceptional in some way.core rules (UG) are unmarkedMarkednessperiphery rules are markedUniversals and contrastive analysisMarkedness: refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are …special? or …less natural? or …less basic? than others. Markedness differential condition: marked features are more difficult to learn than unmarked.37.The role of universals in L1 acquisition1. Grammar construction is constrained by the operation of Universal Grammar, which regulates the options the child has to choose from. That is, hypothesis formation is constrained by innate principles.2. Regularities in the order of development can be explained only by considering both Universal Grammar and channel capacity.A distinction can be made between …development' actual progress) and …acquisition' the idealized learning that results from universal Grammar)3. Universal grammar may unfold as a maturational schedule, as suggested by Felix (1984), or it may be activated piecemeal in accordance with the data that the child perceive at different developmental stages, as suggested by White (1981).4. The child is likely to learn unmarked rules before marked rules; he constructs a core grammar before a peripheral grammar.5. The child possesses a projective capacity. This enables one rule to trigger off other rules withwhich it is implicationally linked, and also enables rules to be acquired when no direct evidence for them has been supplied by the input.38. Access to UG1. Complete access2. No access3. Partial access4. Dual access39 Linguistic universals and L1 transferThe transfer of L1 unmarked formsUnmarked setting of parameters will occur in interlanguage before marked settings, even if the L2 provides evidence of a marked setting.The non-transfer of L1 marked forms40.Krashen?s Input Hy pothesis ModelKnown by various names--Monitor hypothesis--Input model--Comprehensible input model--Natural modelAll these names refer to the one and the same model★Five hypotheses1. Acquisition – learning distinction hypothesis2. Natural sequence/order hypothesis3. Monitor hypothesis4. Comprehensible input hypothesis5. Affective filter hypothesis. (1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,i.e., acquisition and learning.Acquisition refers to the unconscious processes that also takes place in first language acquisition. Learning is a conscious process which is responsible for the construction of grammar rules or knowledge about the second language through teaching or error correction.. Acquisition LearningSubconscious – implicit learningA distinct process – can never become learningThe way children learn the languageMeaning focusedInductiveNaturalistic settingsConscious – explicit learningA distinct process –can neverbecome acquisitionThe way adults learn the languageGrammar (form) focusedDeductiveFormal settingsImplications of Acquisition-Learning Distinction HypothesisContent based language teaching – total immersion is preferable.Provide meaningful contexts for understanding languageProvide meaningful communication activities such as information gap activities.(2) Natural Order Hypothesis: SLA follows a universal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners? first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting). Implications of natural order hypothesisErrors are developmental and are a natural byproduct of learning – tolerate them.Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them(3) The Input Hypothesis claims a move along the developmental continuum byreceiving comprehensible input.Comprehensible input is defined as L2 input just beyond the Learne r?s current L2 competence, in terms of its syntactic complexity. If a learner?s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1. Input which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2/3/4…) will not be useful for acquisition.“i+1”We acquire, only when we understand the structure that is “a little beyond” where we are now Implications of input hypothesisEmploy teacher talk along motherese or foreigner talk(4) The affective filter modelAffect refers to:Motivation: Performers with high motivation generally do better in L2 acquisition.Self-confidence:Performers with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to do better in L2 Acquisition.Anxiety:Low anxiety appears to be conducive to L2 acquisition.Affective filter hypothesisLearners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important.The significance of affective filter hypothesisAccounts for individual variationAccounts for the differences between adult and child language acquisition processesImplications of affective filter hypothesisCreate a non-threatening teaching/learning atmosphere in the classroom.Provide a risk-safe environment.Students should not worry about being criticized.Capitalize on what students already know.Create teaching/learning environment in such a way that students encounter success rather than failure.Provide positive and constructive feedback.Analyze your classroom behavior for any hidden agenda(5) Monitor hypothesisThree conditions:Knowledge of grammarFocus on grammarAvailability of timeGrammar focused learning leads to grammar focused productionChildren do not monitor so why should adults?Learning language is different from learning about language.监控假设图⽰(p57)Implications of monitor hypothesisModel language and do not teach grammar explicitly.Krashen?s VariablesFor Krashen, there are only two variables for language acquisition to take place:Abundant comprehensible inputLow affective filterKrashen – An evaluationMajor strength – intuitively appealingAble to be translated into pedagogical modelsHybrid model and so draws strengths from various theoriesFor the first time, somebody was able to say that grammar teaching was not goodHumanistic in its approachImpreciseNot verifiableKrashen?s dogmatic adherence to his hypotheses is the major weakness★41. language transferLanguage transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired.Negative transferPositive transferAvoidanceOveruse★/doc/11a403d433d4b14e85246836.html D(language acquisition device)The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn.★43.critical age period(p100)★44.field independent vs. field independent(p77)★45.distinction between qualitative and quantitative research(p143)★46.input vs. output(p32-33)★47.intellence vs. aptitude(p85-88)。
二语习得期末复习资料
Chapter 1 introducing second language acquisition1.SLA: a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning alanguage subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.Second language:an officially or societally dominant language (not L1) needed foreducation, employment or other basic purposesrmal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts4.Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classroom5.Linguistic competence: the underlying knowledge that a speaker/hearer have of a language.Chomsky distinguishes this form linguistic performance.6.Linguistic performance: the use of language knowledge in actual production.7.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): the language acquired in childhood8.Simultaneous multilingualism:ability to use one or more languages that were auqiredduring early childhood.9.Sequential multilingualism: ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1had already been established.1.What are the three basic questions in SLA?(1)What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2)How does the L2 leaner acquire this knowledge?(3)Why are some learners more successful than others?2.Why there are no simple answers to these questions? (P2)Chapter 2 foundations of second language acquisition1.Multilingualism: the ability to use more than one language.2.Bilingualism: the ability to use two languages.3.Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.4.Multilingual competence: “the compound state of a mind with two or more grammars”5.Monolingual competence: knowledge of only one language.6.Learner language: also called interlanguage which refers to the intermediate states orinterim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.7.Positive transfer: appropriate incorporation(合并，编入) of an L1 structure or rule in L2structure.8.Negative transfer: inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule in L2 use, also calledinterference.9.Fossilization:a stable state in SLA where learners cease their interlanguage developmentbefore they reach target norms despite continuing L2 input and passage of time.10.Poverty-of-the-stimulus:the argument that because language input to children isimpoverished(穷尽的) and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for L1 acquisition.11.Innate capacity:a natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn oracquire language.1.What is the nature of language learning?(1)Simultaneous/sequential multilingualism(2)The role of natural abilitya)Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn another language.b)As children mature, so do their language abilities.c)Individual variation may occur in learning; the rate of learning can differ, but there arestages everyone goes through.d)“Cut off point”- if the process does not happen at a young age, you'll never learn thelanguage. （关键期假说）(Critical Period Hypothesis)(3)The role of social experiencea)Children will never acquire language unless that language is used with them andaround them, no matter what is their language.b)As long as children are experiencing input and social interaction, the rate and sequenceof development doesn't change.c)The only thing that may change is pronunciation, vocabulary, and social function.2.What are some basic similarities and differences in L1 and L2 learning? (P17表格)(1)Similarities between L1 and L2a)Development stagesInitial State - knowledge about language structures and principlesIntermediate State - Basic language developmentFinal State - Outcome of learningb)Necessary conditions: Input(2)Differences between L1 and L2（P17表格）3.What is “the logical problem of language acquisition”?(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the inputthey receive. (Poverty-of-the stimulus)(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input.(如果说普遍语法存在孩子们脑中，那语言输入起的作用又如何解释呢？)4.5.(1)Children begin to learn their language at the same age, and in much the same wayregardless of what the language is.(2)Children are not limited to repeating what they heard; they can understand and createnovel(新颖) utterance.(3)There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition, beyond which it can never be completed.6.Linguists have taken an internal and external focus to the study of language acquisition.What is the difference between the two?The internal focus seeks to account for speakers’ internalized, underlying knowledge oflanguage. The external focus emphasizes language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners’ production at different stages of development.Chapter 3 the linguistics of second language acquisition1.Interference: also called negative transfer, which means inappropriate influence of an L1structure or rule in L2 use.2.Interlanguage: also called learner language, which refers to the intermediate states orinterim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.3.Natural order: a universal sequence in the grammatical development of language learners.4.Universal grammar: a linguistic framework developed most prominently by Chomsky whichclaims that L1 acquisitions can be accounted for only by innate knowledge that the human species is genetically endowed with. This knowledge includes what all languages have in common.nguage faculty: term used by Chomsky foe a “component of the human mind” thataccounts for children’s innate knowledge of language.6.Principles: properties(固有属性) of all languages of the world; part of Chomsky’s universalgrammar.7.Parameters: limited options in realization of universal principles which account forgrammatical variation between languages of the world. Part of Chomsky’s theory ofuniversal grammar.8.Initial state: the starting point of language acquisition; it is thought to include theunderlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.9.Final state: the outcome of L1 and L2 learning, also known as the stable state of adultgrammar.10.Markedness: a basic for classification of languages according to whether a specific featureoccurs more frequently than a contrasting element in the same category, is less complex structurally or conceptually, or is more “normal” or “expected” along some dimensions. 11.Grammaticalization(语法化): a developmental process in which a grammaticalfunction(such as expression of past time) is first conveyed by shared extralinguisticknowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word(such as yesterday), and only later by a grammatical marker(such as the suffix -ed).一、The nature of language1.What we learn in linguistic perspective? What are the characteristics of language?Both L1 and L2 learners acquire knowledge at these different levels: lexicon(词汇学),phonology(语音学), morphology(构词法), syntax(句法). Languages are systemic,symbolic and social.二、Contrastive analysis1.What is contrastive analysis?CA is an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.2.What is the goal of contrastive analysis?(assumptions)(1)If L2 acquisition is disturbed by the habits of your native language, it is reasonableto focus on the differences between native and target language.(2)Contrastive analysis had a practical goal: If you recognize the differences betweenyour native language and the target language, you are able to overcome thelinguistic habits of your native language that interfere with the habits of the targetlanguage.3.What are the critiques of contrastive analysis?(1)The process of L2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by the characterization oferrors.(2)Errors in L2 acquisition do not only arise from interference.(3)The structural differences between two languages are not sufficient to predict theoccurrence of errors in L2 acquisition.三、Error analysis1.What is error analysis？EA is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2, rather than onidealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2 (as in CA).(1)Ambiguity in classification. (不知道是具体是哪个原因导致比如时态错误，可能是一语影响，也可能是在一语中出现过的universal developmental process)(2)Lack of positive data. (正确的被忽略，只关注错误不能看出学生学到什么)(3)Potential for avoidance. (学生会避免错误，这样错误就不能全部被观察)四、Interlanguage1.What are the characteristics of interlanguage?(1)Systematic.(2)Dynamic.(3)Variable.(可变性) although systematic, differences in context result in differentpatterns of language use.(4)Reduced system, both in form and function. (学习者经常会简单化)2.There are differences between IL development and L1 acquisition, including differentcognitive processes involved:(1)Language transfer from L1 to L2.(2)Transfer training.(3)Strategies of second language learning. (避免等)(4)Strategies of second language learning. (为方便不要复数等)(5)Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material.3.The beginning and the end of IL are defined respectively as whenever a learner firstattempts to convey meaning in the L2 and whenever development “permanently” stops, but the boundaries are not entirely clear. Identification of fossilization is even morecontroversial.五、Monitor model (The input hypothesis model)1.Which five hypotheses(假定) does the model consist of? (课本P45！！！)(1)Acquisition-learning hypothesis(2)Monitor hypothesis(3)Natural order hypothesis(4)Input hypothesis(5)Affective filter hypothesis2.What is LAD in this model?The LAD is made up of the natural language learning abilities of the human mind, totally available in L1 acquisition, available in L2 acquisition according to the level of the filter.But, the process of learning, unlike the process of acquisition, uses faculties of mind outside the LAD.3.图示4.What are points of the consensus of early linguistic study of SLA?(1)What is being acquired through a dynamic interlanguage system(2)How SLA takes place involves creative mental processes(3)Why some learners are more successful than others relates primary to the age.5.What is the role of grammar according to Krashen?The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition(and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the targetlanguage is used as a medium of instruction.六、Universal grammar1.Differences of linguistic competence and performance(见Chapter1名词解释)2.What is UG? (名词解释)3.UG and L1 acquisition(1)What the child acquire is selecting parametric options.(2)Unlike SLA, attitudes, motivations and social context play no role.4.UG and SLA, there are three important questions(1)What is the initial state of SAL?Interference(看参数相同不相同); no agreement on access to UG(2)What is the nature of IL and how does it change over time?定参数的过程Language faculty; positive/negative evidence(起作用);constructionism; fossilization(3)What is the final state in SLA?(P52五个达不到的原因)七、Functional approaches (systemic linguistics)1.What are the four functional approaches?They are Systemic Linguistics; Functional Typology; Function-to-form mapping;Information organization.2.What is Systemic Linguistics(系统功能语言学)?Developed by Hilliday in the late 1950s, it is a model for analyzing language in terms ofthe interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.儿童的语言体系是一个意义体系，语言是从意义体系逐渐发展而来，经历过有简单到复杂的过程。
二语习得期末复习资料
Chapter 1 introducing second language acquisition1.SLA: a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning alanguage subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.Second language:an officially or societally dominant language (not L1) needed foreducation, employment or other basic purposesrmal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts4.Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classroom5.Linguistic competence: the underlying knowledge that a speaker/hearer have of a language.Chomsky distinguishes this form linguistic performance.6.Linguistic performance: the use of language knowledge in actual production.7.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): the language acquired in childhood8.Simultaneous multilingualism:ability to use one or more languages that were auqiredduring early childhood.9.Sequential multilingualism: ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1had already been established.1.What are the three basic questions in SLA?(1)What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2)How does the L2 leaner acquire this knowledge?(3)Why are some learners more successful than others?2.Why there are no simple answers to these questions? (P2)Chapter 2 foundations of second language acquisition1.Multilingualism: the ability to use more than one language.2.Bilingualism: the ability to use two languages.3.Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.4.Multilingual competence: “the compound state of a mind with two or more grammars”5.Monolingual competence: knowledge of only one language.6.Learner language: also called interlanguage which refers to the intermediate states orinterim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.7.Positive transfer: appropriate incorporation(合并，编入) of an L1 structure or rule in L2structure.8.Negative transfer: inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule in L2 use, also calledinterference.9.Fossilization:a stable state in SLA where learners cease their interlanguage developmentbefore they reach target norms despite continuing L2 input and passage of time.10.Poverty-of-the-stimulus:the argument that because language input to children isimpoverished(穷尽的) and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for L1 acquisition.11.Innate capacity:a natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn oracquire language.1.What is the nature of language learning?(1)Simultaneous/sequential multilingualism(2)The role of natural abilitya)Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn another language.b)As children mature, so do their language abilities.c)Individual variation may occur in learning; the rate of learning can differ, but there arestages everyone goes through.d)“Cut off point”- if the process does not happen at a young age, you'll never learn thelanguage. （关键期假说）(Critical Period Hypothesis)(3)The role of social experiencea)Children will never acquire language unless that language is used with them andaround them, no matter what is their language.b)As long as children are experiencing input and social interaction, the rate and sequenceof development doesn't change.c)The only thing that may change is pronunciation, vocabulary, and social function.2.What are some basic similarities and differences in L1 and L2 learning? (P17表格)(1)Similarities between L1 and L2a)Development stagesInitial State - knowledge about language structures and principlesIntermediate State - Basic language developmentFinal State - Outcome of learningb)Necessary conditions: Input(2)Differences between L1 and L2（P17表格）3.What is “the logical problem of language acquisition”?(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the inputthey receive. (Poverty-of-the stimulus)(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input.(如果说普遍语法存在孩子们脑中，那语言输入起的作用又如何解释呢？)4.5.(1)Children begin to learn their language at the same age, and in much the same wayregardless of what the language is.(2)Children are not limited to repeating what they heard; they can understand and createnovel(新颖) utterance.(3)There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition, beyond which it can never be completed.6.Linguists have taken an internal and external focus to the study of language acquisition.What is the difference between the two?The internal focus seeks to account for speakers’ internalized, underlying knowledge oflanguage. The external focus emphasizes language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners’ production at different stages of development.Chapter 3 the linguistics of second language acquisition1.Interference: also called negative transfer, which means inappropriate influence of an L1structure or rule in L2 use.2.Interlanguage: also called learner language, which refers to the intermediate states orinterim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.3.Natural order: a universal sequence in the grammatical development of language learners.4.Universal grammar: a linguistic framework developed most prominently by Chomsky whichclaims that L1 acquisitions can be accounted for only by innate knowledge that the human species is genetically endowed with. This knowledge includes what all languages have in common.nguage faculty: term used by Chomsky foe a “component of the human mind” thataccounts for children’s innate knowledge of language.6.Principles: properties(固有属性) of all languages of the world; part of Chomsky’s universalgrammar.7.Parameters: limited options in realization of universal principles which account forgrammatical variation between languages of the world. Part of Chomsky’s theory ofuniversal grammar.8.Initial state: the starting point of language acquisition; it is thought to include theunderlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.9.Final state: the outcome of L1 and L2 learning, also known as the stable state of adultgrammar.10.Markedness: a basic for classification of languages according to whether a specific featureoccurs more frequently than a contrasting element in the same category, is less complex structurally or conceptually, or is more “normal” or “expected” along some dimensions. 11.Grammaticalization(语法化): a developmental process in which a grammaticalfunction(such as expression of past time) is first conveyed by shared extralinguisticknowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word(such as yesterday), and only later by a grammatical marker(such as the suffix -ed).一、The nature of language1.What we learn in linguistic perspective? What are the characteristics of language?Both L1 and L2 learners acquire knowledge at these different levels: lexicon(词汇学),phonology(语音学), morphology(构词法), syntax(句法). Languages are systemic,symbolic and social.二、Contrastive analysis1.What is contrastive analysis?CA is an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.2.What is the goal of contrastive analysis?(assumptions)(1)If L2 acquisition is disturbed by the habits of your native language, it is reasonableto focus on the differences between native and target language.(2)Contrastive analysis had a practical goal: If you recognize the differences betweenyour native language and the target language, you are able to overcome thelinguistic habits of your native language that interfere with the habits of the targetlanguage.3.What are the critiques of contrastive analysis?(1)The process of L2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by the characterization oferrors.(2)Errors in L2 acquisition do not only arise from interference.(3)The structural differences between two languages are not sufficient to predict theoccurrence of errors in L2 acquisition.三、Error analysis1.What is error analysis？EA is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2, rather than onidealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2 (as in CA).(1)Ambiguity in classification. (不知道是具体是哪个原因导致比如时态错误，可能是一语影响，也可能是在一语中出现过的universal developmental process)(2)Lack of positive data. (正确的被忽略，只关注错误不能看出学生学到什么)(3)Potential for avoidance. (学生会避免错误，这样错误就不能全部被观察)四、Interlanguage1.What are the characteristics of interlanguage?(1)Systematic.(2)Dynamic.(3)Variable.(可变性) although systematic, differences in context result in differentpatterns of language use.(4)Reduced system, both in form and function. (学习者经常会简单化)2.There are differences between IL development and L1 acquisition, including differentcognitive processes involved:(1)Language transfer from L1 to L2.(2)Transfer training.(3)Strategies of second language learning. (避免等)(4)Strategies of second language learning. (为方便不要复数等)(5)Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material.3.The beginning and the end of IL are defined respectively as whenever a learner firstattempts to convey meaning in the L2 and whenever development “permanently” stops, but the boundaries are not entirely clear. Identification of fossilization is even morecontroversial.五、Monitor model (The input hypothesis model)1.Which five hypotheses(假定) does the model consist of? (课本P45！！！)(1)Acquisition-learning hypothesis(2)Monitor hypothesis(3)Natural order hypothesis(4)Input hypothesis(5)Affective filter hypothesis2.What is LAD in this model?The LAD is made up of the natural language learning abilities of the human mind, totally available in L1 acquisition, available in L2 acquisition according to the level of the filter.But, the process of learning, unlike the process of acquisition, uses faculties of mind outside the LAD.3.图示4.What are points of the consensus of early linguistic study of SLA?(1)What is being acquired through a dynamic interlanguage system(2)How SLA takes place involves creative mental processes(3)Why some learners are more successful than others relates primary to the age.5.What is the role of grammar according to Krashen?The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition(and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the targetlanguage is used as a medium of instruction.六、Universal grammar1.Differences of linguistic competence and performance(见Chapter1名词解释)2.What is UG? (名词解释)3.UG and L1 acquisition(1)What the child acquire is selecting parametric options.(2)Unlike SLA, attitudes, motivations and social context play no role.4.UG and SLA, there are three important questions(1)What is the initial state of SAL?Interference(看参数相同不相同); no agreement on access to UG(2)What is the nature of IL and how does it change over time?定参数的过程Language faculty; positive/negative evidence(起作用);constructionism; fossilization(3)What is the final state in SLA?(P52五个达不到的原因)七、Functional approaches (systemic linguistics)1.What are the four functional approaches?They are Systemic Linguistics; Functional Typology; Function-to-form mapping;Information organization.2.What is Systemic Linguistics(系统功能语言学)?Developed by Hilliday in the late 1950s, it is a model for analyzing language in terms ofthe interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.儿童的语言体系是一个意义体系，语言是从意义体系逐渐发展而来，经历过有简单到复杂的过程。
(完整word版)第二语言习得研究期末复习题
第二语言习得复习题一、名词解释1.第二语言：指相对于第一语言来说，除儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言，在此后习得的语言就是第二语言。
2. 第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。
3. 母语：指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，也称作“本族语”。
4，目的语：也叫目标语，一般指学习者正在学习的语言。
5，第二语言习得：简称SLA，是指人们在获得母语(第一语言)的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。
也叫“二语习得”6，语言习得机制：乔姆斯基提出人脑中存在一个“语言习得机制”（LAD），它有以下一些特点：1.具有遗传性，为人类独有。
2.能使儿童加工语言材料，判断语言体系的发展，建立抽象规则。
3.可能已经具备一些普遍的语言特征，这些特征可以在所有人类语言中找到，因此，许多语法属性可能是先天存在于人类的大脑中，无需学习。
7，工具型动机：学习者对目的语群体没有兴趣，学习目的语只是为了掌握一个工具，用来提高自己的知识水平、改善社会地位。
8，习得与学习：克拉申认为“习得”通常指在自然状态下“下意识”的语言获得，而“学习”一般是指“有意识”的语言获得。
前者称为“内隐学习”，后者称为“外显学习”9，中介语：语言学习者在学习第二语言时所拥有的一种独立的语言系统,这种语言系统在结构上既不是学习者的母语也不是目的语,而是介于两者之间。
中介语系统在语音、词汇、语法、文化等方面都有表现。
但它又不是固定不变的，而是随着学习的发展，逐渐向目的语的正确形式靠拢。
10，普遍语法：乔姆斯基认为普遍语法是由一些原则条件和规则构成的系统，这些所有人类语言共有的因素是或特性是必然的而不是偶然的，原则系统和规则系统。
11，僵化：僵化（fossilization），也叫化石化或石化，是由Selinker于1972年在其中介语理论中提出的。
僵化是存在于“潜在的心理结构”中的一种机制，表现为某种母语背景的第二语言学习者会在目的语习得的某个阶段上停滞不前，无论学习者年龄大小，也无论其是否继续学习12，外国人话语：所谓“外国人话语”并不是指外国人的话语，而是指对外国人说的话语。
第二语言习得研究复习资料
第一章第二语言习得研究概述埃利斯（1994）明确地将第二语言习得与外语习得的概念区分开来。
“第二语言习得”是指学习者在目的语国家学习目的语。
学习者所学的目的语在目的语国家是公认的交际工具，当然也是学习者用来交际的工具。
“外语习得”是指学习者在本国学习目的语。
学习者的目的语在本国不是作为整个社团的交际工具。
这种语言学习基本上是在课堂上进行的。
“语言能力”是由交际双方内在语法规则的心理表征构成的。
简单地说，语言能力是一种反映交际双方语言知识的心理语法。
这种语法是一种隐性的语言知识。
语言能力包括：1)能指出哪些声音或语素的组合是母语中可能存在的，哪些可能是不存在的。
2)能区别符合语法的句子和不符合语法的句子。
3)能区别出一些结构相同或相似，但实际意义却不同的句子。
4)能辨别出结构不同但意义有联系的句子。
5)能辨别出句子的歧义，即同一结构具有一个以上的释义。
6)能意识到句子之间的释义关系，即结构不同的句子具有相同的语义。
“语言表达”指的是交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的表现。
关于语言运用的知识。
理想的母语者根据“递归规则”生成无限递归的句子。
第二节二语习得研究的发展一、发展阶段（一）20世纪50-60年代：理论初创阶段（二）20世纪70年代：理论大发展阶段1.偏误分析2.中介语理论假设3.习得顺序研究4.监控模式5.文化适应模式（三）20世纪80年代中期：成熟阶段1.语言学视角2.社会语言学视角3.认知视角4.社会文化视角二、理论成熟的标志1. 调查研究的领域和涉及的领域扩大2. 由理论假设发展为理论模式3. 研究方法日益科学化三、汉语作为第二语言的习得研究的发展（一）80年代，汉语习得研究起步。
1984鲁键骥“中介语理论与外国人学习汉语的语音偏误分析”1985年，第一界国际汉语教学讨论会1987年，吕必松“加强对外汉语教学的理论研究”评价：取得了一定成果，但缺乏系统研究、分析方法不够严谨、疏于解释和评价。
第二语言习得期末考试嘉应学院
第二语言习得期末考试嘉应学院单选(15分)1.一个中国孩子在上海出生，后移居到德国，他的母语是：A.汉语B.德语C.上海话D.汉语和德语正确答案：A解析：A、母语指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言。
在中国出生的中国孩子，他移居到其他国家，母语依然是汉语。
单选(15分)2.第一语言和第二语言的区分标准是以下哪一项？A.语言获得的方式B.学习者所属种族C.语言习得的顺序D.语言习得的环境正确答案：C解析：C、第一语言和第二语言的区分在与语言习得的顺序。
A.语言获得方式，主要用于区分学习和习得；B.学习者所属种族，主要用于区分母语和目的语；D.语言习得的环境主要用于区分第二语言和外语习得。
多选(20分)3.习得和学习，以下哪些阐述是正确的？A.两者在语言获得的方式上不同B.两者在语言加工的心理过程上不同C.两者获得知识的类型不同D.儿童获得第一语言的过程一般为习得正确答案：A、B、C、D解析：D、A、B、C、D均正确，体现了习得与学习的主要区分。
A．习得和学习在获得方式上不同，习得指在自然语境中通过非正式的语言交际获得，学指通过正式的讲解、模仿、操练、记忆获得。
B.习得和学习在语言加工的心理上不同，习得为通过潜意识自然地获得，学习为有意识地掌握规律。
C.习得和学习获得知识的类型不同，习得获得隐性知识，学习获得显性知识。
D.比较典型的习得是儿童获得第一院，成年人在学习获得第二语言的过程一般为学习。
多选(20分)4.以下哪几项是体现了第二语言习得的总体发展特点？A.研究目的由描述型转为解释型B.研究方法由定性分析转为定量质性相结合C.理论支撑由单学科支撑转为多学科支撑D.学科归属上逐渐归属于教育学正确答案：A、B、C解析：C、第二语言习得的总体发展特点有以下几方面特征。
A.即在研究目的上，由描述语言特征转为在描述的基础上进行深入的解释；B.即在研究方法上，由定性分析转为采用定量的科学实证研究，以及定量与质性并举的研究方法；C.即在研究的理论支撑上，由单学科支撑转变为多学科支撑。
《第二语言学习知识习得研究》期末问答梳理
第二语言习得研究问答梳理1．如何区分“母语”与“第一语言”、“第二语言”与“第二语言习得环境”？答：母语指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，第一语言指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。
母语通常就是第一语言，但也有例外的情况。
比如在美国出生的汉族儿童，他最先接触和习得的是英语，英语就是他的第一语言，而他的母语仍然是汉语。
第二语言指学习者在习得第一语言之后习得的语言，第二语言习得环境指学习者所学的语言在语言习得发生的环境中作为交际语言。
第二语言是相对于第一语言就语言习得的时间顺序而言的。
第二语言习得环境跟时序无关，着眼于在哪儿学。
2．如何区分“自然的第二语言习得”与“有指导的第二语言习得”？答：从习得方式和环境两方面区分。
自然的第二语言习得（naturalistic SLA）以交际的方式，在自然的社会环境下发生的；有指导的第二语言习得（instructed SLA）以教学指导的方式，在课堂教学环境中发生。
3．什么是语言能力？什么是语言表达？答：语言能力（competence）是一种反应交际双方语言知识的心理语法，语言表达（performance）是交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的运用。
语言能力是关于语言的知识，语言表达是关于语言运用的知识。
4．第二语言习得研究与语言学研究的对象、目的和方法有何不同？5．如何看待第二语言习得研究与心理学和心理语言学的关系？答：（1）第二语言习得研究与心理学的关系：（2）第二语言习得研究与心理语言学的关系：有人把第二语言习得研究看做心理语言学的分支，其实他们有诸多不同：6．第二语言习得研究的学科性质和学科特点是什么？答：跨学科。
7．为什么第二语言习得研究领域的学者把Corder和Selinker发表的文章作为第二语言习得研究的起点？（the significance of learners’答：因为Corder 1967年发表的《学习者偏误的意义》errors）和Selinker 1972年发表的《中介语》（Interlanguage）先后明确了第二语言习得研究的研究对象，创建了相似的理论假说，指明了第二语言习得研究的方向，为后来的第二语言习得研究奠定了坚实的理论基础。
《第二语言习得理论》复习题库 附参考答案.doc
《第二语习得理论》复习纲要第一章引言1、二语习得研究者的研究对象一般是群体，而不是个体，你如何看待这个问题？10二语习得研究中，研究者的研究对象一般是群体，研究结论也是对某个群体而言。
但作为二语教学的老师，他更加关注一个个的个体，他关心的是如何让每一个学生很好的掌握第二语言。
这种情况下，二语习得研究者得到的结论，很可能对进行教学的老师的指导意义不是很大。
因此，二语习得研究者有必要加强对个体的研究，而不是局限于群体。
2、你认为什么是学外语的最好方式？9第二章人1、什么是一语习得的行为主义模型？提出者是？16-17一语习得的天生论模型的理论基础是乔姆斯基的转换生成语法，天生论认为人的大脑中有一个语言习得的机制，小孩出生后在任何一个语言环境中，都能利用这个语言习得机制学会所在环境的语言。
这种观点与观察到的现象是一致的，所以有较强的解释力。
2、什么是一语习得的天生论模型？18-193、什么是一语习得的社会互动模型，提出者是？20-214、什么是文化适应模型？如何评价？24-255^ 什么是perceived social distance?（另一个是social distance,在文化适应模式节）26 perceived social distance 是与social distance 相关的一个概念o Social distance 通常指人们在社会经济地位方面的差别，而perceived social distance则指学习者内部因素的差别（比如对讲所学语言的人的态度，对讲这种语言的社会的态度，对讲这种语言的人的文化价值观念的态度等）。
Acton 研究了perceived social distance与学习成绩之间的关系,研究结果表明，态度介于两种语言文化价值观的学生，学习成绩最理想。
6、文化适应分哪几个阶段？29-307、什么是言语适应模型？是谁提出来的？30-31二语学习者对所学语言文化的态度影响学习过程，言语适应模型认为人们之间的交谈包含三个不同的过程，即交谈双方保持他们各自的说话方式，让各自的说话方式与对方显得越发不同，双方采用对方的说话特点以相互靠拢。
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第二语言习得复习题一、名词解释1.第二语言：指相对于第一语言来说，除儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言，在此后习得的语言就是第二语言。
2. 第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。
3. 母语：指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，也称作“本族语”。
4，目的语：也叫目标语，一般指学习者正在学习的语言。
5，第二语言习得：简称，是指人们在获得母语(第一语言)的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。
也叫“二语习得”6，语言习得机制：乔姆斯基提出人脑中存在一个“语言习得机制”（），它有以下一些特点：1.具有遗传性，为人类独有。
2.能使儿童加工语言材料，判断语言体系的发展，建立抽象规则。
3.可能已经具备一些普遍的语言特征，这些特征可以在所有人类语言中找到，因此，许多语法属性可能是先天存在于人类的大脑中，无需学习。
7，工具型动机：学习者对目的语群体没有兴趣，学习目的语只是为了掌握一个工具，用来提高自己的知识水平、改善社会地位。
8，习得与学习：克拉申认为“习得”通常指在自然状态下“下意识”的语言获得，而“学习”一般是指“有意识”的语言获得。
前者称为“内隐学习”，后者称为“外显学习”9，中介语：语言学习者在学习第二语言时所拥有的一种独立的语言系统,这种语言系统在结构上既不是学习者的母语也不是目的语,而是介于两者之间。
中介语系统在语音、词汇、语法、文化等方面都有表现。
但它又不是固定不变的，而是随着学习的发展，逐渐向目的语的正确形式靠拢。
10，普遍语法：乔姆斯基认为普遍语法是由一些原则条件和规则构成的系统，这些所有人类语言共有的因素是或特性是必然的而不是偶然的，原则系统和规则系统。
11，僵化：僵化（），也叫化石化或石化，是由于1972年在其中介语理论中提出的。
僵化是存在于“潜在的心理结构”中的一种机制，表现为某种母语背景的第二语言学习者会在目的语习得的某个阶段上停滞不前，无论学习者年龄大小，也无论其是否继续学习12，外国人话语：所谓“外国人话语”并不是指外国人的话语，而是指对外国人说的话语。
这种话语，按照（1971）的定义，是指“说某语言的人对该语言能力有限者或者根本没有该语言能力者所使用的一种简化的语体”。
在语音方面，具有放慢语速、发音清楚、停顿、重音以及夸张等特点；在词汇方面，偶尔使用来自其他语言的词汇、近义词替换、释义等方式；在句法方面，有三种不同的调整方式，即省略、扩展、替换或重置等。
13，偏误：系统性的，有规律的系统性偏误。
是学习者现时心里规则系统的外在表现，“我把杯子碰”，语言能力的不足。
14，失误：口误、笔误等语言运用上偶然的错误，与语言能力无关。
不能反映学习者现时的“过渡能力”。
15，语言变异：说话者的语言表达系统由于社会因素，如社会等级、职业等，社会心理因素、心理语言因素而产生的语言形式变化。
16，文化适应模式：是20世纪70年代，美国学者提出的一种理论假设。
学习者在社会和心理两方面对目的语文化的适应过程。
即学习者是否能够在社会和心理上融入目的语群体。
17，可理解输入：克拉申的语言监控模式中输入假说，“可理解输入”指为学习者提供的输入信息应该略微超过一点学习者现有的习得水平，用1来表示。
i表示现有习得水平，1表示略微超过的部分。
18，语言迁移：对比分析的基本假设，包括三个方面：学习者在第二语言习得中会把母语的语言形式、意义、文化迁移到第二语言系统；正迁移和负迁移；差异=困难。
需要两个条件：“跨语言环境”、语际识别。
19，内在大纲：关于中介语的理论假设之一，内在大纲指学习者具有的一种控制学习目的语规则的程序化序列，它控制着学习者的目的语学习过程。
*吃饭在饭馆。
20，关键期: “关键期假说”，最早提出这个观点的是著名神经外科医生。
（1967）发展了该观点，他认为自然语言习得的关键期是2岁开始至青春期（约十二三左右）到来之前。
在第二语言习得研究领域，支持关键期假说而且最具代表性的研究是（1989）的实验21，克拉申: 70年代克拉申提出语言监控模式，是二语习得研究的重大理论创建。
1、习得与学习的假说：克拉申（）认为成人L2学习者有两种独立的语言获得方式，两者在获得方式、心理过程、所获得的知识类型、作用等方面都不同2、自然习得顺序假说：指儿童在习得母语规则和语言项目时遵循一种相似的习得顺序。
3、监控假说：学习者的言语输出主要依靠习得的知识生成的。
学得的知识只是用来监控学习者的语言输出过程。
这种监控既可以表现在语言输出之前，也可以在语言输出之后。
4、输入假说：第二语言习得有赖于为学习者提供“可理解输入”。
5、情感过滤假说：“情感过滤”是由（1977）提出的概念。
利用这个概念来说明情感因素与第二语言习得的关系。
“情感过滤”是指阻止学习者充分利用所接受的可理解输入来习得语言的一种心理障碍。
22，对比分析：产生并流行于20世纪50年代。
60年代是对比分析的兴盛时期。
初衷：在第二语言教学中预测学习者的难点，预防学习者的语言偏误，从而提高第二语言教学的效率。
其基本假设“语言迁移”，理论基础：行为主义心理学和结构主义语言学。
23，偏误分析：第二语言习得研究的起点，是现代意义上的偏误分析的最早倡导者。
1967年，发表了《学习者偏误的重要意义》一文。
区别了“失误”（）和“偏误”（）；偶发&系统，关乎语言能力与否24，学习策略：指学习者在用目的语进行表达遇到困难时，试图解决所面临的学习问题而采取的策略。
指出，在跨语言交际情境中，学习者有一种倾向，即将目的语简化为一个比较简单的规则系统，*I .25，交际策略：学习者用目的语进行表达，特别是由于语言水平的限制，表达意义发生困难时采取某种策略以解决交际问题。
例如不顾时态。
26，监控假说：学习者的言语输出主要依靠习得的知识生成的。
学得的知识只是用来监控学习者的语言输出过程。
这种监控既可以表现在语言输出之前，也可以在语言输出之后。
27，输入假说：第二语言习得有赖于为学习者提供“可理解输入”。
28，情感过滤：“情感过滤”是由（1977）提出的概念。
利用这个概念来说明情感因素与第二语言习得的关系。
“情感过滤”是指阻止学习者充分利用所接受的可理解输入来习得语言的一种心理障碍。
29，母亲话语：保姆话语：教师话语：经过特定方式调整过语言输入与互动显示出一种特定的语域风格。
这些特定的话语的特点：放慢语速、使用简单的词汇、简化的句子结构；采用夸张和重复的方法等。
目的：为学习者提供可理解输入。
32，沉默期：指学习者没有足够能力讲话的那段时间，短至几小时，长达几个月。
在此期间，幼儿通过听，对可理解性语言输入进行加工、整理。
幼儿似乎通过“听”习得了语言能力。
成年人学习第二语言也是如此，他们需要积累和消化，才能逐步培养第二语言能力，以表达自己的思想。
33，沉浸式教学法：采用目的语作为学校课堂教学的媒介，课堂上主要是向学习者提供目的语语言输入）34，系统变异：第二语言学习者的语言变异随着情境的变化而变化。
我在五道口吃饭。
（正式，严谨体）我吃饭在五道口。
（非正式，随便体）35，非系统变异：第二语言学习者经常在同一情境用两个或两个以上的语言形式表达同一功能。
一个年没学，转到另一个大学学习中文一年。
36，语体变换：将由于“言语环境”的变化造成的，而不是由于社会因素造成的语言风格的变异称作“语体变换”，如随便体，严谨体；37，社会距离：指第二语言学习者群体和目的语群体之间的关系，它影响着第二语言学习者与目的语群体接触的程度，因而也影响着第二语言学习者语言习得水平的提高。
38，心理距离：是从个人与群体间的关系出发，考察作为个体的学习者对目的语群体，以及对待目的语的态度。
心理距离的大小将影响语言的输入，心理距离越近语言输入量越大，越有利于习得39，语言休克：指学习者使用第二语言时的恐惧感。
学习者在用第二语言表达的时候，可能因为害怕说错而羞于张口，或者觉得词不达意，或因为说不好而失去信心。
40，文化休克：学习者进入目的语群体时的一种焦虑。
41，最近发展区：最近发展区是指实际发展水平和潜在发展水平之间的距离。
处于最近发展区内的知识最容易被习得42，支架学习法：所谓“支架”是指学习者与他人之间构建的一种互动与合作关系。
如在师生互动中，教师通过指导性的语言帮助学习者发现知识的特征，使学习者克服困难，逐步搭建起自己的知识结构，即从合作学习逐步达到独立学习的过程。
43，语言输出假说：（1985）提出了“语言输出假设”。
认为语言输入对学习者语言习得的影响是有限的，只有语言产出才能真正促进学习者语言表达能力的发展。
44，中心语前置：上世纪70年代，乔姆斯基在《论名物化》一文中提出“X阶标理论”。
按照这一理论，语言中所有的短语都是一种向心结构，都有一个中心语。
在不同的语言类型中，中心语的位置也是不同的，“中心与前置”，例如英语45，中心语后置：中心语后置的语言例如日语。
46，普遍语法完全可及观：认为普遍语法不仅适用于儿童母语习得，而且也适用于第二语言习得。
反对语言习得存在“关键期”的说法。
实验：英语作为第二语言的日本学习者不仅能成功地重新设置“中心语参数”，而且能够运用在日语中不起作用的一些原则。
47，普遍语法不可及观：普遍语法不适用于第二语言习得，两个有关因素：语言习得的关键期、语言习得机制。
49，典型顺序：指的是在多数语言中的语序，即“主语＋动词＋宾语”顺序50，认知方式：指人们对信息和经验进行加工时表现出来的个别差异，是个人在感知、记忆和思维过程中经常采用的态度和方式51、场独立：“场独立”型认知方式是美国心理学家在上世纪40年代首先发现的。
他认为，倾向场独立型认知方式的人认识事物时，很少受环境和他人影响；有较强的分析能力，更适合在正式的课堂学习52，场依存：倾向场依存型认知方式的人认知事物时受环境和他人影响较大。
具有较强的综合能力；53，语言学能：和被认为是现代语言学能测试的先驱。
认为，语言学能是整体智力中负责语言学习的一个特殊部分，由几个相互独立的能力构成，包括（1）语音编码能力。
（2）语法敏感性。
（3）归纳能力。
53，融入策略，指第二语言习得群体面对目的语群体文化时可能采取的态度和做法54，同化策略：第二语言习得群体面对目的语群体时，放弃了自己原有的生活方式和价值观，接受了目的语群体的生活方式和价值观54，保留策略：指第二语言习得群体保留了自己的生活方式和价值观，同时拒绝接受目的语群体的生活方式和价值观。
55，适应策略：第二语言习得群体一方面保留了自己的生活方式和价值观，另一方面也接受了目的语群体的生活方式和价值观。
56，学习动机：学习者学习目的语的原因。
分为两种类型：融合型动机、工具型动机。
57，学习态度：是一种心理和神经的准备状态，它通过经验得以组织，在与此经验有关的所有目标和情形中，对个人所作出的反应产生方向性和动态的影响。