西方文明史复习资料,都是重点哦

1.American GovernmentConstitutionThe United States is a constitutional democracy, a type of government characterized by limitations (boundaries, restrictions) on government power spelled out in a written constitution. Written in 1787, the U.S. Constitution is both the oldest and shortest written constitution in the world. It serves as the supreme (highest, greatest) law (rule, regulation) of the United States.The Constitution•The Constitution outlines a federal government with three separate branches: the legislative (lawmaking) branch (Congress), the executive (decision-making) branch (the presidency), and the judicial branch (the courts).Bill of RightsThe first ten amendments to the Constitution, which safeguard some specific rights of the American people and the states.•Many states ratified (approved) the Constitution in 1788 and 1789 on the condition that Congress amend it to guarantee certain civil liberties. James Madison drafted these first ten amendments himself, which collectively became known as the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights protects some specific rights of both the American people and the states. The table on the next page summarizes the twenty-seven amendments to the ConstitutionLegislative BranchCongress is the legislative branch of the federal government and is responsible for creating laws.Congress consists of two chambers, an upper chamber called the Senate (100 members) and a lower chamber called the House of Representatives (435 members).HOR is fixed and proportionally distributed among the 50 states, each one representing the congressional district.Senate: 100 senators, 2 per state.Congress•Congress has the sole (only) authority to make laws, levy taxes, declare war, and print money, among other powers. Congress also controls the federal budget.Executive Branch•The presidency is the executive branch of the federal government. The president is elected every four years and is responsible for enforcing the laws that Congress makes. The president is also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and has the power to conduct foreign relations.Judicial Branch•The federal courts make up the judicial branch of the federal government, which consists of regional circuit courts, appeals courts, and the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court is the highest legal authority in the country and has assumed the power of judicial review to decide the legality (validity, truth) of the laws Congress makes.Mythical Founding•Most Americans re-imagine the founding of the United States in mythical terms, as the triumph of wisdom over tyrannical ignorance and as the creation of something new and important in the world.•American citizens tend to revere the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, and the Founding Fathers are seen as models of virtue (quality) and political wisdom.•The iconic image of George Washington on the one-dollar bill or the statue of Abraham Lincoln inside the Lincoln Memorial fits in with this heroic vision of the founders.Struggle Against Tyranny and InjusticeMost Americans often think of their country as the champion of democracy and justice. Many events in American history are therefore seen as part of this struggle. Americans tend to think of the:•Civil War as a battle to end slavery•World War II as the defeat of evil tyrants•Cold War as a triumph of democratic values over communism andtotalitarianism. Today, many Americans see the fight againstterrorism as the latest example of the United States standing up forwhat is right in the world. (World police)–Today, many Americans see the fight against terrorism asthe latest example of the United States standing up forwhat is right in the world. (World police)History as Progress•Although the United States is not a perfect democracy, many Americans interpret its history as progress toward a better democracy. In this view, America has improved from century to century, getting better and more democratic over time.The expansion of the right to vote is the best example.• e.g., At the start of the republic, the right to vote was restricted in most places to older, wealthy, white landowners.Right to Vote•Over time, all citizens won the right to voteIncluding the middle classes, the poor, Women (1920), People of other races (1965), Younger people (1970), American democracy has thus grown as more people have been allowed to participate.2. Superhero mythology reg Intro: HistoryWhat is a myth?A story of unknown authorship that people told long ago in an attempt to answer serious questions about how important things began and occurred.They are stories that explain natural occurrences and express beliefs of right and wrong. Myths usually have a religious or spiritual sense•They are early mans desire to explain the universe.i.e., Apollo, the son of Zeus, drove the chariot of the sun across the skyGods and Goddesses•The gods, goddesses, and heroes are super human in nature.i.e., Atlas bore the weight of the world and the heavens on his shoulders.•Gods sometimes appear in disguised form•Human emotions are experienced by the Gods–i.e., Hera’s jealousy (we will talk about this in a moment)Common Themes in Mythology•Good vs. Evil Light vs. Dark• A metamorphosis may occur Like a butterfly•In Greek mythology–The stories were part of their religion–Their festivals and ritual practices came from the storiesWhat is Greek Mythology?The ancient Greeks were polytheistic, meaning they worshiped multiple gods. They also told many stories (myths) about the gods, which were meant to guide human behavior and teach about the relationship between gods and humans.• The people of ancient Greece shared stories called myths about the gods, goddesses, and heroes in which they believed.• Each god or goddess was worshipped as a deity and ruled over certain areas of the Greeks’ lives.• These exciting stories explained natural phenomena that could not be explained by science in the ancient world.Why is it important?“As one of the major contributors to Western civilization, ancient Greek cultu re has provided the creative energy and prototypes for later forms of Western society. Intellectual and cultural achievements, together with social and economic developments in ancient Greece and its neighboring areas, mark the real beginning of Western civilization and the ending of the uncivilized, barbarous age” (pg. 7).• The Ancient Greek culture has been kept alive by the oral and later written stories handed down through thousands of years.• Modern plays, novels, television programs, movies and even advertisements refer to Greek gods, goddesses, heroes and their stories.• Their history entertains us and provide us with modern Western culture.Gods and Goddesses of the Pantheon on Mount OlympusZeus – Leader of the Olympian Gods (page 12)• He ruled the Olympians.• He was the god of the sky, lightning and thunder carrying a thunderbolt as his symbol (much like a superhero we will talk about in a moment).• He married Hera, his sister, which was a family habit.• He fathered many children with various goddesses and mortals.Hera – Wife of Zeus• She was the protector of marriage and the home.• She was associated with the peacock, because of her great beauty.• She and Zeus were always quarreling.• She was called the queen of intriguers, a vin dictive and jealous wife, who frequently outwitted her husband, Zeus.Poseidon – God of the Sea• He built an underwater palace with a great pearl and coral throne.• Although he chose Thetis, a beautiful water nymph, as his queen, he, like hisbrother Zeus, was a great wanderer fathering hundreds of children.• He was a difficult god, changeful and quarrelsome, but created many curious forms for his sea creatures.• He invented the horse for his sister Demeter, whom he loved.Hades – God of the Underworld• He was the jealous brother to Zeus and Poseidon.• He made Persephone his wife after stealing her from her mother,Demeter, who was his sister.• Because he was a violent god, who was also very possessive of every newsoul, he rarely left his underworld domain.Athena-Goddess of Wisdom, Justice, War, Civilization and Peace• She was born full grown out of the head of Zeus.• She taught man to use tools and taught his wife to spin and weave.• She was the best-loved goddess on Olympus.• She hated Ares, god of war, often besting him in battle.• The Greek city of Athens is named after her.• She was said to have created the spider.Apollo-The Sun God; God of Music, Poetry, Wisdom, Light and Truth• He was the twin brother of Artemis and the most handsom e of the gods.• He was also the god of the healing arts and of medicine.• He drove his chariot across the sky to pull the sun each day.• His son, Phaethon, drives Apollo’s sun chariot with disastrous resultsSo what does this have to do with superheroes?1.In addition to gods and goddesses, the Greeks included many heroes in their myths. Heroes were either human or demigods (the offspring of a human and a god or goddess).2. Most superheroes of today have their origins in the ancient myths of Greece, Rome, and other old empires. Today, we worship superheroes in the same ways we once worshipped the gods.Zeus and SupermanBoth Superman and Zeus are born leaders, the most powerful of their respective groups. Superman is often thought of as godlike, the alien deity who has become incredibly protective of his adoptive home. Like Zeus, Superman dons a disguise so that he may walk among the mortals and see what life is like on the ground. But both are much more at home in the sky, soaring above us like the gods they are.Hades and BatmanThe dark prince, preferring underground quarters and with unimaginable wealth 2. As Hades is the dark brother of Zeus, so too is Batman the dark version of Superman. Like Hades, Batman makes his home underground and a significant part of his power comes from his riches. This aspect in particular perhaps makes Batman more like Pluto, the Roman version of Hades (page 37). It’s hard not to think of Batman as ruling the underworld of the DC Universe, deciding the ultimate fate of damned souls. Additionally, Batman is often found on the outside of the JLA circle, the member no one quite trusts, much like Hades and his Olympic family.Poseidon and Aquaman1. Poseidon was the main inspiration for Aquaman. They have the same weapon of choice, the trident and both are considered ruler of the seven seas, able to command the ocean and its inhabitants.2. Perhaps the main difference between the two is that while Poseidon is one of thethree most powerful of the Olympian Gods, Aquaman isn't seen as many people's favorite superhero. I guess it just goes to show that the ancient Greeks thought that the ability to talk to fish was a lot cooler than we do.Hera and Wonder Woman•So, putting aside the warrior aspect of the “Amazon warrior” for a moment, Wonder Woman is really all about the traditions of her people. She fiercely defends her home and her family- just like Hera. While she would likely disagree with Hera about the whole “needing a good man thing”, she does find herself paired with Superman and Steve Trevor quite a bit. At any rate, both are effectively the “mother” of their respective groups, and react quite fiercely if any of her family attacked.What Is A Superhero?1. Like the gods and goddesses of mythology, a superhero possesses extraordinary or superhuman powers and is dedicated to protecting the public. However, by most definitions, characters do not strictly require actual superhuman powers to be deemed superheroes.Terms such as costumed crime fighters or caped crusaders are sometimes used to refer to those such as Batman and Superman.2. Normally, superheroes use their powers to counter day-to-day crime while also combating threats against humanity by super-villains, their criminal counterparts. Often, one of these super-vil lains will be the superhero’s archenemy.Common Traits Many superhero characters display the following traits:2.Extraordinary powers or abilities, relevant skills and/or advanced3.equipment.4.Superhuman strength5. Ability to fly6. Enhanced senses7.The projection of energy bolts8. A strong moral (ethical) code 10. expectation of reward.9. Willingness to risk one’s own safety in the service of good without11.Refusal or strong reluctance to kill or wield lethal weapons.12 A motivation (inspiration)•13. Sense of responsibility (Spider-Man)15. Personal vendetta against criminals (Batman)16.Strong belief in justice and humanitarian service (Superman)17.Independent Wealth or an occupation that allows for minimal supervision18.A headquarters or base of operations kept hidden from the general publicPresentation3 The Old Testament 97Jewish Culture, The Old Testament, and The New TestamentMoses & Exodus:“Let My People Go!”•Moses received revelations from God: burning bush, rod / staff, 10 plagues, parting of the Red Sea•End of 13th century BCE- Moses led the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt during Rames II reign called the EXODUS•Moses led the 12 Tribes of Israel to Mount Sinai where Yahweh gave him the 10 Commandments, uniting the Hebrews under one God•Moses and Hebrews searched for the “Promised Land” or the land of milk and honey, however they wandered in the desert for 40 yearsJewish Culture•Jewish culture emerged and survived in extraordinary circumstances.•The Jewish people were exiled from one country to another in Europe and elsewhere in the world.•As part of the origins of Western civilization, Jewish culture has contributed to the Western historical development by providing substantial religious ingredients and many other aspects of the whole basic framework of Western society.•At the same time, the Jewish people suffered a lot due to their cultural and religious distinctivenessA brief account of Jewish history•It is said that Jews belong to the Semitic race, as with the original Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Assyrians. They claim to be descended from Abraham, and have emigrated from Mesopotamia (along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers) and have settled in the 16th C BC in north Egyppt and then entered Canaan in the 12th C BC. After fighting many wars with local tribes, they ultimately settled on both sides of the Jordan River.The Division and Fall of Israel•After Solomon’s death, a separatist movement headed by Jeroboam rose up in the north of Israel and broke the country into two parts, the south: Judah and the north: Israel (ruled by the descendants of Solomon)•Frequent wars occurred between the two sectors and weakened their power.•In 722 BC, the Assyrian king and his troops attacked Jerusalem and Israel was ruined.•Judah could not evade the fate of being destroyed.•Under the leadership of Nebuchadnezzar II, the king of Babylonia, Jerusalem was besieged twice and the second siege laster three years until the city was finally taken in 586 BC. (Babylonian Captivity)•From then on, Judah and Israel were nonexistent as independent countries. Impact of Ancient Israel•Covenant = formal agreement between Hebrews and God (Yahweh); Hebrews worshipped God and only God, and in return, they would be God’s Chosen People and given Canaan as the Promised Land•Spiritual ideas profoundly influenced Western culture, morality, ethics and conduct •Three of the world’s most dominant religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam all derive their roots from the spiritual beliefs of the Ancient IsraelitesWhat is the bible?•The Bible is a book that can be found almost anywhere on the earth. It has been translated into more than 2000 different languages and dialects. It is also the world's most popular book. Every year more copies of the Bible are sold than any other publication, and the number of sales is increasing.Unknown Authorship1. The Bible is one of the world's oldest books. Its oldest sections were written about 1500 years before the birth of Christ. Even its newest sections were written about 1900 years ago.2. Clearly, then, having been written over a period of about 1600 years, the Bible was not written by one person. No one knows precisely how many people contributed to the Bible. It is estimated there were about forty authors.3. One of the most important facts about the Bible is that those who wrote it did not claim to be the source of the ideas they wrote about. sometimes indirectly, the authors assert that what they were writing really came from God.The Old TestamentThe Old T estament is the first section of the Christian Bible and is based primarily upon the Jewish, Hebrew Bible, a collection of religious writings by ancient Israelites.The importance of Christianity•Christianity is the most important religion in the Western world. Having served as a dominant ideological tool, Christianity once exerted powerful influences on the social and intellectual life of the Western world. It is still of much importance to the Western culture, especially in the spiritual life of the Westerners though its heyday has passed. It could be said that no one can understand the West without studying Christianity.However…Christianity has been at the heart of great historical changes and has broken up into several factions, principally Catholicism, the Eastern Orthodoxy and the Protestantism, which all try to interpret the Christian doctrines from different perspectives. This has given rise to more difficulties and complexities for those wishing to acquire a better knowledge of Western religionsChristianity and Judaism•The relationship between Christianity and Judaism proved extraordinarily difficult and complicated due to historical incidents. On one hand, the birth of Christianity indirectly acknowledged the Jewish contribution and the influence of Judaism, and once could also say Christianity could have never been established without the Jewish involvement during the dark years when the Jewish people lived under the cruel oppression of the Roman rule and had begun to fight against it.The New Testament•The New T estament contains 27 parts, which were completed in the later half of the first century AD or the first half of the second century AD. They are all of the recollections of the early Christians. The earliest manuscript was written in Greek and possibly translated from Arabic, the Palestine language. It conists of the four Gospels(brief collections of Jesus’ life), a book of the Acts of the Apostles, Letters, and The Revelations of John.Presentation4 Halloween 97Origins and Traditions OriginsHalloween began two thousand years ago in Ireland, England, and Northern France with the ancient religion of the Celts (Paganism).They celebrated their New Year on November 1st.This day marked the beginning of the dark, cold winter, a time of year that was often associated with human death. On the night of October 31, they celebrated Samhain, when it was believed that the ghosts of the dead returned to earth.CostumesPeople thought that they would encounter ghosts if they left their homes…So they wore costumes. This way, the ghosts couldn’t recognize them!Eg. Beetle juice Edward Scissor handsThe Christian InfluenceAs the influence of Christianity spread into Celtic lands, in the 7th century, Pope Boniface IV introduced All Saints' Day, a time to honor saints and martyrs, to replace the Pagan festival of Samhain. It was observed on May 13th.A change of dateIn 834, Pope Gregory III moved All Saint's Day from May 13th to Nov. 1st. Oct.31st thus became All Hallows' Eve ('hallow' means 'saint').All Souls DayNovember 2nd, called All Souls Day, is the day set apart in the Roman Catholic Church for the commemoration of the dead.Trick-or-treating began with the poor in the 15th century…During the All Souls Day festival in England, poor peop le would beg for “soul cakes,” made out of square pieces of bread with currantsFamilies would give soul cakes in return for a promise to pray for the family’s relativeschildren…The practice, which was referred to as "going a-souling" was eventually taken up by children who would visit the houses in their neighborhood and be given ale, food, and money.Today…Children still go from house-to-house, but instead of ale, food, and money, they get candy.With Irish Immigration…In 1848, millions of Irish emigrants poured into America as a result of the potato famine. They brought with them their traditions of Halloween.Halloween came to America.They called Halloween Oidche Shamhna (`Night of Samhain'), as their ancestors had, and kept the traditional observances.When they arrived in America they found that pumpkins were both plentiful and easier to carve than turnips.Chapter 5 The Middle Ages: IntroductionLearning Intentions (goals)1) Know when the Three Stages of the Middle Ages were.2) Know some of the key events from the topic.3)Know the key event the Unit focuses upon.What was the Middle Ages the ‘Middle’ of?•The Middle Ages was the period of European history between 500AD and 1500AD.•Other names for this period include the Dark Ages and the Age of Religion.•The most common name for this period is the Medieval Period.•‘Medieval’ is the Latin Term for the ‘Middle Ages’ (it comes from the same word that gave us Median in mathematics).The Early Middle Ages (550 – 1000)Key Events:•End of the Roman Empire•The Rise of Islam•The rule of Barbarian Kings.•Charlemagne creates the Carolingian Empire.•Europe terrified by waves of invaders.•The emergence of Knights and Feudalism.The beginning of the Middle•The Middle Ages begins with the Fall of the Roman Empire in 476.•The Romans had ruled provinces in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa for nearly a thousand years.•Challenges to Roman security increased during the first century (0-100 AD) as tribes from Germania (Germany) began to confront the Romans.Division of Rome•One of the consequences of the weakening of Rome was the division of the Roman Empire.•This was intended to make governing easier.•In 376 AD the Empire was divided into two:•The Western Roman Empire (capital city of Rome)•The Eastern Roman Empire (capital city of Constantinople)The Barbarians takeover•By the end of the 400s Rome had been weakened by political instability.•Roman legions (armies) were stretched thin across an empire that was becoming too large to defend easily.•German tribes such as the Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Angles and Saxons took advantage of this weakness.•In 476 the Visigoth King Odovocar removed the last Western Roman Ruler from power.Rome’s greatest legacy - Christianity•The Barbarians desired the farmlands, roads and wealth of the Western Roman Empire.•The unintended consequence of conquest was that the tribes spread the Christian faith throughout all the peoples of Europe.•Rome’s official religion since 395 had been Christianity.•This ended nearly three centuries of persecution of Christians (including being burned alive, crucified and thrown into the gladiatorial arenas).•Their was only one recognised church (the Roman Catholic). The Pope is the head of the church.·Christianity became the official religion of Rome following the conversion of Emperor Constantine in 312.•Constantine converted after he claimed to experience a vision of a flaming cross in the sky before a battle.•He promised to convert to Christianity and succeeded in the battle.•Some historians argue that the real reason was it secured the loyalty of Christians in his army (who were becoming a significant and influential group).The Rise of Islam•Christianity had started as an obscure Jewish sect (religion with a small number of followers).•The conversion of Constantine and the Barbarian conquerors ensured that it defined European culture throughout the Middle Ages.•24 years after the fall of western Rome a religious leader was born in Saudi Arabia whose vision would challenge the Christian world view – Muhammed.The Spread of Islam•Muhammad was the prophet of the faith of Islam.•The Islamic Holy Book (The Koran) was the final authority on faith and lifestyle for the followers of Islam. It was recited by Muhammed after receiving a vision from Allah.•Like Christianity, Islam is a monotheistic religion (acknowledging only one God).•Although the Koran mentions both Mary and Jesus respectfully it states that Jesus was another prophet (and not the Son of God or divine).Reasons why tension between the Christian West and Islamic East were inevitable:1. Both religions claimed to be the One True Faith.2. Both religions came from the Middle East and claimed similar places as Holy(e.g. Jerusalem)3. Islamic Empires spread rapidly – and managed to conquer parts of EuropeThe New Medieval World•The end of the Western Roman Empire meant that the political unity of Europe had collapsed.•In response, the German tribes formed their own kingdoms.•Their Kings had limited power so relied upon the loyalty of local land owners (called Lords).The Rise of the Medieval Church•The main source of continuity from Roman to Medieval times was the church.•The Catholic Church had arranged diplomatic meetings with the leaders of barbarian tribes before the Fall of Rome.•It also sent waves of missionaries into German tribal areas (successfully!).•The leader of the Church (the Pope) became a symbol of unity at a time of great disruption.Pope Francis is the reigning pope of the Catholic ChurchCharlemagne the Great Odd facts•‘Carolingian’ just means ‘Descendents of Charles’•The FIRST Charles was ‘Charles Martel’–the grandfather of Charlemagne. The Empire was named after this common family name.•Some of the Charles which followed after the death of Charlemagne included:•CHARLES THE FAT, CHARLES THE BALD AND CHARLES THE SIMPLE!Medieval Europe – Threatened from all sides.The Medieval response: Feudalism•The waves of invaders and raiders during the 800s and 900s made central control of Europe very difficult.• A system based on local power and loyalty emerged. This was known as FEUDALISM: A political and social system that tied together Kings, Lords and Peasants in a relationship based upon loyalty and land.•Feudalism was a way to provide protection and security quickly.•It had one key weakness – the whole system relied upon having LAND to give to people in return for loyalty.•This hunger for land (along with the invasions) resulted in a Medieval Arms race to produce the strongest military and defences.•In this context the creation of heavily armed Knights (now using the stirrups) and castles developed!The Three Invasions – The Vikings•The Vikings came from Denmark, Sweden and Norway.•Due to overpopulation and the harshness of their rocky and cold environment they set out on a series of raids.•The brutality and speed of their attacks made them the most feared threat to Western Europe.•The goals of their invasions differed. In some areas they simply raided monasteries and towns and carried off the treasure, food, women and slaves they needed.•In other cases (such as the region called Normandy) they settled permanently. The Three Invasions – The Islamic•As the Vikings attacked the North and coastal Europe Islamic raids attacked the south.•Muslim forces controlled the islands of Sicily in the Mediterranean and southern Spain.•They used fortresses in these regions to attack Western Europe. Fortresses were also built in France so merchants could be raided.•Muslim forces besieged Rome in 846 and plundered the cathedrals of St.Peter and Paul (although they never raided the city itself). They also destroyed a religious centre at Monte Cassino.•The former Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine) had to deal with repeated raids because it was so close to the Middle EastThe Three Invasions – The Magyars•The Magyars originally came from Western Russia.•Like another ‘barbarian’ tribe (The Huns) they were excellent horseman and could shoot arrows while riding.•They carried out a series of raids and managed to left a path of destruction from Eastern Europe to Southern Germany.•Their invasions were stopped in 955 when a German King called Otto the Great defeated them.。