土木工程框架结构设计开题报告文献综述外文翻译

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土木工程文献+英文翻译

框架结构研究进展随着经济的发展、人们生活水平的提高、建筑要求的提升,混凝土组合结构在建筑行业得到了迅速发展。

随着建筑造型和建筑功能要求日趋多样化,无论是工业建筑还是民用建筑,在结构设计中遇到的各种难题也日益增多,建筑结构设计是建设工程设计的重要环节,是保障建筑结构安全、实现建筑使用功能的灵魂。

采用框架结构形式,可形成内部大空间,能进行灵活的建筑平面布置,因此,框架结构体系在结构设计中应用甚广,对于框架结构的内力目前多采用计算机辅助软件来进行分析和计算,但是目前有的工程设计人员过分地依赖计算机的计算结果,而缺少独立分析问题、解决问题的能力,致使在一些图纸中出现不必要的问题,为以后事故的发生埋下隐患。

每个设计者的经验不同,对规范的理解不同,所以在处理某个设计问题时,也就会采取不同的处理方法。

钢筋混凝土框架结构是由楼板、梁、柱及基础四种承重构件组成的。

由主梁、柱与基础构成平面框架，各平面框架再由连续梁连接起来形成空间结构体系。

钢筋混凝土框架结构是一种由梁、柱组成的超静定结构体系,在地震、风荷载等作用下需设计成延性结构,以便很好地吸收和耗散能量,保证结构具有足够的抵抗变形能力,确保结构安全。

高层建筑采用框架结构体系时，框架梁应纵横向布置，形成双向抗侧力构件，使之具有较强的空间整体性，以承受任意方向的侧向力。

框架结构具有建筑平面布置灵活、造型活泼等优点，可以形成较大的使用空间，易于满足多功能的使用要求。

在结构受力性能方面，框架结构属于柔性结构，自振周期较长，地震反应较小，经过合理的结构设计，可以具有较好的延性性能。

其缺点就是整体侧向刚度较小,在强烈地震作用下侧向变形较大,容易使填充墙产生裂缝，并引起建筑装修、玻璃幕墙等非结构构件的破坏。

不仅地震中危及人身安全和财产损失,而且震后的修复工作和费用也很大。

框架结构的承载力较低，它的受力特点类似于竖向悬臂剪切梁，楼层越高，水平位移越慢，高层框架在纵横两个方向都承受很大的水平力，这时，现浇楼面也作为梁共同工作的构件，装配整体式楼面的作用则不考虑，框架结构的墙体是填充墙，起围护和分隔作用。

土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献及翻译

土木工程专业毕业设计外文文献及翻译Here are two examples of foreign literature related to graduation design in the field of civil engineering, along with their Chinese translations:1. Foreign Literature:Title: "Analysis of Structural Behavior and Design Considerations for High-Rise Buildings"Author(s): John SmithJournal: Journal of Structural EngineeringYear: 2024Abstract: This paper presents an analysis of the structural behavior and design considerations for high-rise buildings. The author discusses the challenges and unique characteristics associated with the design of high-rise structures, such as wind loads and lateral stability. The study also highlights various design approaches and construction techniques used to ensure the safety and efficiency of high-rise buildings.Chinese Translation:标题：《高层建筑的结构行为分析与设计考虑因素》期刊：结构工程学报年份：2024年2. Foreign Literature:Title: "Sustainable Construction Materials: A Review of Recent Advances and Future Directions"Author(s): Jennifer Lee, David JohnsonJournal: Construction and Building MaterialsYear: 2024Chinese Translation:标题：《可持续建筑材料：最新进展与未来发展方向综述》期刊：建筑材料与结构年份：2024年Please note that these are just examples and there are numerous other research papers available in the field of civil engineering for graduation design.。

土木工程专业文献翻译中英文

The frame structure anti- earthquake conceptdesignThe disaster has an earthquake dashing forward sending out nature, may forecast nature very low so far, bring about loss for human society is that the natural disaster of all kinds is hit by one of the gravest disaster gravely. In the light of now available our country science level and economy condition, correct the target building seismic resistance having brought forward "three standards " fortification, be that generally, the what be spoken "small earthquake shocks does not but constructs in the dirty trick, big earthquakes do not fall ". That generally, what be talked small shocks in the earthquake, big earthquakes refer to respectively is intensity exceed probability in 50 fortifying for 3%'s 63% , 10% , 2 ~ being more is caught in an earthquake, earthquake , rare Yu earthquake.Since building the astigmatic design complexity, in actual project, anti-knock conceptual design appears especially important right away. It includes the following content mainly: Architectural design should pay attention to the architectural systematic ness; Choose rational building structure system; the tensile resisting inclining force structure and the component is designed.That the ability designs law is the main content that the structure denasality designs includes standard our country internal force adjustment and structure two aspect. It is twenty centuries seventies later stage , reinforced concrete structure brought forward by famous New Zealand scholar T.Paulay and Park has sufficient tonsillitis method under the force designing an earthquake chooses value is prejudiced low situationW.hose core thought is: "The beam cuts organization " or "the beam column cuts organization " by the fact that "the strong weak post beam " guides structure to take form; Avoid structure by "strong weak scissors turn " before reach estimate that shearing happened in the denasality in the ability front destroy; Turn an ability and consume an ability by the fact that necessary structure measure makes the location may form the plasticity hinge have the necessary plasticity. Make structure have the necessary tonsillitis from all above three aspect guarantee. That framed structure is the common structure form, whose senility certainly designs that, is to embody from about this three aspect also mainly.1, Strong pillar weak beamDriving force reaction analysis indicates structure; architectural deformability is connected with to destroying mechanism. Common have three kinds model’s consume energ y organization ", beam hinge organization ““, post hinge organization ““, beam column hinge organization "."Beam hinge organization " and "beam column hinge organization " Lang Xianknuckle under , may let the entire frame have distribution and energy consumption heavier than big internal forces ability, limit tier displacement is big , plasticity hinge quantity is many , the hinge does not lose efficacy but the structure entirety does not lose efficacy because of individual plasticity. The as a result anti-knock function is easy to be that the armored concrete is ideal consume energy organization. Being that our country norm adopts allows a pillar , the shearing force wall puts up the hinge beam column hinge scheme, taking place adopting "strong relative weak post beam " measure , postponing a pillar cuts time. Weak tier of post hinge organization possibility appear on unable complete trouble shooting but , require that the axis pressure restricting a pillar compares as a result, architectural weakness prevents necessary time from appearing tier by the fact that Cheng analysis law judges now and then, post hinge organization.Are that V. I. P. is to enhance the pillar bending resistance , guidance holds in the beam appear first, the plasticity cuts our "strong common weak post beam " adjustment measure. Before plasticity hinge appearing on structure, structure component Yin La District concrete dehiscence and pressure area concrete mistake elasticity character, every component stiffness reduces a reinforced bar will do with the cementation degeneration between the concrete. That stiffness reduces a beam is relatively graver than accepting the pillar pressing on , structure enhances from initial shearing type deformation to curved scissors shape deformation transition , curved post inner regulation proportion really more curved than beam; The at the same time architectural period is lengthened, size affecting the participation modulus shaking a type respectively to structure's; Change happened in the earthquake force modulus , lead to the part pillar bend regulation enhancing, feasible beam reality knuckles under intensity rise , the post inner bends regulation when plasticity hinge appearing on thereby feasible beam enhancing since structure cause and the people who designs the middle reinforced bar's are to enhance.. And after plasticity hinge appearing on structure, same existence having above-mentioned cause, structure knuckles under mistake elasticity in the day after tomorrow process being that process , post that the earthquake enhances strenuously further bend regulation enhancing with earthquake force but enhance. The force arouses an earthquake overturn force moment having changed the actual post inner axis force. We knuckle under the ability lessening than axis pressure in standardizing being limited to be able to ensure that the pillar also can lead to a pillar in big the bias voltage range inner , axis force diminution like value. The anti-knock norm is stipulated: Except that the frame top storey and post axis pressure are compared to the strut beam and frame pillar being smaller than 0.15 person and frame, post holds curved regulation designing that value should accord with differencebeing，that first order takes 1.4 , the two stage takes 1.2 , grade-three takes 1.1. 9 degree and one step of framed structure still responds to coincidence,，intensity standard value ascertains that according to matchingreinforced bar area and material really. The bottom post axis is strenuously big, the ability that the plasticity rotates dispatches, be that pressure collapses after avoiding a foot stall producing a hinge, one, two, three steps of framed structure bottom, post holds cross section constituting curved regulation designing that value takes advantage of that 1.5, 1.25 compose in reply 1.15 in order to enhancing a modulus respectively. Combination of the corner post adjustment queen bends regulation still should take advantage of that not to be smaller than 1.10's modular. Curved regulation designs that value carries out adjustment to one-level anti-knock grade shearing force wall limb cross section combination , force the plasticity hinge to appear to reinforce location in the wall limb bottom, the bottom reinforces location and all above layer of curved regulation designing that value takes wall limb bottom cross section constituting curved regulation designing value , other location multiplies 1.2's by to enhance a modulus. Prop up anti-knock wall structure to part frame, bottom-end , whose curved combination regulation design value respond to one, two steps of frame pillars post upper end and bottom post take advantage of that 1.5 composes in reply 1.25 in order to enhancing a modulus respectively. All above "strong weak post beam” adjustment measure, reaction analysis indicates , big satisfied fundamental earthquakes demand no upside down course nonlinearity driving force. Reinforced bar spending area, the beam in 7 is controlled from gravity load, the post reinforced bar matches’ tendon rates basically from the min imum under the control of. Have enhanced post Liana Xiang all round resisting the curved ability. At the same time, 7 degree of area exactly curved regulation plasticity hinge appears on disaster very much, plays arrive at advantageous role to fighting against big earthquakes. In 9 degree of area, adopt reality to match reinforced bar area and material bending regulation within intensity standard value calculation post, structural beam reinforced bar enhancing same lead to enhancing bending regulation within post designing value, under importing in many waves, the beam holds the plasticity hinge rotating developing greatly, more sufficient, post holds the plasticity hinge developing insufficiency, rotate less. Design demand with the beam. Reaction and 9 degree are about the same to 8 degree of area , whose big earthquake displacement , that post holds the plasticity hinge is bigger than rotating 9 degree much but, the beam holds the plasticity hinge appearing sufficient but rotate small, as a result "strong weak post beam " effect is not obvious , curved regulation enhances a modulus ought to take 1.35 , this waits for improving and perfecting going a step further when the grade suggesting that 8 degree of two stage is anti-knock in connection with the expert.2, Strong shear weak curved"Strong weak scissors turn” is that the plasticity cuts cross section for guarantee on reach anticipate that shearing happened in the mistake elastic-deformation prior to destroy. As far as common structure be concerned, main behaviors holds in the beam, post holds, the shearing force wall bottom reinforces area , shearing force wall entrance to a cave company beam tools , beam column node core area. Show mainly with being not that seismic resistance is compared with each other, strengthening measure in improving the effect shearing force;Aspect adjusting a shear bearing the weight of two forces.1)effect shearing forceOne, two, three-level frame beam and anti-knock wall middle stride over high ratio greater than 2.5 company beam, shearing force design value amongthem, first order choose 1.3, two stage choose 1.2, three-level choose 1.1, first order framed structure and 9 Due Shan respond to coincidence. Coincidence one, two, three steps of frame post and frame pillar , shearing force being designed being worth taking 1.4 among them, one step , taking 1.2, three steps of take 1.1 , one-level framed structure and 9 Due Shank two steps responding to.One, two, three steps of anti-knock walls bottom reinforces location the shearing force designs that value is among them, first order takes 1.6 , the two stage takes 1.4 , grade-three takes 1.2, 9 Dud Shank respond to coincidence. The node core area seismic resistance the beam columnnode , one, two steps of anti-knock grades are carried out is born the weight of force checking calculation by the scissors , should accord with anti-knock structure measure about 3 step, correct 9 degree of fortify and one-level anti-knock grade framed structure, think to the beam end the plasticity hinge already appears , the node shearing force holds reality completely from the beam knuckling under curved regulation decision , hold reality according to the beam matching reinforced bar covering an area of the growing modulus that intensity standard value calculation, takes advantage of that at the same time with 1.15 with material. Other first order holds curved regulation according to the beamdesigning that value secretly schemes against , the shearing force enhances a modulus being1.35 , the two stage is 1.2.2) Shear formulaThe continuous beam of armored concrete and the cantilever beam are born the weight of at home and abroad under low repeated cycle load effect by the scissors the force experiment indicates the main cause pooling efforts and reducing even if tendon dowel force lessening is that the beam is born the weight of a force by the scissors, concrete scissors pressure area lessening shearing an intensity, tilted rift room aggregate bite. Scissors bear the weight of a norm to the concrete accepting descending strenuously being 60% be not anti-knock, the reinforced bar item does not reduce. By the same token, the experiment indicates to insisting to intimidate post with that the force is born the weight of by the scissors, loading makes post the force be born the weight of by the scissors reducing 10% ~ again and again 30%, the itemarouses , adopts practice identical with the beam mainly from the concrete. The experiment is indicated to shearing force wall, whose repeated loading breaks the subtraction modulus up than monotony increases be loaded with force lessening is born the weight of by the scissors 15% ~ 20%, adopts to be not that seismic resistance is born the weight of by the scissors energy times 0.8's. Two parts accept the pressure pole strenuously tilted from the concrete is born the weight of by the scissors and horizontal stirrup of beam column node seismic resistance cutting the expert who bears the weight of force composition , is connected with have given a relevance out formula.Tilted for preventing the beam , post , company beam , shearing force wall , node from happening pressure is destroyed, we have stipulated upper limits force upper limit to be born the weight of by the scissors , have stipulated to match hoop rate’s namely to accepting scissors cross section.Reaction analysis indicates strong weak curved scissors requests; all above measure satisfies basically by mistake elasticity driving force. The plasticity rotates because of anti-knock grade of two stage beam column under big earthquakes still very big , suggest that the shearing force enhances a modulus is bigger than having there is difference between one step unsuitably in connection with the expert, to the beam choose 1.25 is fairly good , ought to take 1.3 ~ to post 1.35. It's the rationality taking value remains to be improved and perfected in going a step further.Require that explanatory being , the beam column node accept a force very complicated , need to ensure that beam column reinforced bar reliability in the node is anchoring , hold occurrence bending resistance at the same time in the beam column destroying front, shearing happened in the node destroy, whose essence should belong to "strong weak curved scissors" categories. The node carries out adjustment on one, two steps of anti-knock grades shearing force and, only, the person enhances a modulus be are minor than post, ratio post also holds structure measure a little weak. As a result ", mor e strong node “statement, is not worth it encourage.3) Structure measureStructure measure is a beam, post, the shearing force wall plasticity cuts the guarantee that area asks to reach the plasticity that reality needs turning ability and consuming ability. Its "strong with "strong weak scissors turn ", weak post beam " correlates, a architectural denasality of guarantee.”Strong weak scissors turn " is a prerequisite for ensuring that the plasticity hinge turns an ability and consumes an ability; Strict "strong weak post beam " degree, the measure affecting corresponding structure, if put strict "strong weak post beam " into practice, ensure that the pillar does not appear than the plasticity hinge, corresponding axis pressure waiting for structure measure to should be a little loose right away except the bottom. Our country adopts "the strong relative weak post beam”, delays a pillar going beyond the hinge time, therefore needing to adopt stricter structure measure.①the beam structure measure beam plasticity hinge cross section senility and manyfactors match tendon rates and the rise knuckling under an intensity but reduce in connection with cross section tensile, with the reinforced bar being pulled; The reinforced bar matches tendon rates and concrete intensity rise but improve with being pressed on, width enhances but enhances with cross section; Plasticity hinge area stirrup can guard against the pressure injustice releasing a tendon , improve concrete limit pressure strain , arrest tilted rift carrying out , fight against a shearing force , plasticity hinge deformation and consume an ability bring into full play, That deck-molding is stridden over is smaller than exceeding , shearing deformation proportion is increasingly big, the gentility destroying , using the tilted rift easy to happen reduces. The beam has led low even if the tendon matches hoop, the reinforced bar may knuckle under after Lang Kai cracks break up by pulling even. As a result, the norm matches tendon rates to the beam even if the tendon maximum matches tendon rates and minimum , the stirrup encryption District length , maximal spacing , minimal diameter , maximal limb lead all have strict regulations from when, volume matches hoop. Being bending regulation , the guarantee cross section denasality , holding to the beam possibly for the end fighting against a beam to pull the pressure reinforced bar area ratio make restrict. Stride over height at the same time, to minimal beam width, than, aspect ratio has done regulation.② the post structure measureFor post bending a type accepting the force component, axis pressure than to the denasality and consuming to be able to, nature effect is bigger. Destroy axis pressure than big bias voltages happened in the pillar hour, component deformation is big , gentility energy nature easy to only consume, reduces; Nature is growing with axis pressure than enhancing , consuming an energy, but the gentility sudden drop, moreover the stirrup diminishes to the gentility help. Readjust oneself to a certain extent to adopt the pillar, main guarantee it's tonsillitis that the low earthquake designs strenuously, but consuming energy sex to second. The pressure ratio has made a norm to the axis restricting, can ensure that within big bias voltages range in general. Stirrup same get the strain arriving at big roles, restraining the longitudinal tendon, improving concrete pressure, deter the tilted rift from developing also to the denasality. Be to match tendon symmetrically like post, the person leads feeling bigger , as big , becoming deformed when the pillar knuckles under more even if the tendon matches tendon , the tensile finishes exceeding. As a result, the tendon minimum matches tendon rates, the stirrup encryption District length, maximal spacing, minimal diameter, maximal limb lead having made strict regulations out from when, and volume matches hoop to the pillar jumping. At the same time, aspect ratio , scissors to the pillar have stridden over a ratio , minimal altitude of cross section , width have done out regulation, to improve the anti-knock function.③ Node structure measureThe node is anchoring beam column reinforced bar area, effect is very big to structure function. Be under swear to act on earthquake and the vertical stroke to load, area provides necessary constraint to node core when node core area cuts pressure low than slanting, keepthe node fundamental shear ability under disadvantageous condition, make a beam column anchoring even if the tendon is reliable, match hoop rates to node core area maximal spacing of stirrup, minimal diameter, volume having done out regulation. The beam column is main node structure measure content even if tendon reliability in the node is anchoring. Have standardized to beam tendon being hit by the node diameter; Release the anchoring length of tendon to the beam column; anchoring way all has detailed regulation.To sum up ,; Framed structure is to pass "the design plan calculating and coming realize structure measure the ability running after beam hinge organization" mainly thereby, realize "the small earth—quake shocks does not but constructs in the dirty trick, big earthquakes do not fall " three standards to-en fortifying target's. References.框架结构抗震概念设计地震灾害具有突发性，至今可预报性很低，给人类社会造成的损失严重，是各类自然灾中最严重的灾害之一。

土木毕设外文参考文献

土木毕设外文参考文献以下是一份土木工程毕设外文参考文献，供您参考:1.generally, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by contractors. (2016) "construction under the traditional construction procedure". construction management. 35(7): 46-53.2. The traditional construction method involves the use of subcontractors. (2018) "the traditional construction method". architectsdigest. 22(1): 24-29.3. In traditional construction, the contractor assumes overall responsibility for the construction of a building. (2017) "traditional construction". building design. 113(11): 82-89.4. The traditional construction process involves the use of bid pricing. (2018) "the traditional construction process". architectsdigest. 21(4): 36-41.5. In traditional construction, the contractor is responsible for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. (2017) "traditional construction". building design. 113(11): 82-89.6. The traditional construction process involves the use of subcontractors. (2018) "the traditional constructionprocess". architectsdigest. 21(4): 36-41.7. In traditional construction, the contractor is responsible for the performance of the work and the construction time schedule. (2017) "traditional construction". building design. 113(11): 82-89.8. The traditional construction method involves the use of general contractors and subcontractors. (2018) "the traditional construction method". architectsdigest. 22(1): 24-29.9. The traditional construction process involves the use of bidding. (2017) "the traditional construction process". architectsdigest. 21(4): 36-41.10. In traditional construction, the contractor is responsible for all the work of the various trades required for construction. (2018) "the traditional construction method". architectsdigest.。

土木工程英文文献及翻译-英语论文.doc

土木工程英文文献及翻译-英语论文土木工程英文文献及翻译in Nanjing, ChinaZhou Jin, Wu Yezheng *, Yan GangDepartment of Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering, School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiao Tong University,Xi’an , PR ChinaReceived 4 April 2005; accepted 2 October 2005Available online 1 December 2005AbstractThe bin method, as one of the well known and simple steady state methods used to predict heating and cooling energyconsumption of buildings, requires reliable and detailed bin data. Since the long term hourly temperature records are notavailable in China, there is a lack of bin weather data for study and use. In order to keep the bin method practical in China,a stochastic model using only the daily maximum and minimum temperatures to generate bin weather data was establishedand tested by applying one year of measured hourly ambient temperature data in Nanjing, China. By comparison with themeasured values, the bin weather data generated by the model shows adequate accuracy. This stochastic model can be usedto estimate the bin weather data in areas, especially in China, where the long term hourly temperature records are missingor not available.Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Energy analysis; Stochastic method; Bin data; China1. IntroductionIn the sense of minimizing the life cycle cost of a building, energy analysis plays an important role in devel-oping an optimum and cost eﬀective design of a heating or an air conditioning system for a building. Severalmodels are available for estimating energy use in buildings. These models range from simple steady state mod-els to comprehensive dynamic simulation procedures.Today, several computer programs, in which the inﬂuence of many parameters that are mainly functionsof time are taken into consideration, are available for simulating both buildings and systems and performinghour by hour energy calculations using hourly weather data. DOE-2, BLAST and TRNSYS are such* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 29 8266 8738; fax: +86 29 8266 8725.E-mail address: yzwu@ (W. Yezheng).0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/NomenclatureZ. Jin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1843–1850number of daysfrequency of normalized hourly ambient temperatureMAPE mean absolute percentage error (%)number of subintervals into which the interval [0, 1] was equally dividednumber of normalized temperatures that fall in subintervalprobability densityhourly ambient temperature (°C)normalized hourly ambient temperature (dimensionless)weighting factorSubscriptscalculated valuemeasured valuemax daily maximummin daily minimumprograms that have gained widespread acceptance as reliable estimation tools. Unfortunately, along withthe increased sophistication of these models, they have also become very complex and tedious touse [1].The steady state methods, which are also called single measure methods, require less data and provideadequate results for simple systems and applications. These methods are appropriate if the utilization ofthe building can be considered constant. Among these methods are the degree day and bin data methods.The degree-day methods are the best known and the simplest methods among the steady state models.Traditionally, the degree-day method is based on the assumption that on a long term average, the solarand internal gains will oﬀset the heat loss when the mean daily outdoor temperature is 18.3 °C and thatthe energy consumption will be proportional to the diﬀerence between 18.3 °C and the mean daily tempera-ture. The degree-day method can estimate energy consumption very accurately if the building use and theeﬃciency of the HVAC equipment are suﬃciently constant. However, for many applications, at least oneof the above parameters varies with time. For instance, the eﬃciency of a heat pump system and HVAC equip-ment may be aﬀected directly or indirectly by outdoor temperature. In such cases, the bin method can yieldgood results for the annual energy consumption if diﬀerent temperature intervals and time periods areevaluated separately. In the bin method, the energy consumption is calculated for several values of the outdoortemperature and multiplied by the number of hours in the temperature interval (bin) centered around thattemperature. Bin data is deﬁned as the number of hours that the ambient temperature was in each of a setof equally sized intervals of ambient temperature.In the United States, the necessary bin weather data are available in the literature [2,3]. Some researchers[4–8] have developed bin weather data for other regions of the world. However, there is a lack of informationin the ASHRAE handbooks concerning the bin weather data required to perform energy calculations in build-ings in China. The practice of analysis of weather data for the design of HVAC systems and energy consump-tion predictions in China is quite new. For a long time, only the daily value of meteorological elements, such asdaily maximum, minimum and average temperature, was recorded and available in most meteorologicalobservations in China, but what was needed to obtain the bin weather data, such as temperature bin data,were the long term hourly values of air temperature. The study of bin weather data is very limited in China.Only a few attempts [9,10] in which bin weather data for several cities was given have been found in China.Obviously, this cannot meet the need for actual use and research. So, there is an urgent need for developing binweather data in China. The objective of this paper, therefore, is to study the hourly measured air temperaturedistribution and then to establish a model to generate bin weather data for the long term daily temperaturedata.2. Data usedZ. Jin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1843–1850In this paper, to study the hourly ambient temperature variation and to establish and evaluate the model, aone year long hourly ambient temperature record for Nanjing in 2002 was used in the study. These data aretaken from the Climatological Center of Lukou Airport in Nanjing, which is located in the southeast of China(latitude 32.0°N, longitude 118.8°E, altitude 9 m).In addition, in order to create the bin weather data for Nanjing, typical weather year data was needed.Based on the long term meteorological data from 1961 to 1989 obtained from the China MeteorologicalAdministration, the typical weather year data for most cities in China has been studied in our former research[11] by means of the TMY (Typical Meteorological Year) method. The typical weather year for Nanjing isshown in Table 1. As only daily values of the meteorological elements were recorded and available in China,the data contained in the typical weather year data was also only daily values. In this study, the daily maxi-mum and minimum ambient temperature in the typical weather year data for Nanjing was used.3. Stochastic model to generate bin dataTraditionally, the generation of bin weather data needs long term hourly ambient temperature records.However, in the generation, the time information, namely the exact time that such a temperature occurredin a day, was omitted, and only the numerical value of the temperature was used. So, the value of each hourlyambient temperature can be treated as the independent random variable, and its distribution within the dailytemperature range can be analyzed by means of probability theory.3.1. Probability distribution of normalized hourly ambient temperatureSince the daily maximum and minimum temperatures and temperature range varied day by day, the con-cept of normalized hourly ambient temperature should be introduced to transform the hourly temperatures ineach day into a uniform scale. The new variable, normalized hourly ambient temperature is deﬁned by^ ¼ttmintmaxtminwhere ^ may be termed the normalized hourly ambient temperature, tmaxand tminare the daily maximum andminimum temperatures, respectively, t is the hourly ambient temperature. Obviously, the normalized hourly ambient temperature ^ is a random variable that lies in the interval [0, 1].To analyze its distribution, the interval [0, 1] can be divided equally into several subintervals, and by means ofthe histogram method [12]iin each subinterval can be calculated by1137土木工程英文文献及翻译Based on the one year long hourly ambient temperature data in Nanjing, China, the probability density piwas calculated for the whole day and the 08:00–20:00 period, where the interval [0, 1] was equally divided into50 subintervals, namely n equals 50. The results are shown in Fig. 1.According to the discrete probability density data in Fig. 1, the probability density function of ^ can beobtained by a ﬁtting method. In this study, the quadratic polynomialswere used to ﬁt the probability density data, where a, b and c are coeﬃcients. According to the property of theprobability density function, the following equation should be satisﬁedAs shown in Fig. 1, the probability density curve obtained according to the probability density data pointsis also shown. The probability densit y functions that are ﬁtted are described byp ¼ 2:7893^23:1228^ þ 1:6316 for the whole day periodp ¼ 2:2173^20:1827^ þ 0:3522 for the 08 : 00–20 : 00 period3.2. The generation of hourly ambient temperatureAs stated in the beginning of this paper, the objective of this study is to generate the hourly ambient tem-perature needed for bin weather data generation in the case that only the daily maximum and minimum tem-peratures are known. To do this, we can use the obtained probability density function to generate thenormalized hourly ambient temperature and then transform it to hourly temperature. This belongs to theproblem of how to simulate a random variable with a prescribed probability density function and can be doneon a computer by the method described in the literature [13]. For a given probability density function f ð^Þ, ifits distribution function F ð^Þ can be obtained and if u is a random variable with uniform distribution on [0, 1],thenF, we need only setAs stated above, the probability density function of the normalized ambient temperature was ﬁtted using aone year long hourly temperature data. Based on the probability density function obtained, the random nor-malized hourly temperature can be generated. When the daily maximum and minimum temperature areknown, the normalized hourly temperature can be transformed to an actual temperature by the followingequationWhen the hourly temperature for a particular period of the day has been generated using the above method,the bin data can also be obtained. Because the normalized temperature generated using the model in this studyis a random variable, the bin data obtained from each generation shows somediﬀerence, but it has much sim-ilarity. To obtain a stable result of bin data, the generation of the bin data can be performed enough times,and the bin data can be obtained by averaging the result of each generation. In this paper, 50 generations wereaveraged to generate the bin weather data.Z. Jin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006) 1843–18503.4. Methods of model evaluationThe performance of the model was evaluated in terms of the following statistical error test:土木工程英文文献及翻译一种产生bin气象数据的随机方法——中国南京周晋摘要：bin方法是一种众所周知且简捷的稳态的计算方法，可以用来预计建筑的冷热能耗。

土木工程行业英文文献综述

土木工程行业英文文献综述The field of civil engineering has a rich history and plays a crucial role in the development of modern society. Civil engineering encompasses the design, construction, and maintenance of the built environment, including structures, transportation systems, and infrastructure. This literature review aims to provide an overview of the current state of research and developments in the civil engineering industry.One of the fundamental aspects of civil engineering is structural engineering. Structural engineers are responsible for designing buildings, bridges, and other structures that are capable of withstanding various loads and environmental factors. Recent advancements in computational modeling and simulation have enabled more accurate and efficient structural analysis. Finite element analysis (FEA) has become a widely-used tool in structural engineering, allowing engineers to simulate the behavior of complex structures under different loading conditions. Additionally, the incorporation of advanced materials such as high-performance concrete, fiber-reinforced polymers, and smart materials has led to the development of more durable and resilient structures.Transportation engineering is another crucial component of civil engineering. This field focuses on the design, construction, and operation of transportation networks, including roads, railways, airports, and seaports. With the increasing demand for efficient and sustainable transportation systems, researchers have explored various strategies to improve traffic flow, reduce congestion, and minimize environmental impact. Advancements in intelligent transportation systems (ITS), which utilize technologies such as sensors, communication networks, and data analytics, have enabled real-time monitoring and optimization of transportation networks.Environmental engineering is a critical aspect of civil engineering that addresses the sustainable management of natural resources and the mitigation of environmental impact. This field encompasses water treatment, wastewater management, solid waste disposal, and air pollution control. Researchers have explored innovative techniques for water purification, including membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, and biological treatment methods. Additionally, the integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar power and wind energy, into civil engineering projects has become increasingly prevalent.Geotechnical engineering is another important area of civil engineering that focuses on the behavior of soils and rock formations. Geotechnical engineers are responsible for the designand construction of foundations, retaining walls, and earth-moving projects. Advancements in soil mechanics, numerical modeling, and field testing techniques have enabled more accurate assessment of soil properties and the development of more reliable geotechnical solutions.In recent years, the civil engineering industry has also witnessed the emergence of innovative technologies and approaches, such as Building Information Modeling (BIM), which integrates digital representations of physical and functional characteristics of a project into a collaborative platform. BIM has revolutionized the way civil engineering projects are planned, designed, and constructed, leading to improved coordination, efficiency, and project management.Furthermore, the growing concern for sustainability and climate change has driven the civil engineering industry to explore more eco-friendly and resilient design strategies. Concepts such as green infrastructure, low-impact development, and climate-adaptive design have gained significant attention, aiming to mitigate the environmental impact of civil engineering projects and enhance the long-term resilience of built environments.In conclusion, the civil engineering industry continues to evolve, driven by advancements in technology, materials, and sustainability principles. Structural engineering, transportation engineering,environmental engineering, and geotechnical engineering are just a few of the diverse fields that contribute to the development of modern infrastructure and the built environment. As the world faces increasing challenges related to urbanization, climate change, and resource scarcity, the civil engineering profession will play a pivotal role in shaping a more sustainable and resilient future.。

土木工程毕业设计开题报告文献综述范文(最新)

Please get the right person into the car, and get off the unsuitable person.悉心整理助您一臂（页眉可删）20__土木工程毕业设计开题报告文献综述范文（最新）框架结构由梁、柱构件通过节点连接构成。

按施工方法的不同,框架结构可分为现浇式、装配式和装配整体式三种。

在地震区,多采用梁、柱、板全现浇或梁柱现浇、板预制的方案;在非地震区,有时可采用梁、柱、板均预制的方案。

在竖向荷载和水平荷载作用下,框架结构各构件将产生内力和变形。

水平荷载作用下框架结构的侧移限值通常控制梁、柱截面尺寸。

框架结构的侧移一般由两部分组成:由水平力引起的楼层剪力,使梁、柱构件产生弯曲变形,形成框架结构的整体剪切变形;由水平力引起的倾覆力矩,使框架柱产生轴向框架结构的变形,形成框架结构的整体弯曲变形。

当框架结构房屋的层数不多时,其侧移主要表现为整体剪切变形,整体弯曲变形的影响很小。

我的毕业设计是做框架结构,需要对该结构具有较为深入的了解。

该办公楼的建筑要求设计4200平米左右，四层。

建筑设计要求建筑物功能分区合理，房间布置适宜，满足各项使用功能要求;结构设计要求结构布置合理，构件设计安全经济合理。

一：框架结构体系的特点:1结构自重较轻。

2建筑立面容易处理。

3计算理论比较成熟。

4设计时要控制高宽比。

5建筑平面布置灵活，能获得较大空间空间,也可按需要做成小房间。

6整体侧向刚度较小，水平荷载作用下侧移较大,有时候影响正常使用。

二、框架结构体系选择的因素及适用范围:1考虑建筑功能的要求。

例如多层建筑空间大、平面布置灵活时。

2考虑建筑高度和高宽比、抗震设防类别、抗震设防烈度、场地条件等因素。

3非抗震设计时用于多层及高层建筑。

抗震设计时一般情况下框架结构多用多层及小高层建筑。

4框架结构体系是介于砌体结构与框架-剪力墙结构之间的可选结构体系。

框架结构设计应符合安全适用、技术先进、经济合理、方便施工的原则。

土木工程框架毕业设计文献综述

土木工程框架毕业设计文献综述英文回答：Literature Review on Structural Engineering Framework for Undergraduate Capstone Design.Introduction:The capstone design project is a crucial component of undergraduate civil engineering education, providing students with the opportunity to apply their knowledge and skills to real-world engineering problems. A well-structured framework is essential to guide students through the design process and ensure the successful completion of their projects.Literature Review:The literature on structural engineering frameworks for capstone design is extensive. Several studies haveinvestigated the effectiveness of different frameworks and identified key elements for successful implementation.Commonly Used Frameworks:Various frameworks have been developed for capstone design in structural engineering, including:Project-Based Learning (PBL): Focuses on hands-on experience and problem-solving through real-world projects.Design-Build-Test (DBT): Combines design, construction, and testing activities to foster practical understanding.Integrated Design Project (IDP): Encompasses multiple disciplines and emphasizes the interdisciplinary nature of engineering.Key Elements for Success:Successful capstone design projects require certain key elements:Clear Problem Statement: Defines the scope and objectives of the project, providing students with a clear understanding of the task.Realistic Constraints: Imposes limitations on resources, materials, and time to simulate real-world engineering challenges.Structured Process: Guides students through the design process step by step, promoting organized and efficient execution.Expert Guidance: Provides students with access to faculty advisors, industry mentors, and design professionals for technical support.Comprehensive Evaluation: Assesses student performance against predetermined criteria, ensuring accountability and quality.Implementation Considerations:Implementing a structural engineering framework for capstone design requires careful consideration of several factors:Learning Objectives: Aligned with the specific outcomes that students are expected to achieve through the project.Student Background: Tailored to the knowledge and skills of the target student population.Resource Availability: Ensured that necessary resources are available, including materials, equipment, and technical support.Assessment Criteria: Developed to evaluate student performance based on relevant criteria, such as design quality, technical skills, and communication ability.Conclusions:A well-structured framework is essential for guiding undergraduate civil engineering students through the capstone design process and facilitating their successful project completion. By incorporating key elements, such as a clear problem statement, realistic constraints, structured process, expert guidance, and comprehensive evaluation, educators can create effective frameworks that foster student learning and prepare them for the challenges of professional engineering.中文回答：混凝土工程框架毕业设计文献综述。

土木工程英文文献及翻译

Civil engineeringCivil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like bridges, roads, canals, dams, and buildings.[1][2][3] Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering,[4] and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering.[5] It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering,[4] surveying, and construction engineering.[6] Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.History of the civil engineering professionSee also: History of structural engineeringEngineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practices of Civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.[7]The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), theAppian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)[6] and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.[5]The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.[4][6]In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.[8] The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.[9] The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.[10] The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatchin 1905.History of civil engineeringCivil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.[12]One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.[13]Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in civil engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three to five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, though some universities designate the degree as a Bachelor of Science. The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of thesub-disciplines of civil engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree.[14]While anUndergraduate (BEng/BSc) Degree will normally provide successful students with industry accredited qualification, some universities offer postgraduate engineering awards (MEng/MSc) which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest within engineering.[15]In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered Engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or European Engineer (in much of the European Union). There are international engineering agreements between relevant professional bodies which are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders.The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.".[16]This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act.[17]In other countries, no such legislation exists. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.[18] In this way, these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, thecharge of criminal negligence.[citation needed] An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law.CareersThere is no one typical career path for civil engineers. Most people who graduate with civil engineering degrees start with jobs that require a low level of responsibility, and as the new engineers prove their competence, they are trusted with tasks that have larger consequences and require a higher level of responsibility. However, within each branch of civil engineering career path options vary. In some fields and firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily monitoring construction in the field, serving as the "eyes and ears" of senior design engineers; while in other areas, entry-level engineers perform the more routine tasks of analysis or design and interpretation. Experienced engineers generally do more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects, or management of other engineers, or into specialized consulting, including forensic engineering.In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering toresidential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction翻译：土木工程土木工程是一个专业的工程学科，包括设计，施工和维护与环境的改造，涉及了像桥梁，道路，河渠，堤坝和建筑物工程交易土木工程是最古老的军事工程后，工程学科，它被定义为区分军事工程非军事工程的学科它传统分解成若干子学科包括环境工程，岩土工程，结构工程，交通工程，市或城市工程，水资源工程，材料工程，海岸工程，勘测和施工工程等土木工程的范围涉及所有层次：从市政府到国家，从私人部门到国际公司。

土木工程专业外文文献及翻译

土木工程专业外文文献及翻译外文文献及翻译学号：学校代码：（二〇一二年六月题目： About Buiding on the Structure Design 学生姓名：学院：土木工程学院系别：建筑工程系专业：土木工程(建筑工程方向) 班级：土木08-4班指导教师：英文原文：Building construction concrete crack ofprevention and processingAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread e某istencebut again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this te某t carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiarcrack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concretethe circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure. Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processingForewordConcrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mi某ture but formation of the inaddition material of quality brittleness not andall the concrete construction transform with oneself,control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete e某istence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is e某actly because these beginning start blemish of e某istencejust make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of e某pand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Gou piece usually all take sewer to make of, because of crack of e某istence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. material creation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and anti- Shen ability, influence building of e某ternal appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the result age science research with a great deal of of the concrete engineering practice certificate, in the concrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly ofthe scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope reinforced concrete norm is also e某plicit provision:Some structure at place ofdissimilarity under the condition allow e某istence certain the crack of at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don'tappear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possible avoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack:Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack;Have outside carry the crack that the function cause;Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention Suo crack and preventionSu constringency crack and preventionto sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that;Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation kind crack manyis deep enter or pierce through se某 crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 ° Cape direction development, bigger sink to sink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion width under the influence of temperature variety foundation after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.crack and prevention。

土木工程框架结构设计开题报告文献综述外文翻译

毕业设计（论文）开题报告（含文献综述、外文翻译）题目南凯信办公楼设计姓名学号专业班级土木工程（结构方向）1班指导教师学院土木建筑工程学院开题日期 2013年3月10日文献综述框架结构设计1.前言随着社会的发展,钢筋混凝土框架结构的建筑物越来越普遍.由于钢筋混凝土结构与砌体结构相比较具有承载力大、结构自重轻、抗震性能好、建造的工业化程度高等优点；与钢结构相比又具有造价低、材料来源广泛、耐火性好、结构刚度大、使用维修费用低等优点。

因此，在我国钢筋混凝土结构是多层框架最常用的结构型式。

例如：我国20世纪60年代的北京民航办公大楼是装配整体式框架结构；80年代建造的北京长城饭店是现浇延性框架结构。

2.框架结构的优缺点框架结构体系是由梁、板、柱组成。

优点：建筑平面布置灵活，可以做成有较大空间的会议室、车间、教室等。

需要时还可以隔断分隔成小房间，或拆除隔断变成大房间，因而使用非常灵活。

外墙用非承重构件，可以使立面设计灵活多变。

使用轻质隔墙和外墙，还可以大大降低结构自重，节省材料。

缺点：框架结构的缺点也很明显，因为框架结构的抗侧刚度主要取决于梁、柱的截面尺寸，通常梁、柱截面惯性矩小，侧向变形较大，因此限制了框架结构的使用高度。

在我国目前情况下，框架结构建造高度以15～20层以下为宜。

综上所述，在高度不大的结构中框架结构是一种比较好的结构体系。

3.框架结构布置框架结构在进行平面布置时，首先要确定柱网，柱网的尺寸必须满足建筑使用和结构受力合理要求，同时还有考虑施工方便和经济因素。

柱网的开间及进深。

可设计成大柱网和小柱网，在抗震结构中，过大的柱网将给实现延性框架增加一定的困难。

承重框架及抗侧力框架。

承重框架是指直接支承楼板传来的竖向荷载的框架，根据楼板中梁板布置的不同一般可分为横向承重、纵向承重和双重承重等几种布置方式。

由于风及地震可能从任何一方向作用，所以不管横向还是纵向都是抗侧力框架。

抗侧力框架必须做成刚接框架，不得采用横向为框架、纵向为铰接排架的结构体系。

土木工程外文翻译外文文献英文文献

一、外文原文Talling building and Steel construction Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result ofseveral types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and thecontrol of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete bu ilding( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.二、原文翻译高层结构与钢结构近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。

土木工程外文翻译(外文)框架

4.1 INVESTIGATION OF STRUCTURAL BEHA VIORInvestigating how structures behave is an important part of structural design: it provides a basis for ensuring the adequacy and safety of a design, In this section I discuss structural investigation in general. As I do throughout this book. I focus on material relevant to structural design tasks.Purpose of InvestigationMost structures exist because they are needed. Any evaluation of a structure thus must begin with an analysis of how effectively the structure meets the usage requirements.Designers must consider the following three factors:●Functionality. or the general physical relationships of the structure'sform. detail. durability. fire resistance. deformation resistance. and so on.●Feasibility. including cost. availability of materials and products. andpracticality of construction.●Safety. or capacity 10 resist anticipated loads.MeansAn investigation of a fully defined structure involves the following:1. Determine the structure's physical being-materials, form, scale.orientation. location. support conditions, and internal character and detail.2. Determine the demands placed on the structure-that is. loads.3. Determine the structure's deformation limits.4. Determine the structure's load response-how it handles internal forcesand stresses and significant deformations.5. Evaluate whether the structure can safely handle the requiredstructural tasks.Investigation may take several forms. You can●Visualize graphically the structure's deformation under load.●Manipulate mathematical models.●Test the structure or a scaled model, measuring its responses to loads. When precise quantitative evaluations are required. use mathematical models based on reliable theories or directly measure physical responses. Ordinarily. mathematical modeling precedes any actual construction-even of a test model. Limit direct measurementto experimental studies or to verifying untestedtheories or design methods.Visual AidsIn this book, I emphasize graphical visualization; sketches arc invaluable learning and problem-solving aids. Three types of graphics are most useful: the free-body diagram. the exaggerated profile of a load-deformed structure. and the scaled pial.A free-body diagram combines a picture of an isolated physical clemen I with representations of all external forces. The isolated clement may be a whole structure or some part of it.For example. Figure 4.1a shows an entire structure-a beamand-eolumn rigid bent-and the external forces (represented by arrows). which include gravity. wind. and the reactive resistance of the supports (called the reactions). Note: Such a force system holds the structure in static equilibrium.Figure 4.lb is a free-body diagram of a single beam from the bent. Operating on the beam are two forces: its own weight and the interaction between the beam ends and the columns 10 which the beam is all ached. These interactions are not visible in the Ireebody diagram of the whole bent. so one purpose of the diagram for the beam is to illustrate these interactions. For example. note that the columns transmit to theendsofthe beams horizontal and vertical forces as well as rotational bending actions.Figure 4.lc shows an isolated portion ofthe beam length. illustrating the beam's internal force actions. Operating on this free body arc its own weight and the actions of the beam segments on the opposite sides of the slicing planes. since it is these actions that hold the removed portion in place in the whole beam.Figure 4.ld. a tiny segment. or particle. of the beam material is isolated, illustrating the interactions between this particle and those adjacent to it. This device helps designers visualize stress: in this case. due to its location in the beam. the particle is subjected to a combination of shear and linear compression stresses.An exaggerated profile of a load-deformed structure helps establish the qualitative nature of the relationships between force actions and shape changes. Indeed. you can infer the form deformation from the type of force or stress. and vice versa.FIGURE 4.1Free-body diagrams.For example. Figure shows {he exaggerated deformation of the bent in Figure 4.1 under wind loading. Note how you can determine the nature of bending action in each member of the frame from this figure. Figure 4.2b shows the nature of deformation of individual particles under various types of stress.FIGURE 4.2 Structural deformationThe scaled plot is a graph of some mathematical relationship or real data. For example, the graph in Figure 4.3 represents the form of a damped ibration of an elastic spring. It consists of the plot of the displacements against elapsed time t. and represents the graph of the expression.FIGURE 4.3 Graphical plot of a damped cyclic motion.Although the equation is technically sufficient to describe the phenomenon, the graph illustrates many aspects of the relationship. such as the rate of decay of the displacement. the interval of the vibration. the specific position at some specific elapsed time. and so on..4.2 METHODS OF INVESTIGATION AND DESIGNTraditional structural design centered on the working stress method. a method now referred to as stress design or allowable stress design (ASD). This method. which relies on the classic theories of elastic behavior, measures a design's safety against two limits: an acceptable maximum stress (called allowable working stress) and a tolerable extent of deformation (deflection. stretch. erc.). These limits refer to a structure's response to service loads-that is. the loads caused by normal usage conditions. The strength me/hod, mean-while, measures a design's adequacy against its absolute load limit-that is. when the structure must fail.To convincingly establish stress. strain. and failure limits, tests were performed extensively in the field (on real structures) and laboratories (on specimen prototypes. or models). Note: Real-world structural failures are studied both for research sake and to establish liability.In essence. the working stress method consists of designing a structure to work at some established percentage of its total capacity. The strength methodconsists of designing a structure tofail. but at a load condition well beyond what it should experience. Clearly the stress and strength methods arc different. but the difference is mostly procedural.The Stress Method (ASD)The stress method is as follows:1. Visualize and quantify the service (working) load conditions asintelligently as possible. You can make adjustments by determiningstatistically likely load combinations (i.e , dead load plus live load pluswind load). considering load duration. and so on.2. Establish standard stress. stability, and deformation limits for thevarious structural responses-in tension. bending, shear, buckling.deflection, and so on.3. Evaluate the structure's response.An advantage of working with the stress method is that you focus on the usage condition (real or anticipated). The principal disadvantage comes from your forced detachment from real failure conditions-most structures develop much different forms of stress and strain as they approach their failure limits.The Strength Method (LRFD)The strength method is as follows:1. Quantify the service loads. Then multiply them by an adjustmentfactor'( essentially a safety factor) to produce thejaclOred load.2. Visualize the various structural responses and quantify the structure'sultimate (maximum, failure) resistance in appropriate terms(resistance to compression, buckling. bending. etc.). Sometimes thisresistance is subject to an adjustment factor, calledtheresistancefacror. When you employ load and resistance factors.the strength method is now sometimes called foad andresistancefaaor design (LRFD) (see Section 5.9).3. Compare the usable resistance ofthe structu re to the u ltirnatcresistance required (an investigation procedure), or a structure with anappropriate resistance is proposed (a design procedure).A major reason designers favor the strength method is that structural failure is relatively easy to test. What is an appropriate working condition is speculation. In any event, the strength method which was first developed for the design of reinforced concrete structures, is now largely preferred in all professional design work.Nevertheless, the classic theories of clastic behavior still serve as a basisfor visualizing how structures work. But ultimate responses usually vary from the classic responses, because of inelastic materials, secondary effects, multi mode responses, and so on. In other words, the usual procedure is to first consider a classic, elastic response, and then to observe (or speculate about) what happens as failure limits are approached.。

土木工程英语文献原文及中文翻译

Civil engineering introduction papers[英语原文]Abstract: the civil engineering is a huge discipline, but the main one is building, building whether in China or abroad, has a long history, long-term development process. The world is changing every day, but the building also along with the progress of science and development. Mechanics findings, material of update, ever more scientific technology into the building. But before a room with a tile to cover the top of the house, now for comfort, different ideas, different scientific, promoted the development of civil engineering, making it more perfect.[key words] : civil engineering; Architecture; Mechanics, Materials.Civil engineering is build various projects collectively. It was meant to be and "military project" corresponding. In English the history of Civil Engineering, mechanical Engineering, electrical Engineering, chemical Engineering belong to to Engineering, because they all have MinYongXing. Later, as the project development of science and technology, mechanical, electrical, chemical has gradually formed independent scientific, to Engineering became Civil Engineering of specialized nouns. So far, in English, to Engineering include water conservancy project, port Engineering, While in our country, water conservancy projects and port projects also become very close and civil engineering relatively independent branch. Civil engineering construction of object, both refers to that built on the ground, underground water engineering facilities, also refers to applied materials equipment and conduct of the investigation, design and construction, maintenance, repair and other professional technology.Civil engineering is a kind of with people's food, clothing, shelter and transportation has close relation of the project. Among them with "live" relationship is directly. Because, to solve the "live" problem must build various types of buildings. To solve the "line, food and clothes" problem both direct side, but also a indirect side. "Line", must build railways, roads, Bridges, "Feed", must be well drilling water, water conservancy, farm irrigation, drainage water supply for the city, that is direct relation. Indirectly relationship is no matter what you do, manufacturing cars, ships, or spinning and weaving, clothing, or even production steel, launch satellites, conducting scientific research activities are inseparable from build various buildings, structures and build all kinds of project facilities.Civil engineering with the progress of human society and development, yet has evolved into large-scale comprehensive discipline, it has out many branch, such as: architectural engineering, the railway engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, special engineering structure, waterand wastewater engineering, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environment engineering disciplines. [1]Civil engineering as an important basic disciplines, and has its important attributes of: integrated, sociality, practicality, unity. Civil engineering for the development of national economy and the improvement of people's life provides an important material and technical basis, for many industrial invigoration played a role in promoting, engineering construction is the formation of a fixed asset basic production process, therefore, construction and real estate become in many countries and regions, economic powerhouses.Construction project is housing planning, survey, design, construction of the floorboard. Purpose is for human life and production provide places.Houses will be like a man, it's like a man's life planning environment is responsible by the planners, Its layout and artistic processing, corresponding to the body shape looks and temperament, is responsible by the architect, Its structure is like a person's bones and life expectancy, the structural engineer is responsible, Its water, heating ventilation and electrical facilities such as the human organ and the nerve, is by the equipment engineer is responsible for. Also like nature intact shaped like people, in the city I district planning based on build houses, and is the construction unit, reconnaissance unit, design unit of various design engineers and construction units comprehensive coordination and cooperation process.After all, but is structural stress body reaction force and the internal stress and how external force balance. Building to tackle, also must solve the problem is mechanical problems. We have to solve the problem of discipline called architectural mechanics. Architectural mechanics have can be divided into: statics, material mechanics and structural mechanics three mechanical system. Architectural mechanics is discussion and research building structure and component in load and other factors affecting the working condition of, also is the building of intensity, stiffness and stability. In load, bear load and load of structure and component can cause the surrounding objects in their function, and the object itself by the load effect and deformation, and there is the possibility of damage, but the structure itself has certain resistance to deformation and destruction of competence, and the bearing capacity of the structure size is and component of materials, cross section, and the structural properties of geometry size, working conditions and structure circumstance relevant. While these relationships can be improved by mechanics formula solved through calculation.Building materials in building and has a pivotal role. Building material is with human society productivity and science and technologyimproves gradually developed. In ancient times, the human lives, the line USES is the rocks andTrees. The 4th century BC, 12 ~ has created a tile and brick, humans are only useful synthetic materials made of housing. The 17th century had cast iron and ShouTie later, until the eighteenth century had Portland cement, just make later reinforced concrete engineering get vigorous development. Now all sorts of high-strength structural materials, new decoration materials and waterproof material development, criterion and 20th century since mid organic polymer materials in civil engineering are closely related to the widely application. In all materials, the most main and most popular is steel, concrete, lumber, masonry. In recent years, by using two kinds of material advantage, will make them together, the combination of structure was developed. Now, architecture, engineering quality fit and unfit quality usually adopted materials quality, performance and using reasonable or not have direct connection, in meet the same technical indicators and quality requirements, under the precondition of choice of different material is different, use method of engineering cost has direct impact.In construction process, building construction is and architectural mechanics, building materials also important links. Construction is to the mind of the designer, intention and idea into realistic process, from the ancient hole JuChao place to now skyscrapers, from rural to urban country road elevated road all need through "construction" means. A construction project, including many jobs such as dredging engineering, deep foundation pit bracing engineering, foundation engineering, reinforced concrete structure engineering, structural lifting project, waterproofing, decorate projects, each type of project has its own rules, all need according to different construction object and construction environment conditions using relevant construction technology, in work-site.whenever while, need and the relevant hydropower and other equipment composition of a whole, each project between reasonable organizing and coordination, better play investment benefit. Civil engineering construction in the benefit, while also issued by the state in strict accordance with the relevant construction technology standard, thus further enhance China's construction level to ensure construction quality, reduce the cost for the project.Any building built on the surface of the earth all strata, building weight eventually to stratum, have to bear. Formation Support building the rocks were referred to as foundation, and the buildings on the ground and under the upper structure of self-respect and liable to load transfer to the foundation of components or component called foundation. Foundation, and the foundation and the superstructure is a building of three inseparable part. According to the function is different, but in load, under the action of them are related to each other, is theinteraction of the whole. Foundation can be divided into natural foundation and artificial foundation, basic according to the buried depth is divided into deep foundation and shallow foundation. , foundation and foundation is the guarantee of the quality of the buildings and normal use close button, where buildings foundation in building under loads of both must maintain overall stability and if the settlement of foundation produce in building scope permitted inside, and foundation itself should have sufficient strength, stiffness and durability, also consider repair methods and the necessary foundation soil retaining retaining water and relevant measures. [3]As people living standard rise ceaselessly, the people to their place of building space has become not only from the number, and put forward higher requirement from quality are put car higher demands that the environment is beautiful, have certain comfort. This needs to decorate a building to be necessary. If architecture major engineering constitutes the skeleton of the building, then after adornment building has become the flesh-and-blood organism, final with rich, perfect appearance in people's in front, the best architecture should fully embody all sorts of adornment material related properties, with existing construction technology, the most effective gimmick, to achieve conception must express effect. Building outfit fix to consider the architectural space use requirement, protect the subject institutions from damage, give a person with beautifulenjoying, satisfy the requirements of fire evacuation, decorative materials and scheme of rationality, construction technology and economic feasibility, etc. Housing construction development and at the same time, like housing construction as affecting people life of roads, Bridges, tunnels has made great progress.In general civil engineering is one of the oldest subjects, it has made great achievements, the future of the civil engineering will occupy in people's life more important position. The environment worsening population increase, people to fight for survival, to strive for a more comfortable living environment, and will pay more attention to civil engineering. In the near future, some major projects extimated to build, insert roller skyscrapers, across the oceanBridges, more convenient traffic would not dream. The development of science and technology, and the earth is deteriorating environment will be prompted civil engineering to aerospace and Marine development, provide mankind broader space of living. In recent years, engineering materials mainly is reinforced concrete, lumber and brick materials, in the future, the traditional materials will be improved, more suitable for some new building materials market, especially the chemistry materials will promote the construction of towards a higher point. Meanwhile, design method of precision, design work of automation, information and intelligent technology of introducing, will be people have a morecomfortable living environment. The word, and the development of the theory and new materials, the emergence of the application of computer, high-tech introduction to wait to will make civil engineering have a new leap.This is a door needs calm and a great deal of patience and attentive professional. Because hundreds of thousands, even hundreds of thousands of lines to building each place structure clearly reflected. Without a gentle state of mind, do what thing just floating on the surface, to any a building structure, to be engaged in business and could not have had a clear, accurate and profound understanding of, the nature is no good. In this business, probably not burn the midnight oil of courage, not to reach the goal of spirit not to give up, will only be companies eliminated.This is a responsible and caring industry. Should have a single responsible heart - I one's life in my hand, thousands of life in my hand. Since the civil, should choose dependably shoulder the responsibility.Finally, this is a constant pursuit of perfect industry. Pyramid, spectacular now: The Great Wall, the majestic... But if no generations of the pursuit of today, we may also use the sort of the oldest way to build this same architecture. Design a building structure is numerous, but this is all experienced centuries of clarification, through continuous accumulation, keep improving, innovation obtained. And such pursuit, not confined in the past. Just think, if the design of a building can be like calculation one plus one equals two as simple and easy to grasp, that was not for what? Therefore, a civil engineer is in constant of in formation. One of the most simple structure, the least cost, the biggest function. Choose civil, choosing a steadfast diligence, innovation, pursuit of perfect path.Reference:[1] LuoFuWu editor. Civil engineering (professional). Introduction to wuhan. Wuhan university of technology press. 2007[2] WangFuChuan, palace rice expensive editor. Construction engineering materials. Beijing. Science and technology literature press. 2002[3] jiang see whales, zhiming editor. Civil engineering introduction of higher education press. Beijing.. 1992土木工程概论 [译文]摘要：土木工程是个庞大的学科，但最主要的是建筑，建筑无论是在中国还是在国外，都有着悠久的历史，长期的发展历程。

写字楼框架结构设计文献综述+开题报告+外文翻译

附件一：课题名称开发区某高级写字楼框架结构设计主要任务与目标土木工程专业结构工程方向毕业设计的教学过程，是实现本科培养目标要求的重要的实践教学环节,是学生在毕业前的最后学习和综合训练阶段；对于提升学生综合素质、培养教学与工程实践接轨有着重要的意义。

通过深入实践、了解社会、撰写论文等毕业设计（论文）诸环节，着重培养学生综合分析、解决问题以及组织活动和社交能力，尤其在独立工作能力方面上一个台阶。

同时对学生的思想品德、工作态度、工作作风、事业心和责任心等诸方面都会有很大影响，对于提高毕业生全面素质具有重要意义。

主要内容与基本要求1、建筑部分（1）总建筑面积10000m2左右。

（2）技术要求：建议层高4.2 m，总高不大于30m，采用不上人屋面；基本雪压0.3kN/m2，基本风压0.5kN/m2。

抗震设防烈度为6度。

地质条件为素填土0.5m，淤泥质粘土13.5m砂土10m，地下水位在地表－3.000m。

（3）设计内容及要求完成的图纸内容为施工图深度要求。

应完成图纸内容：1）按建筑制图标准规定绘制图纸若干张，要求完成下列内容：主要内容与基本要求建筑设计总说明，平、立、剖、详图等；门窗统计表(门窗明细表中的内容有编号、名称、洞口尺寸(宽×高(mm))、数量等)等。

2）各层平面图，注写图名和比例。

标注房间名称，标注各部分尺寸：外部尺寸：三道尺寸(即总尺寸、轴线尺寸、墙段和门窗洞口尺寸)以及底层室外台阶、坡道、散水等尺寸。

内部尺寸：内部墙段、门窗洞口和墙厚等细部尺寸。

标注室内外地面标高、各层楼面标高。

标注轴线及轴线编号、门窗编号、剖切符号和详图索引符号等。

3）立面图（不少于两个），包括各个立面的建筑设计及有关尺寸；标明建筑外形以及门窗、雨篷、外廊等构配件的形式和位置，注明外墙饰面材料和做法。

标注边轴线及编号，注写图名和比例。

4）剖面图比例（不少于一个），包括剖面组合、房间各部分的高度及楼梯剖面；标注室内外地面、楼面、平台面、门窗洞口顶面和底面以及檐口底面或女儿墙顶面等处的标高。

框架结构毕业设计外文文献翻译(外文原文中文翻译)

附录1：外文原文外文翻译附录2：外文翻译钢筋混凝土建筑在地震中的抗倒塌安全性研究（二）：延性和非延性框架的对比分析（Abbie B. Liel1, Curt B. Haselton2, and Gregory G. Deierlein3）摘要：本文是两篇配套论文的第二篇，旨在探讨钢筋混凝土框架结构在地震中的抗倒塌安全性，并检验加利福尼亚州在20世纪70年代中期之前所建非延性框架结构建筑的可靠性。

基于对结构响应的非线性动态模拟进行概率评估，以此来计算对应于不同的地运动特性和结构类型时结构倒塌的危险。

评估的对象是一套不同高度的非延性钢筋混凝土框架结构原型，它们是根据1967年版《统一建筑规范》中的抗震规定设计的。

结果表明，当处于一个典型的加利福尼亚高震场地时，非延性钢筋混凝土框架结构发生倒塌的年平均频率范围为（5～14）×10-3，这比按现代规范设计的结果高出约40倍。

这些数据表明新规范对延性构造和能力设计要求是行之有效的，这使得在过去的30年中新建的钢筋混凝土建筑物的安全性得到明显改善。

通过对延性和非延性结构的安全性比较，有助于出台新的规章来评估和减轻现有的钢筋混凝土框架结构建筑物地震倒塌的危险。

关键词：倒塌；地震工程；结构可靠度；钢筋混凝土结构；建筑；商业；地震影响。

引言20世纪70年代中期以前加利福尼亚州建设的钢筋混凝土框架结构缺乏好的抗震设计理念（例如：加强柱子、钢筋延性构造），这使得它们很容易在地震中发生倒塌。

这些非延性钢筋混凝土框架结构在经历了加利福尼亚州1971年圣费尔南多大地震，1979年英皮里尔谷大地震，1987年惠蒂尔纳罗斯大地震，1994年北山大地震和世界上其他地方发生的无数地震之后，已经遭受了很严重的地震损害。

这些因素促使人们关注加利福尼亚州的近40000栋钢筋混凝土建筑，其中的一部分在未来地震中可能会发生倒塌而危害生命财产安全。

然而，我们缺乏足够的数据来衡量建筑的危险程度，因而无法确定是大量的建筑均存在这种危险，还是只有特定的建筑物才存在危险。

土木工程毕业设计外文翻译最终中英文

7 Rigid-Frame StructuresA rigid-frame high-rise structure typically comprises parallel or orthogonally arranged bents consisting of columns and girders with moment resistant joints. Resistance to horizontal loading is provided by the bending resistance of the columns, girders, and joints. The continuity of the frame also contributes to resisting gravity loading, by reducing the moments in the girders.The advantages of a rigid frame are the simplicity and convenience of its rectangular form.Its unobstructed arrangement, clear of bracing members and structural walls, allows freedom internally for the layout and externally for the fenestration. Rigid frames are considered economical for buildings of up to' about25 stories, above which their drift resistance is costly to control. If, however,a rigid frame is combined with shear walls or cores, the resulting structure is very much stiffer so that its height potential may extend up to 50 stories or more. A flat plate structure is very similar to a rigid frame, but with slabs replacing the girders As with a rigid frame, horizontal and vertical loadings are resisted in a flat plate structure by the flexural continuity between the vertical and horizontal components.As highly redundant structures, rigid frames are designed initially on the basis of approximate analyses, after which more rigorous analyses and checks can be made. The procedure may typically include the following stages:1. Estimation of gravity load forces in girders and columns by approximate method.2. Preliminary estimate of member sizes based on gravity load forces witharbitrary increase in sizes to allow for horizontal loading.3. Approximate allocation of horizontal loading to bents and preliminary analysisof member forces in bents.4. Check on drift and adjustment of member sizes if necessary.5. Check on strength of members for worst combination of gravity and horizontalloading, and adjustment of member sizes if necessary.6. Computer analysis of total structure for more accurate check on memberstrengths and drift, with further adjustment of sizes where required. This stage may include the second-order P-Delta effects of gravity loading on the member forces and drift..7. Detailed design of members and connections.This chapter considers methods of analysis for the deflections and forces for both gravity and horizontal loading. The methods are included in roughly the order of the design procedure, with approximate methods initially and computer techniques later. Stability analyses of rigid frames are discussed in Chapter 16.7.1 RIGID FRAME BEHAVIORThe horizontal stiffness of a rigid frame is governed mainly by the bending resistance of the girders, the columns, and their connections, and, in a tall frame, by the axial rigidity of the columns. The accumulated horizontal shear above any story of a rigid frame is resisted by shear in the columns of that story (Fig. 7.1). The shear causes the story-height columns to bend in double curvature with points of contraflexure at approximately mid-story-height levels. The moments applied to a joint from the columns above and below are resisted by the attached girders, which also bend in double curvature, with points of contraflexure at approximately mid-span. These deformations of the columns and girders allow racking of the frame and horizontal deflection in each story. The overall deflected shape of a rigid frame structure due to racking has a shear configuration with concavity upwind, a maximum inclination near the base, and a minimum inclination at the top, as shown in Fig.7.1.The overall moment of the external horizontal load is resisted in each story level by the couple resulting from the axial tensile and compressive forces in the columns on opposite sides of the structure (Fig. 7.2). The extension and shortening of the columns cause overall bending and associated horizontal displacements of the structure. Because of the cumulative rotation up the height, the story drift dueto overall bending increases with height, while that due to racking tends to decrease. Consequently the contribution to story drift from overall bending may, in. the uppermost stories, exceed that from racking. The contribution of overall bending to the total drift, however, will usually not exceed 10% of that of racking, except in very tall, slender,, rigid frames. Therefore the overall deflected shape of a high-rise rigid frame usually has a shear configuration.The response of a rigid frame to gravity loading differs from a simply connected frame in the continuous behavior of the girders. Negative moments are induced adjacent to the columns, and positive moments of usually lesser magnitude occur in the mid-span regions. The continuity also causes the maximum girder moments to be sensitive to the pattern of live loading. This must be considered when estimating the worst moment conditions. For example, the gravity load maximum hogging moment adjacent to an edge column occurs when live load acts only on the edge span andalternate other spans, as for A in Fig. 7.3a. The maximum hogging moments adjacent to an interior column are caused, however, when live load acts only on the spans adjacent to the column, as for B in Fig. 7.3b. The maximum mid-span sagging moment occurs when live load acts on the span under consideration, and alternate other spans, as for spans AB and CD in Fig. 7.3a.The dependence of a rigid frame on the moment capacity of the columns for resisting horizontal loading usually causes the columns of a rigid frame to be larger than those of the corresponding fully braced simply connected frame. On the other hand, while girders in braced frames are designed for their mid-span sagging moment, girders in rigid frames are designed for the end-of-span resultant hogging moments, which may be of lesser value. Consequently, girders in a rigid frame may be smaller than in the corresponding braced frame. Such reductions in size allow economy through the lower cost of the girders and possible reductions in story heights. These benefits may be offset, however, by the higher cost of the more complex rigid connections.7.2 APPROXIMATE DETERMINATION OF MEMBER FORCES CAUSED BY GRAVITY LOADSIMGA rigid frame is a highly redundant structure; consequently, an accurate analysis can be made only after the member sizes are assigned. Initially, therefore, member sizes are decided on the basis of approximate forces estimated either by conservativeformulas or by simplified methods of analysis that are independent of member properties. Two approaches for estimating girder forces due to gravity loading are given here.7.2.1 Girder Forces—Code Recommended ValuesIn rigid frames with two or more spans in which the longer of any two adjacent spans does not exceed the shorter by more than 20 %, and where the uniformly distributed design live load does not exceed three times the dead load, the girder moment and shears may be estimated from Table 7.1. This summarizes the recommendations given in the Uniform Building Code [7.1]. In other cases a conventional moment distribution or two-cycle moment distribution analysis should be made for a line of girders at a floor level.7.2.2 Two-Cycle Moment Distribution [7.2].This is a concise form of moment distribution for estimating girder moments in a continuous multibay span. It is more accurate than the formulas in Table 7.1, especially for cases of unequal spans and unequal loading in different spans.The following is assumed for the analysis:1. A counterclockwise restraining moment on the end of a girder is positive anda clockwise moment is negative.2. The ends of the columns at the floors above and below the considered girder are fixed.3. In the absence of known member sizes, distribution factors at each joint aretaken equal to 1 /n, where n is the number of members framing into the joint in the plane of the frame.Two-Cycle Moment Distribution—Worked Example. The method is demonstrated by a worked example. In Fig, 7.4, a four-span girder AE from a rigid-frame bent is shown with its loading. The fixed-end moments in each span are calculated for dead loading and total loading using the formulas given in Fig, 7.5. The moments are summarized in Table 7.2.The purpose of the moment distribution is to estimate for each support the maximum girder moments that can occur as a result of dead loading and pattern live loading.A different load combination must be considered for the maximum moment at each support, and a distribution made for each combination.The five distributions are presented separately in Table 7.3, and in a combined form in Table 7.4. Distributions a in Table 7.3 are for the exterior supports A andE. For the maximum hogging moment at A, total loading is applied to span AB with dead loading only on BC. The fixed-end moments are written in rows 1 and 2. In this distribution only .the resulting moment at A is of interest. For the first cycle, joint B is balanced with a correcting moment of - (-867 + 315)/4 = - U/4 assigned to M BA where U is the unbalanced moment. This is not recorded, but half of it, ( - U/4)/2, is carried over to M AB. This is recorded in row 3 and then added to the fixed-end moment and the result recorded in row 4.The second cycle involves the release and balance of joint A. The unbalancedmoment of 936 is balanced by adding -U/3 = -936/3 = -312 to M BA (row 5), implicitly adding the same moment to the two column ends at A. This completes the second cycle of the distribution. The resulting maximum moment at A is then given by the addition of rows 4 and 5, 936 - 312 = 624. The distribution for the maximum moment at E follows a similar procedure.Distribution b in Table 7.3 is for the maximum moment at B. The most severe loading pattern for this is with total loading on spans AB and BC and dead load only on CD. The operations are similar to those in Distribution a, except that the T first cycle involves balancing the two adjacent joints A and C while recording only their carryover moments to B. In the second cycle, B is balanced by adding - (-1012 + 782)/4 = 58 to each side of B. The addition of rows 4 and 5 then gives the maximum hogging moments at B. Distributions c and d, for the moments at joints C and D, follow patterns similar to Distribution b.The complete set of operations can be combined as in Table 7.4 by initially recording at each joint the fixed-end moments for both dead and total loading. Then the joint, or joints, adjacent to the one under consideration are balanced for the appropriate combination of loading, and carryover moments assigned .to the considered joint and recorded. The joint is then balanced to complete the distribution for that support.Maximum Mid-Span Moments. The most severe loading condition for a maximum mid-span sagging moment is when the considered span and alternate other spans and total loading. A concise method of obtaining these values may be included in the combined two-cycle distribution, as shown in Table 7.5. Adopting the convention that sagging moments at mid-span are positive, a mid-span total; loading moment is calculated for the fixed-end condition of each span and entered in the mid-span column of row 2. These mid-span moments must now be corrected to allow for rotation of the joints. This is achieved by multiplying the carryover moment, row 3, at the left-hand end of the span by (1 + 0.5 D.F. )/2, and the carryover moment at the right-hand end by -(1 + 0.5 D.F.)/2, where D.F. is the appropriate distribution factor, and recording the results in the middle column. For example, the carryover to the mid-span of AB from A = [(1 + 0.5/3)/2] x 69 = 40 and from B = -[(1+ 0.5/4)/2] x (-145) = 82. These correction moments are then added to the fixed-end mid-span moment to give the maximum mid-span sagging moment, that is, 733 + 40 + 82 = 855.7.2.3 Column ForcesThe gravity load axial force in a column is estimated from the accumulated tributary dead and live floor loading above that level, with reductions in live loading as permitted by the local Code of Practice. The gravity load maximum column moment is estimated by taking the maximum difference of the end moments in the connected girders and allocating it equally between the column ends just above and below the joint. To this should be added any unbalanced moment due to eccentricity of the girderconnections from the centroid of the column, also allocated equally between the column ends above and below the joint.第七章框架结构高层框架结构一般由平行或正交布置的梁柱结构组成，梁柱结构是由带有能承担弯矩作用节点的梁、柱组成。

(完整版)土木工程毕业设计外文文献翻译

外文文献翻译Reinforced ConcreteConcrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including the United States and Canada, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction. The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction, and the economy of reinforced concrete compared to other forms of construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, buildings of all sorts underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships.Reinforced concrete structures may be cast-in-place concrete, constructed in their final location, or they may be precast concrete produced in a factory and erected at the construction site. Concrete structures may be severe and functional in design, or the shape and layout and be whimsical and artistic. Few other building materials off the architect and engineer such versatility and scope.Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop whenever loads, or restrained shrinkage of temperature changes, give rise to tensile stresses in excess of the tensile strength of the concrete. In a plain concrete beam, the moments about the neutral axis due to applied loads are resisted by an internal tension-compression couple involving tension in the concrete. Such a beam fails very suddenly and completely when the first crack forms. In a reinforced concrete beam, steel bars are embedded in the concrete in such a way that the tension forces needed for moment equilibrium after the concrete cracks can be developed in the bars.The construction of a reinforced concrete member involves building a from of mold in the shape of the member being built. The form must be strong enough to support both the weight and hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete, and any forces applied to it by workers, concrete buggies, wind, and so on. The reinforcement is placed in this form and held in placeduring the concreting operation. After the concrete has hardened, the forms are removed. As the forms are removed, props of shores are installed to support the weight of the concrete until it has reached sufficient strength to support the loads by itself.The designer must proportion a concrete member for adequate strength to resist the loads and adequate stiffness to prevent excessive deflections. In beam must be proportioned so that it can be constructed. For example, the reinforcement must be detailed so that it can be assembled in the field, and since the concrete is placed in the form after the reinforcement is in place, the concrete must be able to flow around, between, and past the reinforcement to fill all parts of the form completely.The choice of whether a structure should be built of concrete, steel, masonry, or timber depends on the availability of materials and on a number of value decisions. The choice of structural system is made by the architect of engineer early in the design, based on the following considerations:1. Economy. Frequently, the foremost consideration is the overall const of the structure. This is, of course, a function of the costs of the materials and the labor necessary to erect them. Frequently, however, the overall cost is affected as much or more by the overall construction time since the contractor and owner must borrow or otherwise allocate money to carry out the construction and will not receive a return on this investment until the building is ready for occupancy. In a typical large apartment of commercial project, the cost of construction financing will be a significant fraction of the total cost. As a result, financial savings due to rapid construction may more than offset increased material costs. For this reason, any measures the designer can take to standardize the design and forming will generally pay off in reduced overall costs.In many cases the long-term economy of the structure may be more important than the first cost. As a result, maintenance and durability are important consideration.2. Suitability of material for architectural and structural function.A reinforced concrete system frequently allows the designer to combine the architectural and structural functions. Concrete has the advantage that it is placed in a plastic condition and is given the desired shapeand texture by means of the forms and the finishing techniques. This allows such elements ad flat plates or other types of slabs to serve as load-bearing elements while providing the finished floor and / or ceiling surfaces. Similarly, reinforced concrete walls can provide architecturally attractive surfaces in addition to having the ability to resist gravity, wind, or seismic loads. Finally, the choice of size of shape is governed by the designer and not by the availability of standard manufactured members.3. Fire resistance. The structure in a building must withstand the effects of a fire and remain standing while the building is evacuated and the fire is extinguished. A concrete building inherently has a 1- to 3-hour fire rating without special fireproofing or other details. Structural steel or timber buildings must be fireproofed to attain similar fire ratings.4. Low maintenance.Concrete members inherently require less maintenance than do structural steel or timber members. This is particularly true if dense, air-entrained concrete has been used for surfaces exposed to the atmosphere, and if care has been taken in the design to provide adequate drainage off and away from the structure. Special precautions must be taken for concrete exposed to salts such as deicing chemicals.5. Availability of materials. Sand, gravel, cement, and concrete mixing facilities are very widely available, and reinforcing steel can be transported to most job sites more easily than can structural steel. As a result, reinforced concrete is frequently used in remote areas.On the other hand, there are a number of factors that may cause one to select a material other than reinforced concrete. These include:1. Low tensile strength.The tensile strength concrete is much lower than its compressive strength ( about 1/10 ), and hence concrete is subject to cracking. In structural uses this is overcome by using reinforcement to carry tensile forces and limit crack widths to within acceptable values. Unless care is taken in design and construction, however, these cracks may be unsightly or may allow penetration of water. When this occurs, water or chemicals such as road deicing salts may cause deterioration or staining of the concrete. Special design details are required in such cases. In the case of water-retaining structures, special details and /of prestressing are required to prevent leakage.2. Forms and shoring. The construction of a cast-in-place structure involves three steps not encountered in the construction of steel or timber structures. These are ( a ) the construction of the forms, ( b ) the removal of these forms, and (c) propping or shoring the new concrete to support its weight until its strength is adequate. Each of these steps involves labor and / or materials, which are not necessary with other forms of construction.3. Relatively low strength per unit of weight for volume.The compressive strength of concrete is roughly 5 to 10% that of steel, while its unit density is roughly 30% that of steel. As a result, a concrete structure requires a larger volume and a greater weight of material than does a comparable steel structure. As a result, long-span structures are often built from steel.4. Time-dependent volume changes. Both concrete and steel undergo-approximately the same amount of thermal expansion and contraction. Because there is less mass of steel to be heated or cooled, and because steel is a better concrete, a steel structure is generally affected by temperature changes to a greater extent than is a concrete structure. On the other hand, concrete undergoes frying shrinkage, which, if restrained, may cause deflections or cracking. Furthermore, deflections will tend to increase with time, possibly doubling, due to creep of the concrete under sustained loads.In almost every branch of civil engineering and architecture extensive use is made of reinforced concrete for structures and foundations. Engineers and architects requires basic knowledge of reinforced concrete design throughout their professional careers. Much of this text is directly concerned with the behavior and proportioning of components that make up typical reinforced concrete structures-beams, columns, and slabs. Once the behavior of these individual elements is understood, the designer will have the background to analyze and design a wide range of complex structures, such as foundations, buildings, and bridges, composed of these elements.Since reinforced concrete is a no homogeneous material that creeps, shrinks, and cracks, its stresses cannot be accurately predicted by the traditional equations derived in a course in strength of materials forhomogeneous elastic materials. Much of reinforced concrete design in therefore empirical, i.e., design equations and design methods are based on experimental and time-proved results instead of being derived exclusively from theoretical formulations.A thorough understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete will allow the designer to convert an otherwise brittle material into tough ductile structural elements and thereby take advantage of concrete’s desirable characteristics, its high compressive strength, its fire resistance, and its durability.Concrete, a stone like material, is made by mixing cement, water, fine aggregate ( often sand ), coarse aggregate, and frequently other additives ( that modify properties ) into a workable mixture. In its unhardened or plastic state, concrete can be placed in forms to produce a large variety of structural elements. Although the hardened concrete by itself, i.e., without any reinforcement, is strong in compression, it lacks tensile strength and therefore cracks easily. Because unreinforced concrete is brittle, it cannot undergo large deformations under load and fails suddenly-without warning. The addition fo steel reinforcement to the concrete reduces the negative effects of its two principal inherent weaknesses, its susceptibility to cracking and its brittleness. When the reinforcement is strongly bonded to the concrete, a strong, stiff, and ductile construction material is produced. This material, called reinforced concrete, is used extensively to construct foundations, structural frames, storage takes, shell roofs, highways, walls, dams, canals, and innumerable other structures and building products. Two other characteristics of concrete that are present even when concrete is reinforced are shrinkage and creep, but the negative effects of these properties can be mitigated by careful design.A code is a set technical specifications and standards that control important details of design and construction. The purpose of codes it produce structures so that the public will be protected from poor of inadequate and construction.Two types f coeds exist. One type, called a structural code, is originated and controlled by specialists who are concerned with the proper use of a specific material or who are involved with the safe design of a particular class of structures.The second type of code, called a building code, is established to cover construction in a given region, often a city or a state. The objective of a building code is also to protect the public by accounting for the influence of the local environmental conditions on construction. For example, local authorities may specify additional provisions to account for such regional conditions as earthquake, heavy snow, or tornados. National structural codes genrally are incorporated into local building codes.The American Concrete Institute ( ACI ) Building Code covering the design of reinforced concrete buildings. It contains provisions covering all aspects of reinforced concrete manufacture, design, and construction. It includes specifications on quality of materials, details on mixing and placing concrete, design assumptions for the analysis of continuous structures, and equations for proportioning members for design forces.All structures must be proportioned so they will not fail or deform excessively under any possible condition of service. Therefore it is important that an engineer use great care in anticipating all the probable loads to which a structure will be subjected during its lifetime.Although the design of most members is controlled typically by dead and live load acting simultaneously, consideration must also be given to the forces produced by wind, impact, shrinkage, temperature change, creep and support settlements, earthquake, and so forth.The load associated with the weight of the structure itself and its permanent components is called the dead load. The dead load of concrete members, which is substantial, should never be neglected in design computations. The exact magnitude of the dead load is not known accurately until members have been sized. Since some figure for the dead load must be used in computations to size the members, its magnitude must be estimated at first. After a structure has been analyzed, the members sized, and architectural details completed, the dead load can be computed more accurately. If the computed dead load is approximately equal to the initial estimate of its value ( or slightly less ), the design is complete, but if a significant difference exists between the computed and estimated values of dead weight, the computations should be revised using an improved value of dead load. An accurate estimate of dead load is particularly important when spans are long, say over 75 ft ( 22.9 m ),because dead load constitutes a major portion of the design load.Live loads associated with building use are specific items of equipment and occupants in a certain area of a building, building codes specify values of uniform live for which members are to be designed.After the structure has been sized for vertical load, it is checked for wind in combination with dead and live load as specified in the code. Wind loads do not usually control the size of members in building less than 16 to 18 stories, but for tall buildings wind loads become significant and cause large forces to develop in the structures. Under these conditions economy can be achieved only by selecting a structural system that is able to transfer horizontal loads into the ground efficiently.钢筋混凝土在每一个国家，混凝土及钢筋混凝土都被用来作为建筑材料。

土木工程框架结构绪论范文

土木工程框架结构绪论范文英文回答：Introduction to Framed Structures in Civil Engineering.Framed structures are a fundamental aspect of civil engineering, consisting of an assemblage of interconnected structural elements to form a stable framework. These structures are designed to withstand various loads and forces while maintaining their structural integrity. Understanding the principles and applications of framed structures is crucial for civil engineers.The primary components of a framed structure include:Beams: Horizontal elements that resist bending and shear forces.Columns: Vertical elements that primarily resist axial compression forces.Joints: Connections between beams and columns that transfer loads and maintain structural stability.Framed structures offer several advantages, including:Efficient use of materials: The distribution of loads across multiple elements allows for optimized material usage.Versatility: Framed structures can be adapted to meet varying design requirements, such as height, span, and shape.Stability: The interconnected framework provides enhanced stability against both lateral and vertical loads.Ease of construction: Pre-fabricated components can simplify and expedite the construction process.The analysis and design of framed structures involve:Load determination: Assessing the various loads (e.g., gravity, wind, seismic) that the structure will experience.Structural analysis: Calculating the internal forces (e.g., bending moments, shear forces) within the elements.Member design: Determining the appropriate size and reinforcement for each structural element to resist the calculated forces.Connection design: Ensuring the connections between elements provide sufficient strength and stiffness.Framed structures are widely used in various civil engineering applications:Buildings: Multi-story commercial and residential structures.Bridges: Structures spanning gaps over obstacles (e.g., rivers, roads).Industrial facilities: Warehouses, factories, and manufacturing plants.Infrastructure: Power transmission towers, communication towers, and transportation systems.中文回答：土木工程框架结构绪论。

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毕业设计（论文）开题报告（含文献综述、外文翻译）题目南凯信办公楼设计姓名学号专业班级土木工程（结构方向）1班指导教师学院土木建筑工程学院文献综述框架结构设计1.前言随着社会的发展,钢筋混凝土框架结构的建筑物越来越普遍.由于钢筋混凝土结构与砌体结构相比较具有承载力大、结构自重轻、抗震性能好、建造的工业化程度高等优点；与钢结构相比又具有造价低、材料来源广泛、耐火性好、结构刚度大、使用维修费用低等优点。

因此，在我国钢筋混凝土结构是多层框架最常用的结构型式。

例如：我国20世纪60年代的北京民航办公大楼是装配整体式框架结构；80年代建造的北京长城饭店是现浇延性框架结构。

2.框架结构的优缺点框架结构体系是由梁、板、柱组成。

优点：建筑平面布置灵活，可以做成有较大空间的会议室、车间、教室等。

需要时还可以隔断分隔成小房间，或拆除隔断变成大房间，因而使用非常灵活。

外墙用非承重构件，可以使立面设计灵活多变。

使用轻质隔墙和外墙，还可以大大降低结构自重，节省材料。

在我国目前情况下，框架结构建造高度以15～20层以下为宜。

综上所述，在高度不大的结构中框架结构是一种比较好的结构体系。

3.框架结构布置框架结构在进行平面布置时，首先要确定柱网，柱网的尺寸必须满足建筑使用和结构受力合理要求，同时还有考虑施工方便和经济因素。

柱网的开间及进深。

可设计成大柱网和小柱网，在抗震结构中，过大的柱网将给实现延性框架增加一定的困难。

承重框架及抗侧力框架。

承重框架是指直接支承楼板传来的竖向荷载的框架，根据楼板中梁板布置的不同一般可分为横向承重、纵向承重和双重承重等几种布置方式。

由于风及地震可能从任何一方向作用，所以不管横向还是纵向都是抗侧力框架。

抗侧力框架必须做成刚接框架，不得采用横向为框架、纵向为铰接排架的结构体系。

为了保证纵横方向都有足够的承载力和刚度，高层框架宜采用方形、圆形、多边形或接近方形的截面，使两个方向上的尺寸和刚度接近。

柱截面高宽比不宜大于1.5 。

框架沿高度方向的布置。

通常，沿高度方向各层平面的柱网尺寸相同。

柱子截面变化时，由下至上逐渐缩小，尽可能做到轴线不变，或不作大的变化，使柱子上下对齐或仅有较小的偏心。

4.双向板的截面设计构造及配筋对于周边与梁整浇的双向板，由于在两个方向受到支撑构件的变形约束，整块板内存在穹顶作用，使板内的弯矩大大减小。

为了利用这一有利的因素，规范允许对四边与梁整结板，起弯矩的设计值根据一定的条件进行折减。

折减系数：（1）对于连续板中间区格的跨中及中间支座截面，折减系数为0.8 。

（2）对于边区格的跨中及自楼板边缘算起的第二支座截面，当lb/l﹤ 1.5时，折减系数为0.8 ，当1.5≤lb /l＜2.0时，折减系数为0.9 。

（lb为区格沿楼板边缘方向的跨度，l为区格垂直于楼板边缘方向的跨度。

）双向板的厚度不宜小于80mm。

双向板按照弹性理论方法设计时，所求得的跨中正弯矩钢筋数量是指板的中央处的数量，靠近板的两边，其数量可以逐渐减小。

考虑到施工方面，将板的两个边方向上各分为3个板带。

两个方向的边缘板带宽度军为均为短边长度的1/4，其余则为中间板带。

在中间板带上，按跨中最大正弯矩求得的单位板宽内的钢筋数量均匀布置；而在边缘板带上，按中间板带单位板宽内的钢筋数量一半均匀布置。

5.设计基本地震加速度值《建筑抗震设计规范》（GB50011一2010）中规定：抗震设防烈度为6度时，设计基本地震加速度值为0.05g，抗震设防烈度为7度时，设计基本地震加速度值分别为0.10g和0.15g两种，抗震设防烈度为8度时，设计基本地震加速度值分别为O.20g和0.30g两种，抗震设防烈度为9度时，设计基本地震加速度值为0.40g 两种。

计算中应严格注意地震区的划分，选取正确的设计基本地震加速度值，这一项对地震作用效应的影响极大。

6.板柱节点（1）对一、二、三级抗震等级的板柱节点，应进行抗震受冲切承载力验算。

（2） 8 度时宜采用有托板或柱帽的板柱节点，托板或柱帽根部的厚度（包括板厚）不宜小于柱纵筋直径的16 倍。

托板或柱帽的边长不宜小于4 倍板厚与柱截面相应边长之和。

（3）在竖向荷载、地震作用下，当考虑板柱节点临界截面上的剪应力传递不平衡弯矩时，其考虑抗震等级的集中反力设计值Fl，eq可按本规范附录F 的规定计,算，此时，Fl为在重力荷载代表值及地震荷载作用下，由板柱节点临界截面所承受的竖向力设计值。

由地震作用组合的不平衡弯矩在板柱节点处引起的集中反力设计值应乘以增大系数，对一、二、三级抗震等级板柱结构的节点，该增大系数可分别取1.6、1.5、1.3（4）无柱帽平板宜在柱上板带中设构造暗梁，暗梁宽度可取柱宽及柱两侧各不大于1.5 倍板厚。

暗梁支座上部钢筋面积应不小于柱上板带钢筋截面面积的50%，暗梁下部钢筋不宜少于上部钢筋的1/ 2。

支座处暗梁的箍筋应按计算确定，并应符合下列要求：加密区长度不应小于3 倍板厚；箍筋肢距不宜大于250mm，箍筋间距不宜大于100mm，箍筋直径不应小于8mm。

7.框架梁的抗震设计（1）承载力计算中，计入纵向受压钢筋的梁端混凝土受压区高度应符合下列要求：一级抗震等级：x≤ 0.25h0二、三级抗震等级 x≤ 0.35h（2）框架梁截面尺寸宜符合下列要求：截面宽度不宜小于200mm；截面高度与宽度的比值不宜大于4；净跨与截面高度的比值不宜小于4。

（3）框架梁的钢筋配置应符合下列规定：框架梁梁端截面的底部和顶部纵向受力钢筋截面面积的比值，除按计算确定外，一级抗震等级不应小于0.5；二、三级抗震等级不应小于0.3；（4）梁端纵向受拉钢筋的配筋率不宜大于2.5%。

沿梁全长顶面和底面至少应各配置两根通长的纵向钢筋，对一、二级抗震等级，钢筋直径不应小于14mm，且分别不应少于梁两端顶面和底面纵向受力钢筋中较大截面面积的1/4；对三、四级抗震等级，钢筋直径不应小于12mm。

（5）梁箍筋加密区长度内的箍筋肢距：一级抗震等级，不宜大于200mm 和20倍箍筋直径的较大值；二、三级抗震等级，不宜大于250mm 和20 倍箍筋直径的较大值；各抗震等级下，均不宜大于300mm。

（6）梁端设置的第一个箍筋距框架节点边缘不应大于50mm。

8.设计构造方面的问题1. 梁的截面尺寸，宜符合下列各项要求：截面宽度不宜小于200mm；截面高宽比不宜大于4；净跨与截面高度之比不宜小于4。

2. 纵向受拉带肋钢筋的锚固长度修正系数应根据钢筋的锚固条件按下列规定取用：当钢筋的公称直径大于25mm 时，修正系数取1.1。

3. 钢筋的连接：位于同一连接区段内的受拉钢筋搭接接头面积百分率：对梁类、板类及墙类构件，不宜大于25%；对柱类构件，不宜大于50%。

当工程中确有必要增大受拉钢筋搭接接头面积百分率时，对梁类构件，不宜大于50%；对板类、墙类及柱类构件，可根据实际情况放宽。

4. 现浇混凝土板的厚度宜符合下列规定：板的跨度与板厚之比：钢筋混凝土单向板不大于30，双向板不大于40；无梁支承的有柱帽板不大于35，无梁支承的无柱帽板不大于30；预应力板可适当增加；当荷载、跨度较大时，板的跨厚比宜适当减小。

9.结语:由于框架结构具有空间大、平面布局灵活多样的特点，满足了人们不断追求使用个性化的要求。

随着社会的不断发展和人们物质生活水平的提高，框架结构将会得到较大发展。

设计多层框架结构，设计人应首先判断结构方案的可行性，对可能碰到的问题，提前采取措施予以解决，并对所有计算结果认真分析、判断，准确无误后方可应用于实际工程。

参考文献:[1] 王光友,浅谈框架结构设计中的几点经验，2003[2] 包世华、张铜生,高层建筑结构设计和计算，2004[3] 陈仁朝,钢筋混凝土框架结构设计问题初探[J].建筑技术与应用，2004[4] 常卫东、陈义闯,钢筋混凝土框架柱纵向裂缝的分析和处理，2006[5] 《建筑抗震设计规范》（GB50011一2010）中国建筑工业出版社，2010[6] 《混凝土结构设计规范》（GB50010-2010）中国建筑工业出版社，2010[7] 蓝宗建、朱万福，混凝土结构与砌体结构设计东南大学出版社，2007[8] 《建筑结构荷载规范》（GB 50009－2010）中国建筑工业出版社，2010.[9] Comparative Study of Structural Systems for Tall Buildings [PDF] Journal of American Science, 2011;7(4) [10] Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Existing Structures in Seismic Regions[PDF] WSEAS International Conference on ENGINEERING MECHANICS, STRUCTURES, ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (EMESEG '08), Heraklion, Crete Island, Greece, July 22-24, 2008开题报告宁波南凯信办公楼设计1. 选题背景与意义1.1 设计题目宁波南凯信办公楼1.2 工程概况（1）工程位于浙江省宁波市，为多层框架结构。

（2）本工程主体结构及基础工程的设计使用年限为50年。

（3）本工程结构类型为框架结构。

1.3 主要任务与目标土木工程专业结构专业毕业设计的教学过程，是实现本科培养目标要求的重要实践环节，是学生在毕业前的最后学习和综合训练阶段。

通过深入实践、了解设计动态、进行结构计算、绘制施工图等毕业设计诸环节，着重培养学生综合分析、解决问题以及组织活动和社交能力，尤其在独立工作能力上一个台阶。

同时对学生的思想品德、工作态度、工作作风、事业心和责任心等诸方面都会有很大的影响，对于提升学生综合素质、培养教学与工程实践接轨有着重要的意义。

1.4 工程意义钢筋混凝土框架结构在多层建筑和工业建筑中应用非常广泛。

近年来框架结构在世界各地又有了很大的发展，许多城市普遍兴建了包括商场、住宅、旅馆、办公楼和多功能建筑等各种类型的框架结构建筑。

土木工程专业学生毕业后参加或从事框架结构设计已成为必须面对的现实之一。

通过这一学期的毕业设计，我们可以把大学期间所学的基础课程和专业课知识和相关技能综合应用与实际工程中，在设计过程中既能巩固所学的知识也会有创新能力，还能培养我们独立解决建筑设计、结构设计相关的问题的，及熟练掌握AutoCDA绘制结构施工图，为我们今后工作打下良好基础，让我们在今后的事业道路上能走的更远。

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